FOOTNOTE:

[1] Pope Innocent, however, would not confirm this election, and the

disappointed candidate threw himself into the contest between the

English barons on the one side and King John and the pope on the

other. Later Simon made peace with Henry III. and was appointed

archdeacon of Canterbury; he was consulted by Pope Gregory IX. and

was sent to France on diplomatic business by Henry III.

LANGTON, WALTER (d. 1321), bishop of Lichfield and treasurer of England,

was probably a native of Langton West in Leicestershire. Appointed a

clerk in the royal chancery, he became a favourite servant of Edward I.,

taking part in the suit over the succession to the Scottish throne in

1292, and visiting France more than once on diplomatic business. He

obtained several ecclesiastical preferments, became treasurer in 1295,

and in 1296 bishop of Lichfield. Having become unpopular, the barons in

1301 vainly asked Edward to dismiss him; about the same time he was

accused of murder, adultery and simony. Suspended from his office, he

went to Rome to be tried before Pope Boniface VIII., who referred the

case to Winchelsea, archbishop of Canterbury; the archbishop, although

Langton's lifelong enemy, found him innocent, and this sentence was

confirmed by Boniface in 1303. Throughout these difficulties, and also

during a quarrel with the prince of Wales, afterwards Edward II., the

treasurer was loyally supported by the king. Visiting Pope Clement V. on

royal business in 1305, Langton appears to have persuaded Clement to

suspend Winchelsea; after his return to England he was the chief adviser

of Edward I., who had already appointed him the principal executor of

his will. His position, however, was changed by the king's death in July

1307. The accession of Edward II. and the return of Langton's enemy,

Piers Gaveston, were quickly followed by the arrest of the bishop and

his removal from office. His lands, together with a great hoard of

movable wealth, were seized, and he was accused of misappropriation and

venality. In spite of the intercession of Clement V. and even of the

restored archbishop, Winchelsea, who was anxious to uphold the

privileges of his order, Langton, accused again by the barons in 1309,

remained in prison after Edward's surrender to the "ordainers" in 1310.

He was released in January 1312 and again became treasurer; but he was

disliked by the "ordainers," who forbade him to discharge the duties of

his office. Excommunicated by Winchelsea, he appealed to the pope,

visited him at Avignon, and returned to England after the archbishop's

death in May 1313. He was a member of the royal council from this time

until his dismissal at the request of parliament in 1315. He died in

November 1321, and was buried in Lichfield cathedral, which was improved

and enriched at his expense. Langton appears to have been no relation of

his contemporary, John Langton, bishop of Chichester.

LANGTRY, LILLIE (1852- ), English actress, was the daughter of the Rev.

W. C. le Breton, dean of Jersey, and married in 1874 Edward Langtry (d.

1897). For many years she was famous as one of the most beautiful women

in England. It was not till 1881 that she definitely went on the stage,

appearing from that time under her own management both in London and in

America. In 1899 she married Sir Hugo de Bathe, Bart.

LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. _langage_, from _langue_, tongue, Lat.

_lingua_), the whole body of words and combinations of words as used in

common by a nation, people or race, for the purpose of expressing or

communicating their thoughts; also, more widely, the power of expressing

thought by verbal utterance. See generally under PHILOLOGY, PHONETICS,

VOICE, WRITING, GRAMMAR, &c.; and the articles on the various languages,

or under headings of countries and races.

LANGUEDOC, one of the old provinces of France, the name of which dates

from the end of the 13th century. In 1290 it was used to refer to the

country in whose tongue (_langue_) the word for "yes" was _oc_, as

opposed to the centre and north of France, the _langue d'oil_ (the _oui_

of to-day). Territorially Languedoc varied considerably in extent, but

in general from 1360 until the French Revolution it included the

territory of the following departments of modern France: part of Tarn et

Garonne, Tarn, most of Haute-Garonne, Ariège, Aude, Pyrénées-Orientales,

Hérault, Gard, Lozère, part of Ardèche and Haute-Loire. The country had

no natural geographical unity. Stretching over the Cevennes into the

valleys of the upper Loire on the north and into that of the upper

Garonne on the west, it reached the Pyrenees on the south and the

rolling hills along the Rhone on the east. Its unity was entirely a

political creation, but none the less real, as it was the great state of

the Midi, the representative of its culture and, to some degree, the

defence of its peculiar civilization. Its climate, especially in Hérault

(Montpellier), is especially delightful in spring and early summer, and

the scenery still holds enough ruined remains of Roman and feudal times

to recall the romance and the tragedy of its history.

Although the name is of comparatively late medieval origin, the history

of Languedoc, which had little in common with that of northern France,

begins with the Roman occupation. Toulouse was an important place as

early as 119 B.C.; the next year Narbonne, the seaport, became a Roman

colony. By the time of Julius Caesar the country was sufficiently

Romanized to furnish him with men and money, and though at first

involved in the civil wars which followed, it prospered under Roman rule

as perhaps no other part of the empire did. While it corresponded

exactly to no administrative division of the Roman empire, it was

approximately the territory included in _Gallia Narbonensis_, one of the

seventeen provinces into which the empire was divided at the death of

Augustus. It was rich and flourishing, crowded with great and densely

populated towns, Nîmes, Narbonne, Béziers, Toulouse; with schools of

rhetoric and poetry still vigorous in the 5th century; theatres,

amphitheatres and splendid temples. In the 5th century this high culture

was an open prize for the barbarians; and after the passing of the

Vandals, Suebi and Visigoths into Spain, the Visigoths returned under

Wallia, who made his capital at Toulouse in 419. This was the foundation

of the Visigothic kingdom which Clovis dismembered in 507, leaving the

Visigoths only Septimania--the country of seven cities, Narbonne,

Carcassonne, Elne, Béziers, Maguelonne, Lodève and Agde--that is, very

nearly the area occupied later by the province of Languedoc. At the

council of Narbonne in 589 five races are mentioned as living in the

province, Visigoths, Romans, Jews--of whom there were a great

many--Syrians and Greeks. The repulse of the Arabs by Charles Martel in

732 opened up the country for the Frankish conquest, which was completed

by 768. Under the Carolingians Septimania became part of the kingdom of

Aquitaine, but became a separate duchy in 817.

