DIVISION OF SURFACE
In interior decoration surfaces such as walls and ceilings may be
divided into panels of various shapes by a system of framing. The form
of the framing may be rectangular, square, polygonal, circular or oval;
and the panel is generally recessed from the dividing stiles and rails
or ribs, while the latter are frequently supplemented by mouldings.
_Wall Treatment_
In dealing with walls the division can be planned in accordance with
architectural proportions, but the orthodox features are not necessarily
employed.
In some phases of traditional decoration much use has been made of
pilasters--the spacing and distribution of which, while conforming to
the conditions of the interior, are similar to the usual employment of
pilasters in exterior architecture, with the difference that the spaces
between them are occupied by panels or other features.
Except in apartments of unusual height, pilasters should not be mounted
on a pedestal; though a pedestal-like feature is often introduced in the
form of a Dado or surbase.
In such a scheme the entablature also should be used so that the cornice
forms a bed moulding for the ceiling.
Coupled pilasters may also be employed, and in
[Illustration: No. 186. Wall Division.
A. & B. Pilaster Treatment.
C. & D. Alternation of wide and narrow panels.
]
some well-known instances are placed wider apart than is ordinarily the
case, and the space between is then occupied by a narrow panel.
[Illustration: No. 187. Detail of Ceiling. Library of S. Lorenzo,
Florence. M. Angelo.]
In smaller apartments the pilaster may be dispensed with, but the
division of the wall surface can conform to the same general plan both
vertically and horizontally. In the absence of pilasters the spaces may
be divided into panels alternately narrow and wide.
_Ceilings_
When the ceiling is divided the dividing ribs or beams should bear some
relation to the general construction, though in the past this rule has
not always been strictly adhered to. For example, the ceiling may very
desirably be divided into equal squares or rectangles by means of wooden
or plaster mouldings, leaving the enclosed spaces plain or decorated.
When mouldings are used these may be enriched, but contrast should be
maintained between the framing ribs and the panels.
[Illustration: No. 188. Detail of Inlaid Floor. Library of S. Lorenzo,
Florence. Repeating general pattern of ceiling.]
The Late Tudor decorated ceiling often had narrow moulded ribs
geometrically arranged with pateræ in between and fleur-de-lys details
on the outer angles where the ribs met.
[Illustration: No. 189. Ceiling of Library of S. Lorenzo, Florence. Plan
of general arrangement.]
[Illustration: No. 190. Late Tudor Ceiling. Littlecotes Hall, Wilts.]
_Jacobean_
In the later Jacobean style the rib was replaced by floral bands
projecting comparatively slightly and enclosed by narrow borders. These
bands were disposed in various ways--sometimes intersecting at right
angles and enclosing rectangular or square panels, sometimes forming
geometric curves occasionally interrupted by straight lines.
If any of these methods of breaking up the surface be employed, it is
obvious that the general proportions must be taken into account.
_Carolean and Georgian_
In the Carolean and Georgian periods it was customary to decorate the
ceiling with a heavily modelled band of foliated detail, circular or
oval in form--the whole in harmony with the plan of the room. Sometimes
the angles were occupied by other detail, but the centre was invariably
left plain.
_Adam Ceilings_
[Illustration: No. 191. Jacobean Ceiling. Sizergh Hall, Westmorland.]
The ceilings of the Adam period were similarly treated. The oval or
circular band would sometimes consist of a series of festoons--an
arrangement which, though graceful enough in effect, cannot be defended
[Illustration: No. 192. Jacobean Ceiling. Reindeer Inn, Banbury.]
as consistent. The angles of the Adam ceiling were generally decorated
with the characteristic fan detail.
[Illustration: No. 193. Carolean Ceiling.]
_Vaults and Domes_
In vaulted ceilings or domes the division may be effected by horizontal
or vertical bands, in which case the spaces between diminish in size
towards the centre. If the division of the dome is vertical, or more
properly speaking, by radial lines, it is desirable to divide further
the spaces thus formed by introducing intermediate shapes, such as
circles, unless the diameter be relatively small.
[Illustration: No. 194. Adam Ceiling.]
_The Cove_
In some cases the walls meet the ceiling in an arch, which is
technically known as a Cove. The arch generally springs from the top of
the cornice and forms a vaulted frieze, which may or may not be
decorated.
