THE MEAT SITUATION
Meat shortage is not a war problem only. We had begun to talk of
it long before the war, and we shall find it with us after peace
is declared. Great production of beef can take place only in sparse
settlements. As the tide of increasing population flows over a
country, the great cattle-ranges are crowded out, giving place to
cultivated fields. More people means less room for cattle--a relative
or even absolute decrease in the herds.
WHERE EUROPE'S MEAT HAS BEEN PRODUCED
In spite of their crowded territory, the majority of European
countries have raised most of their meat themselves, though usually
they have had to import fodder to keep up their herds. They have been
less dependent on import for meat than for wheat. Great Britain is the
only country which has imported much meat--almost one-half her supply.
Her imports, and to a lesser extent those of other European countries,
have come chiefly from Denmark and Russia in Europe, and from six
countries outside--the United States, Canada, Argentina, Uruguay,
Australia, and New Zealand.
THE WAR AND THE EUROPEAN MEAT-SUPPLY
Imports of both animals and fodder are interrupted. With meat as with
wheat, the great shortage is due to lack of ships. Australia and New
Zealand, and to a lesser extent South America, are cut off. Fodder
such as cottonseed press-cake cannot be shipped in large amounts as
it takes three times as much shipping to transport feed as it does the
meat made by the animals from it. Denmark's supply of animals to Great
Britain has practically stopped, because of her own shortage, and
because much of what she has goes to Germany.
The European herds have been cut down. Every one of the warring
countries has fewer meat animals now than before the war. There were
roughly 100,000,000 animals less in Europe at the end of 1917 than
in 1914. Many of those left are in very poor condition, so that the
shortage is even more serious than is indicated by the falling off in
numbers.
Belgium, Serbia, and Roumania are in the worst condition. Practically
all the animals in those countries have been killed or confiscated by
the invading German and Austrian armies. This is one cause of their
terrible famine conditions.
The United Kingdom, France, and Italy have also lost seriously. France
is the greatest loser of the three, with more than one-fifth of her
herds gone. The enemy has driven off large numbers of her cattle. She,
like the others, is in difficulty not only for meat, but for milk.
Her situation is complicated by the fact that she has no great
cold-storage plants like ours, and so must get meat-supplies at
frequent intervals.
Before the war Germany was much better prepared than the Allies in
that she had many more animals in proportion to her population than
they. But she was more dependent upon imports of feed, and as her
commerce has been cut off, she has had to kill her animals faster.
Counting up all her animals in terms of cattle according to the amount
of meat they would yield, shows a loss of over one-third. For Austria,
there are no available figures, but her decrease has probably been
larger than Germany's.
Meat shortage is not a problem by itself, but is closely connected
with the shortage of available grain. When cereals are short, they
must be fed to human beings rather than to animals. Feeding grain to
animals and then eating the animals is not nearly so economical as
eating grain directly. For example, when grain is fed to a cow, only
3½ per cent of the energy of the grain is turned into meat or fat,
and 96 per cent is burned up by the cow in its own daily living. When
a man eats the grain directly, he uses at least 85 per cent of its
energy. Thus 81½ per cent more of the grain is actually used for human
food. So Europe to-day has to sacrifice her herds, and uses grain for
bread instead of turning it into meat.
Alongside this shortage has come an increased demand for meat for the
great armies. The soldier's ration always contains more meat than is
eaten by the civilian population.
THE MEAT RATIONS OF EUROPE
The shortage has compelled vigorous control of consumption in order
to make the distribution as nearly fair as possible. Compulsory meat
rations are enforced in all the warring countries. They vary, of
course, from time to time as the amount of available meat changes, but
the following statements give a picture of how limited the allowances
are in periods of shortage.
England did not suffer for lack of meat at the outset of the war. Her
voluntary ration (November, 1917) was generous, 2 pounds per week.
In the beginning of 1918 the supply was very low, and by the end of
February London was put on meat rations, and in April the rest of the
country. The rationing system has made distribution easier and more
fair and greatly lessened the distressing "queues" of people waiting
before butchers' shops for their allowance. The regulations allow each
person 4 coupons a week. Children under 10 are on half-rations. At
first, 3 of these coupons could buy 5 pence' worth of beef, pork, or
mutton, and one had to be used for a limited amount of bacon, ham,
poultry, or game. The total amounted to about 1¼ pounds of meat a
week.