Until the opening of the 13th century there is no unity in the history

of Languedoc, the great houses of Toulouse and Carcassonne and the swarm

of warlike counts and barons practically ignoring the distant king of

France, and maintaining a chronic state of civil war. The feudal régime

did not become at all universal in the district, as it tended to become

in the north of France. Allodial tenures survived in sufficient numbers

to constitute a considerable class of non-vassal subjects of the king,

with whose authority they were little troubled. By the end of the 11th

century the house of the counts of Toulouse began to play the

predominant rôle; but their court had been famous almost a century

before for its love of art and literature and its extravagance in dress

and fashions, all of which denoted its wealth. Constance, wife of King

Robert II. and daughter of the count of Toulouse, gave great offence to

the monks by her following of gallant gentlemen. They owed their tastes,

not only to their Roman blood, and the survival of their old love for

rhetoric and poetry, but also to their intercourse with the Mahommedans,

their neighbours and enemies, and their friends when they were not

fighting. Under Raymond of Saint Gilles, at the end of the 11th century,

the county of Toulouse began its great career, but Raymond's ambition to

become an Oriental prince, which led him--and the hundred thousand men

who, according to the chroniclers, followed him--away on the first

crusade, left a troubled heritage to his sons Bertrand and Alphonse

Jourdain. The latter successfully beat off William IX., duke of

Aquitaine, and won from the count of Barcelona that part of Provence

between the Drôme and the Durance. The reign of Alphonse lasted from

1109 to 1148. By the opening of the 13th century the sovereignty of the

counts of Toulouse was recognized through about half of Provence, and

they held the rich cities of the most cultured and wealthiest portion of

France, cities which had a high degree of local independence. Their

local governments, with their consuls at the head, show, at least in

name, the influence of Roman ideas. It is still an open question how

much of their autonomy had remained untouched by the barbarian invasions

from the Roman period. The citizens of these free cities were in

continual intercourse with Saracens of Palestine and Moors of Spain;

they had never entirely abandoned pagan customs; their poetry--the

poetry of the troubadours--taught them the joys of life rather than the

fear of death, the licence of their chivalry with its courts of love led

to the other extreme of asceticism in such as were of religious

temperament; all things combined to make Languedoc the proper soil for

heresy. The Church never had the hold upon the country that it had in

the north, the people of the Midi were always lukewarm in the faith;

there was no noteworthy ecclesiastical literature in Languedoc from the

end of the Carolingian period until after the Albigensian crusade, no

theological centre like Paris, Bec or Laon. Yet Languedoc furnished the

most heroic martyrs for the ascetic Manichaean creed. The era of heresy

began with the preaching of Peter de Brueys and his follower, Henry of

Lausanne, who emptied the churches and taught contempt for the clergy.

Saint Bernard himself was able to make but temporary headway against

this rebellion from a sacramental and institutionalized Christianity. In

the first decade of the 13th century came the inevitable conflict. The

whole county of Toulouse, with its fiefs of Narbonne, Béziers, Foix,

Montpellier and Quercy, was in open and scornful secession from the

Catholic Church, and the suppression of this Manichaean or Cathar

religion was the end of the brilliant culture of Languedoc. (See

ALBIGENSES, CATHARS, INQUISITION.) The crusade against the Albigenses,

as the Cathars were locally termed, in 1209, resulted in the union to

the crown of France in 1229 of all the country from Carcassonne to the

Rhone, thus dividing Languedoc into two. The western part left to

Raymond VII., by the treaty of 1229, included the Agenais, Quercy,

Rouergue, the Toulousain and southern Albigeois. He had as well the

Venaissin across the Rhone. From 1229 to his death in 1249 Raymond VII.

worked tirelessly to bring back prosperity to his ruined country,

encouraging the foundation of new cities, and attempting to gain

reconciliation with the Church. He left only a daughter, Jeanne, who was

married to Alphonse of Poitiers. Alphonse, a sincere Catholic, upheld

the Inquisition, but, although ruling the country from Paris, maintained

peace. Jeanne died without heirs four days after her husband, upon their

return from the crusade in Africa, in 1271, and although she attempted

by will to prevent the reversion of her lands to the crown, they were

promptly seized by King Philip III., who used the opposition of Roger

Bernard, count of Foix, as an excuse to appear with a formidable army,

which had little to do to secure entire submission. Thus the county of

Toulouse passed to the crown, though Philip III. turned over the Agenais

to Edward I. of England in 1279. In 1274 he ceded the county of

Venaissin to Pope Gregory X., the papacy having claimed it, without

legal grounds, since the Albigensian crusade (see AVIGNON).

Such was the fate of the reduced county of Toulouse. At the division of

Languedoc in 1229 Louis IX. was given all the country from Carcassonne

to the Rhone. This royal Languedoc was at first subject to much trickery

on the part of northern speculators and government officials. In 1248

Louis IX. sent royal _enquêteurs_, much like Charlemagne's _missi

dominici_, to correct all abuses, especially to inquire concerning

peculation by royal agents. On the basis of their investigations the

king issued royal edicts in 1254 and 1259 which organized the

administration of the province. Two _sénéchaussées_ were created--one at

Nîmes, the other at Carcassonne--each with its lesser divisions of

_vigueries_ and _bailliages_. During the reign of Philip III. the

_enquêteurs_ were busily employed securing justice for the conquered,

preventing the seizure of lands, and in 1279 a supreme court of justice

was established at Toulouse. In 1302 Philip IV. convoked the estates of

Languedoc, but in the century which followed they were less an

instrument for self-government than one for securing money, thus aiding

the _enquêteurs_, who during the Hundred Years' War became mere revenue

hunters for the king. In 1355 the Black Prince led a savage plundering

raid across the country to Narbonne. After the battle of Poitiers,

Languedoc supported the count of Armagnac, but there was no enthusiasm

for a national cause. Under Charles V., Louis of Anjou, the king's

brother, was governor of Languedoc, and while an active opponent of the

English, he drained the country of money. But his extortions were

surpassed by those of another brother, the duc de Berry, after the death

of Charles V. In 1382 and 1383 the infuriated peasantry, abetted by some

nobles, rose in a rebellion--known as the Tuchins--which was put down

with frightful butchery, while still greater sums were demanded from the

impoverished country. In the anarchy which followed brigandage

increased. Redress did not come until 1420, when the dauphin, afterwards

Charles VII., came to Languedoc and reformed the administration. Then

the country he saved furnished him with the means for driving out the

English in the north. For the first time, in the climax of its miseries,

Languedoc was genuinely united to France. But Charles VII. was not able

to drive out the brigands, and it was not until after the English were

expelled in 1453 that Languedoc had even comparative peace. Charles VII.

united Comminges to the crown; Louis XI. Roussillon and Cerdagne, both

of which were ceded to Aragon by Charles VIII. as the price of its

neutrality during his expedition into Italy. From the reign of Louis XI.

until 1523 the governorship of Languedoc was held by the house cf

Bourbon. After the treason of the constable Bourbon it was held by the

Montmorency family with but slight interruption until 1632.

The Reformation found Languedoc orthodox. Persecution had succeeded. The

Inquisition had had no victims since 1340, and the cities which had been

centres of heresy were now strongly orthodox. Toulouse was one of the

most fanatically orthodox cities in Europe, and remained so in

Voltaire's day. But Calvinism gained ground rapidly in the other parts

of Languedoc, and by 1560 the majority of the population was Protestant.

It was, however, partly a political protest against the misrule of the

Guises. The open conflict came in 1561, and from that until the edict of

Nantes (1598) there was intermittent civil war, accompanied with

iconoclasm on the one hand, massacres on the other and ravages on both.