When the ceiling is divided by means of heavy beams there should be
obvious support for these, such as brackets or consoles, which are
themselves to be supported by pilasters. The brackets in this case make
a break in the frieze or cove.
It may be objected that architectural features serve no purpose in
interior decoration, but on the other hand, in extenuation of their use
it may be urged that, though considerations of actual weight and
structure are not involved, yet the appearance of support has to be
maintained, and it is essential that the scheme as a whole should
realise the effect of stability.
_The Frieze_
[Illustration: No. 198. Festoon Frieze. Continuous treatment with
vertical contrast. Temple of Vesta, Tivoli]
In considering the decoration of the various parts, the two principal
questions to be asked are--what is the purpose? and, what is the
attitude? The purpose of the Frieze may be said to be to bind, and the
attitude of the Frieze is certainly a horizontal one--therefore the
usual continuous treatment is justified. This is not the only way in
which the Frieze can be treated, however, for the continuous horizontal
treatment may be varied by vertical effects such as occur in the Doric
order. The employment of Festoons with intermediate
[Illustration:
Photo]
No. 195. Vault Treatment. Ducal Palace, Venice, Sansovino.
[Alinari
]
[Illustration:
Photo]
No. 196. Dome Treatment. Vertical and horizontal division, resulting in
panels. Villa Madama, Rome.
[Alinari
]
[Illustration:
Photo]
No. 197. Dome, St. Peter’s, Rome. Example of radial division.
[Alinari
]
pendants is really a continuous horizontal treatment in which the
vertical direction is emphasised by way of contrast. The same principle
is involved in the decoration of mouldings. Vertical features should be
in alignment with adjacent and dominant details.
[Illustration: No. 199. Frieze. Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, Rome.
Horizontal direction suggested by Gryffons, with vertical contrast by
Candelabra.]
All kinds of elements can be employed in Frieze decoration, and as much
interest and liveliness imparted as is compatible with the necessary
repetition.
_Borders_
Borders, with or without mouldings, may be considered as frames to the
spaces they separate or enclose; in the latter case they are invariably
uniform in width (except when used in Typography and illuminations,
where some license is permissible).
As borders are structural in suggestion, the elements employed should be
simple and without that interest which is desirable in other positions.
The detail to be used is largely determined by scale and position. When
on a small scale, borders may be mainly composed of a series of lines
spaced so as to suggest the various features of a moulded band, in which
case it is essential that the same width be maintained throughout the
length, while the lines are returned at the corners at mitral angles.
This treatment can be elaborated by the introduction of other lines
between those most widely spaced at right angles with the direction, and
these can again be broken at intervals by rosettes or other simple
forms.
[Illustration: No. 200. Key-Pattern Borders.]
[Illustration: No. 201. Interlacing Borders.]
The well-known key-border is a continuous narrow band or line which
traces out a labyrinth pattern by bending inwards at right angles and
then returning to the original direction. This, in its simplest form, is
an elaboration of adjacent squares in which a top and bottom line is
alternately dispensed with.
_Geometric Elements_
The simplest elements in border decoration are geometric in character.
The border may be divided by straight lines intersecting at various
angles, or by curves struck from equidistant centres, or by a
combination of straight lines and curves.
_The Undulate Line_
[Illustration: No. 202. Growth Line based on Geometric Curves.]
Intersecting straight lines form the basis of the different chequered
patterns in conjunction with the simple device of alternating light and
dark masses. Interlacing patterns are also based on intersecting
straight lines. When segmental curves are employed either the chequered
or interlacing effect may be obtained. Such patterns are essentially
geometric and mechanical, but some idea of the growth line is suggested
by the undulating stems formed out of the arcs of circles struck from
either side of the border. This effect may be used with purely
artificial detail, such as arises naturally from the spaces left, or
with the introduction of floral detail. It is evident that the curve of
the undulating stem will vary according to the position of the centres
from which the arcs are struck.
[Illustration: No. 203. Brocade composed of Undulate Borders.]
A fuller effect, giving more space for branching and other detail, will
be obtained by basing the stem upon
[Illustration: No. 204. Scroll Border based on Adjacent Circles.]