Because of the increased amount of bacon and ham which the United
States was able to send in the late spring, heavy workers were
permitted in May 2 extra coupons, for which they might buy a pound of
bacon. Boys between 13 and 18 years were allowed 1 extra coupon for
bacon, poultry, or game. But at the same time only 2 instead of 3
coupons were to be used for fresh meat, so as to cut down further the
slaughtering of cattle. Heavy fines are imposed for wasting food or
profiteering.
In the restaurants the meat portions are about a fifth of the size
of those served in an American hotel. An American staying in London
said recently that he could eat two meals in succession in a London
restaurant, and leave the table still minus that self-satisfied
feeling that a meal in America gives.
At first France used meatless days instead of rations, and in the
spring of 1918 went back to meatless days. High prices also keep down
consumption. In July, 1917, there were 2 meatless days, and cattle
could not be slaughtered on the 2 preceding days. Though this order
was abolished in October, 1917, meat had gone up so high in price
that consumption went away down. The Paris letter of the London _Daily
News_ and _Leader_ on February 28, 1918, says that rump steak was
selling for 4 shillings 2 pence--$1 per pound. Since May 15, 3 days a
week must be meatless--Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday. On these days
all butchers' shops are closed. Horse meat may be sold, but no poultry
or game. Fish is scarce and very expensive.
Italy has meatless days, formerly 2, and since May, 1918, 3. The
ration and the number of cattle to be slaughtered are decided locally
and strictly regulated.
The Central Powers probably have the lowest meat ration. The
quantities allowed vary in different parts of the country, but the
average in Germany has been about 9 ounces a week per person. It
was reported that this was reduced to 6 ounces in the middle of
May--barely two small servings each week.
THE PART OF THE UNITED STATES
As with wheat, meat for Europe must come chiefly from the United
States and Canada, since ships are few and the Atlantic the
shortest route. The extra demand upon us is to offset the loss from
inaccessible markets and the depleted herds in Europe. The United
States is now exporting far larger quantities than it has ever
exported before. In March, 1918, we sent over 87,000,000 pounds of
beef. Ordinarily we export between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000 pounds a
month. Of pork we sent 308,000,000 pounds--six times more than usual.
It is roughly estimated that it is necessary to send 75,000,000 pounds
of meat and meat products of all kinds abroad weekly to the Allies and
our army.
To buy and sell this huge and unusual quantity of meat, a careful
organization has been necessary. At first the Allied nations bought
meat in this country as best they could in competition with the
domestic market and each other, often feverishly to meet emergencies.
LAST DECEMBER A COMMISSION WAS FORMED TO BUY FOR ALL THE ALLIES. The
prices to be paid are settled by experts, after careful study, so that
packers, storage warehouses, and producers shall all have adequate,
but not excessive return for their labor. The buying is planned ahead
so that we can ship at times when we have plenty.
The meat which we are shipping now is coming in part from an increased
slaughter of cattle and hogs, a condition which may have serious
consequences in reducing our reserve. The need for conservation is
constant, though at times the situation becomes easier in one kind
of meat or another. In the summer of 1917 we were short on hogs. In
the spring of 1918, thanks to the "keep-a-pig" movement and vigorous
conservation, as well as high prices, we temporarily had hogs in
plenty. Beef is short for the summer season. Policies must change
frequently with fluctuating supplies and varying demands from Europe.
However, the export demand for our forces and the Allies is limited
only by shipping capacity, and it may be that we shall have a still
larger demand at the war's end which will tax any reserve which we can
possibly accumulate.
MEAT CONSERVATION
Meat does not play nearly so important a part in the world's dietary
as we are accustomed to think. There is no comparison, in the quantity
consumed, between meat and bread, or even meat and sugar or potatoes.
Half of the people of the earth eat little or none of it. Only in two
kinds of communities is meat used largely--new and thinly populated
countries with much grazing-land, or wealthy industrial countries.
Australia and New Zealand are of the first type, consuming more meat
per person than any other country in the world--5 pounds a week in
Australia and 4 pounds in New Zealand. The United States, parts of
which may be considered in both classes, eats about 3¼ pounds per
person weekly. This is much less than some years ago, when there was
more grazing-land.