The main figure in this period is that of Henri de Montmorency, seigneur

de Damville, later duc de Montmorency, governor of the province from

1563, who was, at first, hostile to the Protestants, then from 1574 to

1577, as leader of the "_Politiques_," an advocate of compromise. But

peace was hardly ever established, although there was a yearly truce for

the ploughing. By the edict of Nantes, the Protestants were given ten

places of safety in Languedoc; but civil strife did not come to an end,

even under Henry IV. In 1620 the Protestants in Languedoc rose under

Henri, duc de Rohan (1579-1638), who for two years defied the power of

Louis XIII. When Louis took Montpellier in 1622, he attempted to

reconcile the Calvinists by bribes of money and office, and left

Montauban as a city of refuge. Richelieu's extinction of Huguenotism is

less the history of Languedoc than of the Huguenots (q.v.). By 1629

Protestantism was crushed in the Midi as a political force. Then

followed the tragic episode of the rebellion of Henri II., duc de

Montmorency, son of the old governor of Languedoc. As a result,

Languedoc lost its old provincial privilege of self-assessment until

1649, and was placed under the governorship of Marshal Schomberg. During

Louis XIV.'s reign Languedoc prospered until the revocation of the edict

of Nantes. Industries and agriculture were encouraged, roads and bridges

were built, and the great canal giving a water route from the Atlantic

to the Mediterranean increased the trade of its cities. Colbert

especially encouraged its manufactures. The religious persecutions which

accompanied the revocation of the edict of Nantes bore hardest on

Languedoc, and resulted in a guerilla warfare known as the rebellion of

the Camisards (q.v.). On the eve of the Revolution some of the

brightest scenes of contentment and prosperity which surprised Arthur

Young, the English traveller in France, were those of the grape harvests

in Languedoc vineyards.

In 1790 Languedoc disappeared from the map of France, with the other old

provinces; and the departments mentioned took its place. But the

peculiar characteristics of the men of the Midi remain as clearly

distinct from those of the north as the Scottish type is distinct from

the English. The "peaceful insurrection" of the Languedoc vine-growers

in the summer of 1907 revealed to the astonished Parisians the same

spirit of independence as had underlain the resistance to Simon de

Montfort and Richelieu.

The one monumental history of Languedoc is that of the Benedictines,

Dom Claude Devic and Dom J. J. Vaissete, _Histoire générale de la

province de Languedoc_ (5 vols., Paris, 1730-1745). This has been

re-edited, and continued and increased by the addition of important

monographs, to 15 volumes (Toulouse, 1872-1892). It is the great

library of sources, critical apparatus and bibliographies concerning

Languedoc, and carries the history up to 1790. The fine article

"Languedoc" in _La Grande Encyclopédie_ is by A. Molinier, perhaps the

greatest modern authority on Languedoc. (J. T. S.*)

LANGUET, HUBERT (1518-1581), French Huguenot writer and diplomat, was

born at Vitteaux in Burgundy, of which town his father was governor. He

received his early education from a distinguished Hellenist, Jean

Perelle, and displayed remarkable ability in Greek and Latin. He studied

law, theology and science at the university of Poitiers from 1536 to

1539; then, after some travel, attended the universities of Bologna and

Padua, receiving the doctorate from the latter in 1548. At Bologna he

read Melanchthon's _Loci communes theologiae_ and was so impressed by it

that in 1549 he went to Wittenberg to see the author, and shortly

afterwards became a Protestant. He made his headquarters at Wittenberg

until the death of Melanchthon in 1560, although during that period, as

well as throughout the rest of his life, he travelled extensively in

France, Italy, Spain, Germany, Sweden, and even Finland and Lapland. In

1557 he declined the invitation of Gustavus I. to enter the service of

Sweden, but two years later accepted a similar invitation of Augustus

I., elector of Saxony. He showed great ability in diplomacy,

particularly in organizing the Protestants. He represented the elector

at the French court from 1561 to 1572 except when the religious and

political troubles in France occasionally compelled him temporarily to

withdraw. He performed many minor diplomatic missions for the elector,

and in 1567 accompanied him to the siege of Gotha. He delivered a

violent harangue before Charles IX. of France in 1570 on behalf of the

Protestant princes, and escaped death on St Bartholomew's Day (1572)

only through the intervention of Jean de Morvilliers, the moderate and

influential bishop of Orleans. He represented the elector of Saxony at

the imperial court from 1573 to 1577. Financial embarrassment and

disgust at the Protestant controversies in which he was forced to

participate caused him to seek recall from the imperial court. His

request being granted, Languet spent the last years of his life mainly

in the Low Countries, and though nominally still in the service of the

elector, he undertook a mission to England for John Casimir of Bavaria

and was a valuable adviser to William the Silent, prince of Orange.

Languet died at Antwerp on the 30th of September 1581.

His correspondence is important for the history of the 16th century.

Three hundred and twenty-nine letters to Augustus of Saxony dating

from the 17th of November 1565 to the 8th of September 1581, and one

hundred and eleven letters to the chancellor Mordeisen dating from

November 1559 to the summer of 1565, are preserved in MS. in the Saxon

archives, and were published by Ludovicus at Halle in 1699 under the

title _Arcana seculi decimi sexti_. One hundred and eight letters to

Camerarius were published at Groningen in 1646 under the title

_Langueti Epistolae ad Joach. Camerarium, patrem et filium_; and

ninety-six to his great friend Sir Philip Sidney, dating from the 22nd

of April 1573 to the 28th of October 1580, appeared at Frankfort in

1633 and have been translated into English by S. A. Pears (London,

1845). The _Historica Descriptio_ of the siege and capture of Gotha

appeared in 1568 and has been translated into French and German. The

authorship of the work by which Languet is best known has been

disputed. It is entitled _Vindiciae contra tyrannos, sive de principis

in populum populique in principem legitima potestate, Stephano Junio

Bruto Celta auctore_, and is thought to have been published at Basel

(1579) although it bears the imprint of Edinburgh. It has been

attributed to Beza, Hotman, Casaubon and Duplessis-Mornay, by divers

writers on various grounds--to the last-named on the very respectable

authority of Grotius. The authorship of Languet was supported by Peter

Bayle (for reasons stated in the form of a supplement to the

_Dictionnaire_) and confirmed by practically all later writers. The

work has been frequently reprinted, the Leipzig edition (1846)

containing a life of Languet by Treitschke. A French translation

appeared in 1581 and an English translation in 1689. The work upholds

the doctrine of resistance, but affirms that resistance must come from

properly constituted authorities and objects to anything which savours

of anabaptism or other extreme views. The _Apologie ou défence du très

illustre Prince Guillaume contre le ban et l'édit du roi d'Espagne_

(Leiden, 1581) is sometimes attributed to Languet. There seems little

doubt, however, that it was really the work of the prince himself,

with the help either of Languet (Groen van Prinsterer, _Archives_) or

of Pierre de Villiers (Motley, _Rise of the Dutch Republic_; and Blok,

_History of the People of the Netherlands_).