[Illustration: No. 205. 14th Century Textile composed of Undulate
Borders arranged obliquely.]
a series of complete adjacent circles struck within the border. The
latter device is the basis of the wave line, which, after all, is only
the key or labyrinth with the square angles rounded.
[Illustration: No. 206. French Brocade, 18th Century, composed of
Borders.]
Border decoration can also consist of leaves or other details
symmetrically arranged on a central axis, with perhaps occasional
flowers or rosettes to break the monotony.
_Repetition and Alternation_
Generally speaking, the detail should preferably be of a formal
character, and should consist of the repetition of units with no
interest beyond that imparted by alternation.
The detail must, moreover, be designed with due regard to the space to
be filled, and, in any border which encloses any space, a common divisor
of height and width should be found in accordance with which the unit
can be designed.
_Treatment of Angles_
[Illustration: No. 207. The Evolute Scroll as a Border.
A. Continuous. B. Reciprocal]
The meeting angles or corners of borders invariably require special
treatment, and in those positions the detail should be compact and
stronger in appearance than the general pattern. The simplest expedient
is some form of patera or rosette, but, whatever the detail, it should
always be in strong contrast to that of the run of the border. The only
forms that can be continuous without any marked change in the angles,
are the undulating stem, the wave, and its square form the key or
labyrinth; but even with these the proportion of width to height at
times needs modification. If a common divisor is not possible, the
difficulty can to some extent be overcome by making the form reciprocal
and letting the two sides meet in the centre of the border, so that any
slight disparity in treatment and dimensions will not be noticeable.
_Pilaster Treatment_
As the Pilaster is used structurally in order to give support, so its
treatment in interior decoration must conform to architectural
requirements, and the decoration should be symmetrical on a central axis
and vertical in direction.
When flutes are employed to decorate the pilasters, they should be
unequal in number--seven being a favourite number. The flutes may be
further decorated by cabling, though this should extend to only
one-third of the height. The cabling can be elaborated into a series of
husks which may arise from the base or be pendant from the top of the
pilaster. In either case the general rule must be observed that the
cabling shall occupy only a third of the total height.
_Panelled Pilasters_
Sunk panels are also used for decorating pilasters. They cover about
half the width, and are moulded at the edges. In some instances, notably
in pilasters of the Early French Renaissance, the panel is broken in the
centre by the introduction of a smaller circular or lozenge-shaped
panel. Sometimes the panel is adorned with floral or other detail, and
this should be symmetrically arranged on a central axis. For this
purpose the undulate stem should never be employed. Such detail requires
a start at the base and a definite finish at the top of the pilaster,
but for the rest, it may consist of the same unit repeated, or of two
alternating units.
In order to emphasise the structural character of the pilaster it was
customary to introduce features in the form of mouldings, vases and
labels.
_Capitals and Bases_
The capitals and bases of pilasters should be in harmony with the other
decorations used. The usual capital of the Italian Renaissance is a
modified Corinthian type, and this is quite suitable when the pilaster
has plain or decorated panels, but when flutes are employed on the
pilaster a more ornate capital is desirable. In the latter case a
composite form in which the Doric abacus and enriched ovolo figure
together with a row of stiffly-arranged vertical leaves, could fitly be
used. The Ionic type would also be suitable; when the base of the
pilaster is decorated, the lowest detail of reeds of the principal torus
may be bound with cross ribbons.
[Illustration: No. 208. Pilaster Treatment. French Renaissance.]
[Illustration: No. 209. Treatment of Pilaster Capital, with Vertical
Emphasis.]
_Treatment of Panels_
Panels and enclosed spaces have no structural significance, and
therefore in the treatment of them attitude alone has to be
considered--that is to say, the only question is, as to whether the
surface to be decorated is in a vertical or a horizontal plane. In the
decoration of a panel in a horizontal plane, since it is not desirable
to mark any one direction, the detail may radiate diagonally or
diametrically from a centre. If, however, in the case of a ceiling,
details are employed in the angles formed by the walls, these should
grow towards the centre of the ceiling.
[Illustration: No. 210. Ceiling Decoration. Growth from Angle.]