Great Britain, because it could afford to import it, used about 2¼
pounds a week before the war. Germany's consumption was slightly
lower. France, Denmark, Switzerland, with fewer animals or less
wealth, are small meat-eaters, the average amount being about 1½
pounds a week--about half as much as our consumption.
MEAT AND OTHER PROTEIN FOODS
Meat is eaten partly because of its pleasant flavor and partly because
it is a source of protein which is necessary to build or renew the
various parts of the body. Every cell in the body contains it and
needs a steady supply.
Meat is a valuable protein food, but so are plenty of others--fish,
cheese, eggs, milk, dried beans, dried peas, nuts, cereals.
Cottage-cheese is the most nearly pure protein of anything that we
eat. We can get protein just as satisfactorily from cheese and the
other animal protein foods as from meat, and almost as satisfactorily
from the vegetable protein foods. THE OLD IDEA THAT MEAT IS
ESPECIALLY "STRENGTHENING" HAS NO FOUNDATION. Neither is one kind of
meat less thoroughly digested than another.
There is little danger in this country that our diet will fall too low
in protein. Many of us eat considerably more than we need. Even those
who must spend a dangerously limited amount on their diet, are not apt
to be low in protein, for they often err on the side of spending an
unwise proportion of their money on meat. Most scientists now consider
three ounces of carefully chosen protein per day a safe allowance for
an average man. An average woman needs less.
It is not at all difficult for an interested person to count up
roughly whether he is eating more or less than this quantity. A
small serving of lean meat or fish, about two inches square and
three-quarters of an inch thick, contains about one-half ounce
of protein. Two eggs, a pint of milk, a quarter of a cup of
cottage-cheese, an inch-and-a-quarter cube of American cheese, each
have about this same amount. So does a cup and a half of baked beans
or two and a half cups of cooked cereal or six half-inch slices of
bread (3 x 3½ inches). A person eating six of these portions daily
will of course have his three ounces of protein. A man moderate in
his eating and patriotic in his saving of meat will probably find his
consumption not far from this quantity.
THE MEAT SUBSTITUTES
_Fish_. The possible supply of fish is practically unlimited, and
much of it is little appreciated by us. We eat on the average only 18
pounds apiece per year, though our meat consumption is 170 pounds. The
British and Canadians use much more fish than we do--56 and 29 pounds
respectively. The United States Bureau of Fisheries and many State
colleges are constantly introducing new varieties, from shark down.
We should learn to value the many kinds which are available, fresh,
dried, and canned, not merely the few we happen to be used to.
_Eggs_ form a very valuable food not only for protein, but for mineral
salts and vitamines as well. It is unfortunate that the price is
often high, but it should be realized that expenditure for eggs makes
expenditure for meat unnecessary.
_Poultry_ is not now listed as a meat substitute by the Food
Administration because the supply has become very limited.
_Cheese_ is one of the best substitutes for meat. It represents most
of the food value of a much greater bulk of milk, and its protein,
fat, and mineral salts make it an important food. We in America are
very slow to appreciate it. We are apt to use it in small quantity for
its flavor rather than as a real food. We could well eat more of it,
to the advantage both of the palatability and nutritive quality of our
diet.
_Milk_, one of the most easily digested and simplest sources of
protein in our diet and the most valuable of our foods, is discussed
in Chapter VII.
_Nuts_ are usually thought of as a luxury, but the amount of protein
and fat they contain makes them really an important food. Peanuts are
usually classed with the nuts and are considered the most valuable
nut-crop of the United States. They are growing so fast in importance
that the acreage was increased 60 per cent in 1917. They are used for
oil and for fodder as well as for human food. Peanut-butter or a bag
of peanuts is a good investment, but it should be counted as part of
the necessary food, not eaten as an extra. The occasional indigestion
following injudicious eating of cheese and nuts is probably often due
to forgetting that they are very substantial foods and eating them at
the end of an already sufficient meal.
_Peas and Beans_ are taken up with the other vegetables in Chapter
VIII.
Why do not the Allies use these substitutes? Mainly because they
haven't them. Dairy products are as scarce as meat. All the fish and
beans and peas that they can get are being used. But it is not enough.
THEIR SMALL MEAT RATION MUST BE MAINTAINED, AND THEIR ARMIES AS WELL
AS OURS MUST HAVE MEAT. KEEP IT GOING OVER!