See Ph. de la Mare, _Vie d'Hubert Languet_ (Halle, 1700); E. and E.

Haag, _La France protestante_; H. Chevreul, _Hubert Languet_ (Paris,

1852); J. Blasel, _Hubert Languet_ (Breslau, 1872); O. Scholz, _Hubert

Languet als kursächsischer Berichterstatter u. Gesandter in Frankreich

während 1560-1572_ (Halle, 1875); G. Touchard, _De politica Huberti

Langueti_ (Paris, 1898). There is a good article on Languet by P.

Tschackert in Hauck's _Real-Encyklopädie_, 3rd ed., xi. 274-280.

LANGUR, one of the two Hindu names (the other being _hanuman_) of the

sacred Indian monkey scientifically known as _Semnopithecus entellus_,

and hence sometimes called the entellus monkey. A prodigiously long

tail, beetling eyebrows with long black hairs, black ears, face, feet

and hands, and a general greyish-brown colour of the fur are the

distinctive characteristics of the langur. These monkeys roam at will in

the bazaars of Hindu cities, where they help themselves freely from the

stores of the grain-dealers, and they are kept in numbers at the great

temple in Benares. In a zoological sense the term is extended to embrace

all the monkeys of the Asiatic genus _Semnopithecus_, which includes a

large number of species, ranging from Ceylon, India and Kashmir to

southern China and the Malay countries as far east as Borneo and

Sumatra. These monkeys are characterized by their lank bodies, long

slender limbs and tail, well-developed thumbs, absence of cheek-pouches,

and complex stomachs. They feed on leaves and young shoots. (R. L.*)

LANG VON WELLENBURG, MATTHÄUS (1469-1540), German statesman and

ecclesiastic, was the son of a burgher of Augsburg. He afterwards

assumed the name of Wellenburg from a castle that came into his

possession. After studying at Ingolstadt, Vienna and Tübingen he entered

the service of the emperor Frederick III. and quickly made his way to

the front. He was also one of the most trusted advisers of Frederick's

son and successor Maximilian I., and his services were rewarded in 1500

with the provostship of the cathedral at Augsburg and in the following

year with the bishopric of Gurk. In 1511 he was made a cardinal by Pope

Julius II., and in 1514 he became coadjutor to the archbishop of

Salzburg, whom he succeeded in 1519. He also received the bishopric of

Cartagena in Murcia in 1521, and that of Albano in 1535. Lang's

adherence to the older faith, together with his pride and arrogance,

made him very unpopular in his diocese of Salzburg; in 1523 he was

involved in a serious struggle with his subjects, and in 1525, during

the Peasants' War, he had again to fight hard to hold his own. He was

one of the chief ministers of Charles V.; he played an important part in

the tangled international negotiations of his time; and he was always

loyal to his imperial masters. Not without reason has he been compared

with Cardinal Wolsey. He died on the 30th of March 1540.

LANIER, SIDNEY (1842-1881), American poet, was born at Macon, Georgia,

on the 3rd of February 1842. He was of Huguenot descent on his father's

side, and of Scottish and Virginian on his mother's. From childhood he

was passionately fond of music. His subsequent mastery of the flute

helped to support him and greatly increased his reputation. At the age

of fourteen he entered Oglethorpe College, where, after graduating with

distinction, he held a tutorship. He enlisted in the Confederate army in

April 1861, serving first in Virginia, and finding opportunities to

continue his studies. After the Seven Days' battles around Richmond, he

was transferred to the signal service. About this time the first

symptoms of consumption appeared. He subsequently served in a

blockade-runner, but his vessel was captured, and he was confined for

five months in a Federal prison, his flute proving the best of

companions. Exchanged early in 1865, he started home on foot, arriving

in a state of exhaustion that led to a severe illness. In 1867 he

visited New York in connexion with his novel _Tiger Lilies_--an immature

work, dealing in part with his war experiences, and now difficult to

obtain. Later in the same year he took charge of a country school in

Alabama, and was married to Miss Mary Day of his native town. The next

year he returned to Macon in low health, and began to study and practise

law with his father. In 1872 he went to Texas for his health, but was

forced to return, and he secured an engagement as first flute in the

Peabody concerts at Baltimore (December 1873). He wrote a guide-book to

Florida (1876), and tales for boys from Froissart, Malory, the

Mabinogion and Percy's _Reliques_ (1878-1882). He now made congenial

friends, such as Bayard Taylor, his reputation gradually increased, and

he was enabled to study music and literature, especially Anglo-Saxon

poetry. In 1876 he wrote his ambitious cantata for the Centennial

Exhibition, and brought his family north. A small volume of verse

appeared in the next year. In 1879 he was made lecturer on English

literature at Johns Hopkins University. His lectures became the basis of

his _Science of English Verse_ (1880)--his most important prose work,

and an admirable discussion of the relations of music and poetry--and

also of his _English Novel_ (New York, 1883), which, devoted largely to

George Eliot, is suggestive, but one-sided. Work had to be abandoned on

account of growing feebleness, and in the spring of 1881 he was carried

to Lynn, North Carolina, to try camp life, and died there on the 7th of

September. Since his death his fame has grown steadily and greatly, an

enlarged and final edition (1884) of his poems, prepared by his wife,

his _Letters, 1866-1881_ (1899), and several volumes of miscellaneous

prose having assisted in keeping his name before the public. A

posthumous work on _Shakspere and his Forerunners_ (London, 2 vols.,

1902) was edited by H. W. Lanier. Among his more noteworthy poems are

"Corn," "The Revenge of Hamish," "Song of the Chattahoochee" and "The

Marshes of Glynn." By some his genius is regarded as musical rather than

poetic, and his style is considered hectic; by others he is held to be

one of the most original and most talented of modern American poets. He

is considered the leading writer of the New South, the greatest Southern

poet since Poe, and a man of heroic and exquisite character.

See a "Memorial," by William Hayes Ward, prefixed to the _Poems_

(1884); _Letters of Sidney Lanier 1866-1881_ (1899), edited by H. W.

Lanier and Mrs Sidney Lanier; E. Mims, _Sidney Lanier_ (1905). There

is a bibliography of Lanier's scattered writings in _Select Poems_

(New York, 1896; Toronto, 1900) edited by Morgan Callaway.

(W. P. T.)