When panels or enclosed spaces are used on walls or on furniture of any
height the vertical direction should be emphasised as a general rule;
but if the height is less than the width, the decoration, though it
should remain vertical in tendency, should also spread so as to conform
to the width.
The design of a panel or enclosed space, whatever the shape or attitude,
should be complete in itself, having its proper start and appropriate
terminals. If the enclosing border were removed the detail should, by
its general disposition maintain the shape, even though the whole
surface may not be occupied.
Rich ornamentation is thoroughly in keeping with the nature of the
panel--certainly more interest should be centred on panel decoration
than on adornment in more subordinate positions.
The decoration may either completely fill the space or only partially do
so. In the latter case, the shapes of the unoccupied parts must be
carefully considered.
[Illustration: No. 211. Semi-Lunette Panel. Central Feature based on
Circle.]
Whether the design is a unit repeated on a central axis or is a balanced
one, is largely a matter to be settled by individual taste and the
position of the panel. Both treatments are admissible in a range of
panels; greater variety can be obtained by symmetrically disposed
designs being flanked on either side by balanced designs.
_Juxtaposition_
When panels occur together, either side by side or ranged one above the
other, they may exert influence on one another. For example, vertical
features close to the framing stiles should be repeated in the adjacent
panel even though the width of each panel may differ. When the panels
are one above the other, central features should be avoided and the
interest should be kept close to the opposing margins; otherwise the
effect will be spotty and lacking in repose.
[Illustration: No. 212. Panels in Juxtaposition.]
As panels present the best opportunity for display, on account of their
treatment being comparatively untrammelled by the considerations to
which the more structural features must submit, there is open to them
[Illustration: No. 213. Design for Panel based on Treatment of Celery.
By C. A. Sheehan, Bristol.]
a proportionately large field of possible decoration. In the first
place, the panel may be treated pictorially, with due regard to the
requirements of surface and reciprocal effect which must be insisted on
in mural decoration. If not treated pictorially, ornament of a
traditional character, or designs derived more directly from natural
forms can be made use of. In either case the ornament must complete
itself within the given area.
_The Growth Line_
[Illustration: No. 214. Analysis of Composing Lines of Panel.]
In traditional ornament, composing or strongly marked lines are used,
but in types more nearly allied to natural forms, it is necessary for
the lines to bear some relation to the character of the selected
growth. The disposition of leaves and other elements must also be
characteristic, and natural terminals must be taken advantage of near
enclosing lines so as to avoid any appearance of mutilation. When such
forms as branches or leaves approach or cross, they should always do so
at decided angles; their points or extremities should never be directly
opposed to other details or to margins. The main growth should be
clearly discernible, and the direction of the stem lines evident even
when clothed with foliage.
_Grouping and Massing_
It must be borne in mind when designs are based on natural forms that
the mere rendering of a natural attitude does not in itself constitute a
design. In the case of plant forms, flowers and leaves should be grouped
and massed, primarily with a view to the composition of a harmonious
whole. Sometimes interest may be added by introducing animal forms in
keeping with the general environment.
Interest in design depends on the massing and emphasis of detail,
because, if a plain or uniform surface be completely covered with detail
equally distributed, with no regard to mass or emphasis of parts, it is
obvious that the result will again be uniform--the only difference being
that a certain texture is imparted to the surface, and this, though not
undesirable in a wallpaper, is not consonant with the nature of a panel.
_Division of Area_
The massing of detail should be as simple as possible and to some extent
should be guided by the scale. One expedient in panel designing is to
draw within the area, whether it be square, rectangular or any other
shape, a circle or oval to control the predominant detail in contrast to
that which is to be less conspicuous.
[Illustration: No. 215. Phases of Elaboration of Simple Shape.]
Large areas may be sub-divided into several masses, but the grouping of
these must be controlled by the general shape. When dealing with borders
a suggestion was made that the undulate stem could follow the lines of
adjacent circles, and this device is the basis of most of the scrolling
growth lines that are characteristic of Renaissance ornament.
[Illustration: No. 216. Byzantine Panel. Composition based on Circles.]
[Illustration: No. 217. Romanesque Lunette Panel. Composition based on
Circular Shapes.]