LANJUINAIS, JEAN DENIS, COMTE (1753-1827), French politician, was born

at Rennes (Ille-et-Vilaine) on the 12th of March 1753. After a brilliant

college career, which made him doctor of laws and a qualified barrister

at nineteen, he was appointed counsel to the Breton estates and in 1775

professor of ecclesiastical law at Rennes. At this period he wrote two

important works which, owing to the distracted state of public affairs,

remained unpublished, _Institutiones juris ecclesiastici_ and

_Praelectiones juris ecclesiastici_. He had begun his career at the bar

by pleading against the feudal _droit du colombier_, and when he was

sent by his fellow-citizens to the states-general of 1789 he demanded

the abolition of nobility and the substitution of the title of king of

the French and the Navarrese for king of France and Navarre, and helped

to establish the civil constitution of the clergy. Returned to the

Convention in September 1792 he developed moderate, even reactionary

views, becoming one of the fiercest opponents of the Mountain, though he

never wavered in his support of republican principles. He refused to

vote for the death of Louis XVI., alleging that the nation had no right

to despatch a vanquished prisoner. His daily attacks on the Mountain

resulted, on the 15th of April 1793, in a demand by the commune for his

exclusion from the assembly, but, undaunted, when the Parisian populace

invaded the Chamber on the 2nd of June, Lanjuinais renewed his defiance

of the victorious party. Placed under arrest with the Girondins, he

escaped to Rennes where he drew up a pamphlet denouncing the

constitution of 1793 under the curious title _Le Dernier Crime de

Lanjuinais_ (Rennes, 1793). Pursued by J. B. Carrier, who was sent to

stamp out resistance in the west, he lay hidden until some time after

the revolution of Thermidor (July 1794), but he was readmitted to the

Convention on the 8th of March 1795. He maintained his liberal and

independent attitude in the Conseil des Anciens, the Senate and the

Chamber of Peers, being president of the upper house during the Hundred

Days. Together with G. J. B. Target, J. E. M. Portalis and others he

founded under the empire an academy of legislation in Paris, himself

lecturing on Roman law. Closely associated with oriental scholars, and a

keen student of oriental religions, he entered the Academy of

Inscriptions in 1808. After the Bourbon restoration Lanjuinais

consistently defended the principles of constitutional monarchy, but

most of his time was given to religious and political subjects. Besides

many contributions to periodical literature he wrote, among other works,

_Constitutions de la nation française_ (1819); _Appréciation du projet

de loi relatif aux trois concordats_ (1806, 6th ed. 1827), in defence of

Gallicanism; and _Études biographiques et littéraires sur Antoine

Arnauld, P. Nicole et Jacques Necker_ (1823). He died in Paris on the

13th of January 1827.

His son, VICTOR AMBROISE, VICOMTE DE LANJUINAIS (1802-1869), was also a

politician, becoming a deputy in 1838. His interests lay chiefly in

financial questions and in 1849 he became minister of commerce and

agriculture in the cabinet of Odilon Barrot. He wrote a _Notice

historique sur la vie et les ouvrages du comte de Lanjuinais_, which was

prefixed to an edition of his father's _Oeuvres_ (4 vols., 1832).

For the life of the comte de Lanjuinais see also A. Robert and G.

Cougny, _Dictionnaire des parlementaires_, vol. ii. (1890); and F. A.

Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la Convention_ (Paris,

1885-1886). For a bibliography of his works see J. M. Quérard, _La

France littéraire_, vol. iii. (1829).

LANMAN, CHARLES ROCKWELL (1850- ), American Sanskrit scholar, was born

in Norwich, Connecticut, on the 8th of July 1850. He graduated at Yale

in 1871, was a graduate student there (1871-1873) under James Hadley and

W. D. Whitney, and in Germany (1873-1876) studied Sanskrit under Weber

and Roth and philology under Georg Curtius and Leskien. He was professor

of Sanskrit at Johns Hopkins University in 1876-1880 and subsequently at

Harvard University. In 1889 he travelled in India and bought for Harvard

University Sanskrit and Prakrit books and manuscripts, which, with those

subsequently bequeathed to the university by Fitzedward Hall, make the

most valuable collection of its kind in America, and made possible the

_Harvard Oriental Series_, edited by Professor Lanman. In 1879-1884 he

was secretary and editor of the _Transactions_, and in 1889-1890

president of the American Philological Association, and in 1884-1894 he

was corresponding secretary of the American Oriental Society, in

1897-1907 vice-president, and in 1907-1908 president. In the _Harvard

Oriental Series_ he translated (vol. iv.) into English Rajaçekhara's

Karpura-Mañjari (1900), a Prakrit drama, and (vols. vii. and viii.)

revised and edited Whitney's translation of, and notes on, the

_Atharva-Veda Samhita_ (2 vols., 1905); he published _A Sanskrit Reader,

with Vocabulary and Notes_ (2 vols., 1884-1888); and he wrote on early

Hindu pantheism and contributed the section on Brahmanism to _Messages

of the World's Religions_.

LANNES, JEAN, duke of Montebello (1769-1809), marshal of France, was

born at Lectoure (Gers) on the 11th of April 1769. He was the son of a

livery stables keeper, and was apprenticed to a dyer. He had had little

education, but his great strength and proficiency in all manly sports

caused him in 1792 to be elected sergeant-major of the battalion of

volunteers of Gers, which he had joined on the breaking out of war

between Spain and the French republic. He served through the campaigns

in the Pyrenees in 1793 and 1794, and rose by distinguished conduct to

the rank of _chef de brigade_. However, in 1795, on the reform of the

army introduced by the Thermidorians, he was dismissed from his rank. He

re-enlisted as a simple volunteer in the army of Italy, and in the

famous campaign of 1796 he again fought his way up to high rank, being

eventually made a general of brigade by Bonaparte. He was distinguished

in every battle, and was wounded at Arcola. He was chosen by Bonaparte

to accompany him to Egypt as commander of one of Kléber's brigades, in

which capacity he greatly distinguished himself, especially on the

retreat from Syria. He went with Bonaparte to France, assisted at the

18th Brumaire, and was appointed general of division, and commandant of

the consular guard. He commanded the advanced guard in the crossing of

the Alps in 1800, was instrumental in winning the battle of Montebello,

from which he afterwards took his title, and bore the brunt of the

battle of Marengo. In 1801 Napoleon sent him as ambassador to Portugal.

Opinions differ as to his merits in this capacity; Napoleon never made

such use of him again. On the establishment of the empire he was created

a marshal of France, and commanded once more the advanced guard of a

great French army in the campaign of Austerlitz. At Austerlitz he had

the left of the Grand Army. In the 1806-07 campaign he was at his best,

commanding his corps with the greatest credit in the march through the

Thuringian Forest, the action of Saalfeld (which is studied as a model

to-day at the French Staff College) and the battle of Jena. His

leadership of the advanced guard at Friedland was even more conspicuous.