_Human and Animal Life_
Decoration, when the human figure or any form of animal life is
employed, is bounded with the same conditions with regard to
composition, inasmuch that they
[Illustration: No. 218. Figure Composition. Recognition of Framing
Lines.]
[Illustration: No. 219. Figure Composition. Spandril Treatment.]
must be so arranged as to occupy the area and be in harmony with the
boundaries or framing lines.
The license that is permissible in ornament, particularly of the purely
conventional type, when it may be compelled in any direction and fitted
into any space that is desirable from a decorative point of view, is not
possible where the human or animal form is concerned. This adds to the
consideration, as natural attitude and proportions are obligatory if
consistency has to be observed.
The problem in certain shaped areas affords little latitude, in
particular the triangular spandril where the invariable device of wings
or floating drapery is as insistent as the head of King Charles in the
memorial of Mr. Dick.
_Forms in the Round_
Forms in the round--such that can be seen from any point of view--need
special treatment. Height may appear normal, but the details round the
surface will be materially affected by the rotundity. Thus a vase of
varying contour might have its surface divided by a series of vertical
lines, any one of which, seen from a point of view exactly opposite,
would appear straight, whereas those approaching the profiles would
appear curved proportionately to the sectional curvature.
[Illustration: No. 220. Effect of Perspective of Vertical Division.]
Perspective also affects the vertical appearance more or less according
to the profile curvature, and in decoration, for bodies that are
bulbous in form, the foreshortening and its effect on details must be
taken into consideration so as to avoid undesirable distortion.
_Supports and Balusters_
Other forms in the round that may be considered are supports for
furniture, balusters and lamp-post standards. Furniture supports and
balusters are invariably in the form of tapered or vase-shaped shafts,
and the divisions may be in accordance with the proportions previously
suggested. Appropriate mouldings are used to decorate the shaft. When in
wood, these forms are either partly or wholly turned, and in this case
may be further decorated by carved work. In supports, the general
tendency of the details should be in the vertical direction so as to
enhance the structural suggestion.
[Illustration: No. 221. Jacobean Baluster, Carved Wood, showing Vertical
and Horizontal Contrast.]
_Standards_
In the treatment of standards it is not so necessary to emphasise the
element of support, and the diameter or lateral dimensions can vary to a
greater degree. Whether the standards are fixtures or movable, as in
interior fittings, there must be a base that will not only be adequate
but will convey the idea of stability. In the case of portable standards
the tripod form of base is possibly the most suitable, but when the
standard is small the base can be circular, square or polygonal. The
commonest form is a shaft, which is frequently tapered. This is
supported on a bulbous or vase-shaped form arising out of the base. At
the upper end of the shaft is a capital of some kind. These different
parts are held together by appropriate mouldings.
The decoration of a standard, which is largely dependent on its size,
should, generally speaking, be applied in the vertical direction with
occasional horizontal features by way of contrast. The treatment must
also vary according to material.
[Illustration: No. 222. Cast Iron Lamp Standard.]
_Proportion_
Apart from considerations of use and material, the design of this kind
of round form is based on inequalities of proportion in height and
diameter. Obvious repetitions of the same dimension are to be avoided.
The profiles should be carefully composed with a view to effecting
harmony or contrast--the curves either approaching one another in a
flexible line or being deliberately contrasting. Mouldings may be used
at intervals to mark the various stages.
[Illustration: No. 223. Types of Vase Decoration.
A. Horizontal Banding with vertical Contrast.
B. Oblique or Spiral Treatment. C. Panel Treatment.]
Vase forms vary considerably. When the profile is formed by straight
lines they may be cylindrical or cone-shaped. Of course profiles may
take other forms--they may be ovoid or trace an ogee curve. When the
diameter varies the bulk should preponderate at some one point. When
unity of line is desired, the curves of the profile should flow easily
into each other, even if broken at intervals by mouldings. In
contrasting curves the lines should intersect at right angles in order
to avoid indecision of form.
_Positions for Decoration_
The areas capable of being decorated on vase forms are those bounded by
mouldings. The nature and direction of the decoration will be
determined by the profile curves on the sectional form. The direction of
the ornament may be horizontal as in the form of a band, but to avoid
distortion such detail should only be applied to surfaces of uniform
curvature.