He was now to be tried as a commander-in-chief, for Napoleon took him to

Spain in 1808, and gave him a detached wing of the army, with which he

won a victory over Castaños at Tudela on November 22. In January 1809 he

was sent to attempt the capture of Saragossa, and by February 21, after

one of the most stubborn defences in history, was in possession of the

place. Napoleon then created him duc de Montebello, and in 1809, for the

last time, gave him command of the advanced guard. He took part in the

engagements around Eckmühl and the advance on Vienna. With his corps he

led the French army across the Danube, and bore the brunt, with Masséna,

of the terrible battle of Aspern-Essling (q.v.). On the 22nd of May he

had to retreat. During the retreat Lannes exposed himself as usual to

the hottest fire, and received a mortal wound, to which he succumbed at

Vienna on the 31st of May. As he was being carried from the field to

Vienna he met the emperor hurrying to the front. It was reported that

the dying man reproached Napoleon for his ambition, but this rests on

little evidence save the fact that Lannes was the most blunt and

outspoken of all Napoleon's marshals. He was one of the few men for whom

the emperor felt a real and deep affection, and at this their last

meeting Napoleon gave way to a passionate burst of grief, even in the

midst of the battle. His eldest son was made a peer of France by Louis

XVIII.

Lannes ranks with Davout and Masséna as the ablest of all Napoleon's

marshals, and consciously or unconsciously was the best exponent of

the emperor's method of making war. Hence his constant employment in

tasks requiring the utmost resolution and daring, and more especially

when the emperor's combinations depended upon the vigour and

self-sacrifice of a detachment or fraction of the army. It was thus

with Lannes at Friedland and at Aspern as it was with Davout at

Austerlitz and Auerstädt, and Napoleon's estimate of his subordinates'

capacities can almost exactly be judged by the frequency with which he

used them to prepare the way for his own shattering blow. Routine

generals with the usual military virtue, or careful and exact troop

leaders like Soult and Macdonald, Napoleon kept under his own hand for

the final assault which he himself launched, but the long hours of

preparatory fighting against odds of two to one, which alone made the

final blow possible, he entrusted only to men of extraordinary courage

and high capacity for command. In his own words, he found Lannes a

pigmy, and lost him a giant. Lannes's place in his affections was

never filled.

See R. Périn, _Vie militaire de Jean Lannes_ (Paris, 1809).

LANNION, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in

the department of Côtes-du-Nord, on the right bank of the Léguer, 45 m.

W.N.W. of St Brieuc by rail. Pop. (1906) 5336. Lannion is 5 m. in direct

line from the mouth of the Léguer; its port does a small trade (exports

of agricultural produce, imports of wine, salt, timber, &c.), and there

is an active fishing industry. The town contains many houses of the

15th and 16th centuries and other old buildings, the chief of which is

the church of St Jean-du-Baly (16th and 17th centuries). On an eminence

close to Lannion is the church of Brélevenez of the 12th century,

restored in the 15th or 16th century; it has an interesting 16th-century

Holy Sepulchre.

Some 6 m. S.E. of the town are the imposing ruins of the château of

Tonquédec (_c._ 1400) styled the "Pierrefonds of Brittany," and there

are other buildings of antiquarian interest in the vicinity. The coast

north of Lannion at Trégastel and Ploumanac presents curious rock

formations.

Lannion is the seat of a subprefect and has a tribunal of first instance

and a communal college. Its industries include saw-milling, tanning and

the manufacture of farm implements. The town was taken in 1346 by the

English; it was defended against them by Geoffroy de Pontblanc whose

valour is commemorated by a cross close to the spot where he was slain.

LANNOY, GUILLEBERT DE (1386-1462), Flemish diplomatist, was chamberlain

to the duke of Burgundy, governor of the fort of Sluys, and a knight of

the Golden Fleece. He discharged several diplomatic missions in France,

England, Prussia, Poland and Lithuania, and was one of the negotiators

of the treaty of Troyes (1420). In 1421 he was sent by Henry V. of

England to Palestine to inquire into the possibility of reviving the

kingdom of Jerusalem, and wrote an account of his travels, _Les

Pèlerinages de Surye et de Egipte_, which was published in 1826 and

again in 1842.

LANOLIN (Lat. _lana_, wool, and _oleum_, oil), the commercial name of

the preparation styled _adeps lanae hydrosus_ in the British

Pharmacopoeia, and which consists of 7 oz. of neutral wool-fat (_adeps

lanae_) mixed with 3 fluid oz. of water. The wool-fat is obtained by

purification of the "brown grease," "recovered grease" or dégras

extracted from raw sheep's wool in the process of preparing it for the

spinner. It is a translucent unctuous substance which has the property

of taking up large quantities of water and forming emulsions which are

very slow to separate into their constituents. Owing to the ease with

which it penetrates the skin, wool-fat both in the anhydrous form and as

lanolin, sometimes mixed with such substances as vaseline or fatty oils,

is largely employed as a basis for ointments. It is slightly antiseptic

and does not become rancid.

LA NOUE, FRANÇOIS DE (1531-1591), called Bras-de-Fer, one of the

Huguenot captains of the 16th century, was born near Nantes in 1531, of

an ancient Breton family. He served in Italy under Marshal Brissac, and

in the first Huguenot war, but his first great exploit was the capture

of Orleans at the head of only fifteen cavaliers in 1567, during the

second war. At the battle of Jarnac in March 1569 he commanded the

rearguard, and at Moncontour in the following October he was taken

prisoner; but he was exchanged in time to resume the governorship of

Poitou, and to inflict a signal defeat on the royalist troops before

Rochefort. At the siege of Fontenay (1570) his left arm was shattered by

a bullet; but a mechanic of Rochelle made him an iron arm (hence his

sobriquet) with a hook for holding his reins. When peace was made in

France in the same year, La Noue carried his sword against the Spaniards

in the Netherlands, but was taken at the recapture of Mons by the

Spanish in 1572. Permitted to return to France, he was commissioned by

Charles IX., after the massacre of St Bartholomew, to reconcile the

inhabitants of La Rochelle, the great stronghold of the Huguenots, to

the king. But the Rochellois were too much alarmed to come to terms; and

La Noue, perceiving that war was imminent, and knowing that his post was

on the Huguenot side, gave up his royal commission, and from 1574 till

1578 acted as general of La Rochelle. When peace was again concluded La

Noue once more went to aid the Protestants of the Low Countries. He took

several towns and captured Count Egmont in 1580; but a few weeks

afterwards he fell into the hands of the Spaniards. Thrust into a

loathsome prison at Limburg, La Noue, the admiration of all, of whatever

faith, for his gallantry, honour and purity of character, was kept

confined for five years by a powerful nation, whose reluctance to set

him free is one of the sincerest tributes to his reputation. It was in

captivity that he wrote his celebrated _Discours politiques et

militaires_, a work which was published at Basel in 1587 [republished at

La Rochelle 1590, Frankfurt on Main (in German) 1592 and 1612; and

London (in English) 1597] and had an immense influence on the soldiers

of all nations. The abiding value of La Noue's "Discourses" lies in the

fact that he wrote of war as a human drama, before it had been

elaborated and codified. At length, in June 1585, La Noue was exchanged

for Egmont and other prisoners of consideration, while a heavy ransom

and a pledge not to bear arms against his Catholic majesty were also

exacted from him. Till 1589 La Noue took no part in public matters, but

in that year he joined Henry of Navarre against the Leaguers. He was

present at both sieges of Paris, at Ivry and other battles. At the siege

of Lamballe in Brittany he received a wound of which he died at

Moncontour on the 4th of August 1591.

He wrote, besides the Discourses, _Déclaration pour prise d'armes et

la défense de Sedan et Jamets_ (1588); _Observations sur l'histoire de

Guicciardini_ (2 vols., 1592); and notes on _Plutarch's Lives_. His

_Correspondance_ was published in 1854. See _La Vie de François,

seigneur de La Noue_, by Moyse Amirault (Leiden, 1661); Brantôme's

_Vies des Capitaines français_; C. Vincens' _Les Héros de la Réforme.

Fr. de La Noue_ (1875); and Hauser, _François de La Noue_ (Paris,

1892).

LANSDOWNE, WILLIAM PETTY FITZMAURICE, 1ST MARQUESS OF (1737-1805),

British statesman, better known under his earlier title of earl of

Shelburne, was born at Dublin on the 20th of May 1737. He was a

descendant of the lords of Kerry (dating from 1181), and his grandfather

Thomas Fitzmaurice, who was created earl of Kerry (1723), married the

daughter of Sir William Petty (q.v.). On the death without issue of

Sir William Petty's sons, the first earls of Shelburne, the estates

passed to his nephew John Fitzmaurice (advanced in 1753 to the earldom

of Shelburne), who in 1751 took the additional name of Petty. His son

William spent his childhood "in the remotest parts of the south of

Ireland," and, according to his own account, when he entered Christ

Church, Oxford, in 1755, he had both "everything to learn and everything

to unlearn." From a tutor whom he describes as "narrow-minded" he

received advantageous guidance in his studies, but he attributes his

improvement in manners and in knowledge of the world chiefly to the fact

that, as was his "fate through life," he fell in "with clever but

unpopular connexions." Shortly after leaving the university he served in

Wolfe's regiment during the Seven Years' War, and so distinguished

himself at Minden and Kloster-Kampen that he was raised to the rank of

colonel and appointed aide-de-camp to the king (1760). Being thus

brought into near communication with Lord Bute, he was in 1761 employed

by that nobleman to negotiate for the support of Henry Fox, Lord

Holland. He was returned to the House of Commons as member for Wycombe,

but in 1761 he succeeded his father as earl of Shelburne in the Irish

peerage, and Baron Wycombe in the peerage of Great Britain (created

1760). Though he declined to take office under Bute he undertook

negotiations to induce C. J. Fox to gain the consent of the Commons to

the peace of 1763. Fox affirmed that he had been duped, and, although

Shelburne always asserted that he had acted in thorough good faith, Bute

spoke of the affair as a "pious fraud." Shelburne joined the Grenville

ministry in 1763 as president of the Board of Trade, but, failing in his

efforts to replace Pitt in the cabinet, he in a few months resigned

office. Having moreover on account of his support of Pitt on the

question of Wilkes's expulsion from the House of Commons incurred the

displeasure of the king, he retired for a time to his estate. After

Pitt's return to power in 1766 he became secretary of state, but during

Pitt's illness his conciliatory policy towards America was completely

thwarted by his colleagues and the king, and in 1768 he was dismissed

from office. In 1782 he consented to take office under the marquess of

Rockingham on condition that the king would recognize the United States.

On the death of Lord Rockingham in the same year he became premier; but

the secession of Fox and his supporters led to the famous coalition of

Fox with North, which caused his resignation in the following February,

his fall being perhaps hastened by his plans for the reform of the

public service. He had also in contemplation a bill to promote free

commercial intercourse between England and the United States. When Pitt

acceded to office in 1784, Shelburne, instead of receiving a place in

the cabinet, was created marquess of Lansdowne. Though giving a general

support to the policy of Pitt, he from this time ceased to take an

active part in public affairs. He died on the 7th of May 1805. During

his lifetime he was blamed for insincerity and duplicity, and he

incurred the deepest unpopularity, but the accusations came chiefly from

those who were dissatisfied with his preference of principles to party,

and if he had had a more unscrupulous regard to his personal ambition,

his career as a statesman would have had more outward success. He was

cynical in his estimates of character, but no statesman of his time

possessed more enlightened political views, while his friendship with

those of his contemporaries eminent in science and literature must be

allowed considerable weight in qualifying our estimate of the moral

defects with which he has been credited. He was twice married, first to

Lady Sophia (1745-1771), daughter of John Carteret, Earl Granville,

through whom he obtained the Lansdowne estates near Bath, and secondly

to Lady Louisa (1755-1789), daughter of John Fitzpatrick, 1st earl of

Upper Ossory. John Henry Petty Fitzmaurice (1765-1809), his son by the

first marriage, succeeded as 2nd marquess, after having sat in the House

of Commons for twenty years as member for Chipping Wycombe.

HENRY PETTY FITZMAURICE, 3rd marquess of Lansdowne (1780-1863), son of

the 1st marquess by his second marriage, was born on the 2nd of July

1780 and educated at Edinburgh University and at Trinity College,

Cambridge. He entered the House of Commons in 1802 as member for the

family borough of Calne and quickly showed his mettle as a politician.

In February 1806, as Lord Henry Petty, he became chancellor of the

exchequer in the ministry of "All the Talents," being at this time

member for the university of Cambridge; but he lost both his seat and

his office in 1807. In 1809 he became marquess of Lansdowne; and in the

House of Lords and in society he continued to play an active part as one

of the Whig leaders. His chief interest was perhaps in the question of

Roman Catholic emancipation, a cause which he consistently championed,

but he sympathized also with the advocates of the abolition of the

slave-trade and with the cause of popular education. Lansdowne, who had

succeeded his cousin, Francis Thomas Fitzmaurice, as 4th earl of Kerry

in 1818, took office with Canning in May 1827 and was secretary for home

affairs from July of that year until January 1828; he was lord president

of the council under Earl Grey and then under Lord Melbourne from

November 1830 to August 1841, with the exception of the few months in

1835 when Sir Robert Peel was prime minister. He held the same office

during the whole of Lord John Russell's ministry (1846-1852), and,

having declined to become prime minister, sat in the cabinets of Lord

Aberdeen and of Lord Palmerston, but without office. In 1857 he refused

the offer of a dukedom, and he died on the 31st of January 1863.

Lansdowne's social influence and political moderation made him one of

the most powerful Whig statesmen of the time; he was frequently

consulted by Queen Victoria on matters of moment, and his long official

experience made his counsel invaluable to his party. He married Louisa

(1785-1851), daughter of the 2nd earl of Ilchester, and was succeeded by

his son Henry, the 4th marquess (1816-1866). The latter, who was member

of parliament for Calne for twenty years and chairman of the Great

Western railway, married for his second wife Emily (1819-1895), daughter

of the comte de Flahaut de la Billarderie, a lady who became Baroness

Nairne in her own right in 1867. By her he had two sons, the 5th

marquess and Lord Edmond Fitzmaurice (Baron Fitzmaurice of Leigh).