If the vertical direction be chosen the decoration may take the form of
flutes, of leaves or of panels decorated with detail. A variation of the
vertical treatment is obtained by employing similar details in an
oblique direction, thus giving the appearance of ornament twisting or
twining round the shape.
[Illustration: No. 224. Stretch Out and Segments of the Cylinder.]
In the vertical panel treatment, as in mouldings, the sectional or
profile curve may be used to determine the general framing lines, with
contrasting details between the panels. In order to give variety it may
be desirable to combine two treatments--for instance, the horizontal
band may be contrasted with vertical flutes and leaves.
_Working Drawings_
For a practical drawing the form must be shown in elevation and not in
perspective. All the horizontal divisions must be drawn in parallel
lines. It is obvious that except for profiles and general height,
further details must be given for a working drawing.
_The Segment or Stretch Out_
[Illustration: No. 225. Stretch Out of the Cone.]
In designing for forms in the round it is necessary to detail the
ornament on a segment or a stretching-out of the area. This is easily
done in the case of a cylinder of which the height is evident, and the
extreme width and circumference easily obtainable. If the object is not
in existence for direct measurement the width can be determined from the
diameter as expressed in the drawing. As this diameter is about
one-third of the circumference a parallelogram three times the width of
the diameter will provide, in the flat, the complete area on which
detail has to be drawn.
Should the shape of the object be that of a truncated cone--that is,
with straight inclined sides and a circular plan, the procedure must
necessarily be different. In this case the lines of the sides should be
extended till they intersect. This intersection forms a centre from
which arcs may be struck coinciding with the lines of top and base. The
greatest diameter should be set off on each side of the elevation on the
larger radius and the points joined up with the centres from which the
arcs were struck. The result is a fan-shaped figure bounded by these
outer lines and the two arcs. This figure gives the entire area of the
surface of the truncated cone.
In either of the figures thus obtained for designing detail on, the
surfaces can be sub-divided. For instance, if the decoration consists of
a unit repeated three or six times round the form, it will not be
necessary to reproduce the whole area, provided always that the profiles
are straight or tapered.
[Illustration: No. 226. Method of obtaining a Segment of one-sixth of
Vase.]
As the diameter is about one-third of the circumference the elevational
drawing of the cylinder gives one-third of the area and half a diameter
gives one-sixth.
In the truncated cone shape the widths are similarly determined, but it
will be found that the height, when measured on the centre line, is less
than the lengths of the profile lines which constitute the actual
height.
When the profiles are curved, the procedure is more complicated. As in
the case of the cone shape, there is naturally some discrepancy between
the height of the elevation and the profile, the actual dimension of
which is affected by perspective (as also in plan curvature).
To obtain the actual height of the area the profile must be measured
vertically with some flexible material, such as thin lead wire, which
will readily embrace the curvature.
If a division of a third or a sixth is required the diameter or half
diameter can be taken, but the segment of the area should be set off on
a fresh centre line quite independent of the elevational drawing.
In order to obtain the true shape of the segment the elevation should be
divided by horizontal lines drawn at the points of marked change in
curvature, and these can be lettered or numbered for identification. The
distance between each of these lines should be measured and set off on
the new centre line, and then these can be used for drawing the
parallels through.
The various diameters can be determined from the corresponding lines on
the elevation. Lines drawn through the points thus obtained will give
the required segment or area on the flat.
[Illustration: No. 227. Method of obtaining a Segment of one-fifth of
Vase.]
If other divisions than those deducible from three or six are required,
it will be necessary to draw also the plan curves from which the
division can be obtained. Assuming that the elevation has been
vertically divided as before, and the plan to be circular, a circle
should be struck which is to represent the largest diameter and its
circumference divided into the required number of parts. Lines are then
drawn through to the centre. On the same centre other circles are
struck with radii equal to the remaining horizontals, and each
identified with the corresponding number or letter. The heights are
obtained as before, and the diameters of the variations in the curvature
can be ascertained by measuring round each of the plan curves in
succession.
In the case of the plan being other than circular, the same rules apply,
but the different plans would have to be drawn in each individual
example.
Owing to the effect of perspective on rounded shapes, it is undesirable
to employ the human figure, unless in bold relief, and then only on
straight or slightly curved profiles.