HENRY CHARLES KEITH PETTY FITZMAURICE, 5th marquess of Lansdowne (b.

1845), was educated at Balliol, Oxford, where he became one of Jowett's

favourite pupils. In 1869 he married the daughter of the 1st duke of

Abercorn. As a member of the Liberal party he was a lord of the treasury

(1869-1872), under-secretary of war (1872-1874), and under-secretary of

India (1880); in 1883 he was appointed governor-general of Canada, and

from 1888 to 1893 he was viceroy of India. He joined the Liberal

Unionist party when Mr Gladstone proposed home rule for Ireland, and on

returning to England became one of its most influential leaders. He was

secretary of state for war from 1895 to 1900, and foreign secretary from

1900 to 1906, becoming leader of the Unionist party in the House of

Lords on Lord Salisbury's death.

His brother EDMOND GEORGE FITZMAURICE, Baron Fitzmaurice (b. 1846), was

educated at Trinity, Cambridge, where he took a first class in classics.

Unlike Lord Lansdowne, he remained a Liberal in politics and followed Mr

Gladstone in his home rule policy. As Lord Edmond Fitzmaurice he entered

the House of Commons in 1868, and was under-secretary for foreign

affairs from 1882 to 1885. He then had no seat in parliament till 1898,

when he was elected for the Cricklade division of Wilts, and retiring in

1905, he was created Baron Fitzmaurice of Leigh in 1906, and made

under-secretary for foreign affairs in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's

ministry. In 1908 he became chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster and a

member of the Liberal cabinet, but resigned his post in 1909. He devoted

much time to literary work, and was the author of excellent biographies

of the 1st marquess, of Sir William Petty (1895), and of Lord Granville

(1905), under whom he had served at the foreign office.

For the 1st marquess, see Lord Fitzmaurice, _Life of William, Earl of

Shelburne_ (3 vols., London, 1875-1876).

LANSDOWNE, a hill cantonment in India, in Garhwal district of the United

Provinces, about 6000 ft. above the sea, 19 m. by cart road from the

station of Kotdwara on the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway. Pop. (1901)

3943. The cantonment, founded in 1887, extends for more than 3 m.

through pine and oak forests, and can accommodate three Gurkha

battalions.

LANSING, the capital of Michigan, U.S.A., in Ingham county, at the

confluence of the Grand and Cedar rivers, about 85 m. W.N.W. of Detroit

and about 64 m. E.S.E. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1900) 16,485, of whom 2397

were foreign-born; (1910 census) 31,229. It is served by the Michigan

Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Trunk and the

Père Marquette railways, and by interurban electric lines. The Grand

river on its way through the city makes a horse-shoe bend round a

moderately elevated plateau; this is the commercial centre of the city,

and here, in a square covering 10 acres, is the State Capitol, erected

in 1873-1878 and containing the State library. On the opposite side of

the river, farther N., and also extending across the southern portion of

the city, are districts devoted largely to manufacturing. Lansing has a

public library and a city hospital. About 3 m. E. of the city, at East

Lansing, is the State Agricultural College (coeducational), the oldest

agricultural college in the United States, which was provided for by the

state constitution of 1850, was organized in 1855 and opened in 1857.

Its engineering course was begun in 1885; a course in home economics for

women was established in 1896; and a forestry course was opened in 1902.

In connexion with the college there is an agricultural experiment

station. Lansing is the seat of the Michigan School for the Blind, and

of the State Industrial School for Boys, formerly the Reform School. The

city has abundant water-power and is an important manufacturing centre.

The value of the factory products increased from $2,942,306 in 1900 to

$6,887,415 in 1904, or 134.1%. The municipality owns and operates the

water-works and the electric-lighting plant. The place was selected as

the site for the capital in 1847, when it was still covered with

forests, and growth was slow until 1862, when the railways began to

reach it. Lansing was chartered as a city in 1859 and rechartered in

1893.

LANSING MAN, the term applied by American ethnologists to certain human

remains discovered in 1902 during the digging of a cellar near Lansing,

Kansas, and by some authorities believed to represent a prehistoric

type of man. They include a skull and several large adult bones and a

child's jaw. They were found beneath 20 ft. of undisturbed silt, in a

position indicating intentional burial. The skull is preserved in the U.

S. National Museum at Washington. It is similar in shape to those of

historic Indians of the region. Its ethnological value as indicating the

existence of man on the Missouri in the glacial period is very doubtful,

it being impossible accurately to determine the age of the deposits.

See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907).

LANSQUENET, the French corrupted form of the German _Landsknecht_

(q.v.), a mercenary foot-soldier of the 16th century. It is also the

name of a card game said to have been introduced into France by the

_Landsknechte_. The pack of 52 cards is cut by the player at the

dealer's right. The dealer lays the two first cards face upwards on the

table to his left; the third he places in front of him and the fourth,

or _réjouissance_ card, in the middle of the table. The players, usually

called (except in the case of the dealer) _punters_, stake any sum

within the agreed limit upon this réjouissance card; the dealer, who is

also the banker, covers the bets and then turns up the next card. If

this fails to match any of the cards already exposed, it is laid beside

the réjouissance card and then punters may stake upon it. Other cards

not matching are treated in the same manner. When a card is turned which

matches the réjouissance card, the banker wins everything staked on it,

and in like manner he wins what is staked on any card (save his own)

that is matched by the card turned. The banker pays all stakes, and the

deal is over as soon as a card appears that matches his own; excepting

that should the two cards originally placed at his left both be matched

before his own, he is then entitled to a second deal. In France matching

means winning, not losing, as in Great Britain. There are other

variations of play on the continent of Europe.

LANTARA, SIMON MATHURIN (1729-1778), French landscape painter, was born

at Oncy on the 24th of March 1729. His father was a weaver, and he

himself began life as a herdboy; but, having attracted the notice of

Gille de Reumont, a son of his master, he was placed under a painter at

Versailles. Endowed with great facility and real talent, his powers

found ready recognition; but he found the constraint of a regular life

and the society of educated people unbearably tiresome; and as long as

the proceeds of the last sale lasted he lived careless of the future in

the company of obscure workmen. Rich amateurs more than once attracted

him to their houses, only to find that in ease and high living Lantara

could produce nothing. He died in Paris on the 22nd of December 1778.

His works, now much prized, are not numerous; the Louvre has one

landscape, "Morning," signed and dated 1761. Bernard, Joseph Vernet, and

others are said to have added figures to his landscapes and sea-pieces.

Engravings after Lantara will be found in the works of Lebas, Piquenot,

Duret, Mouchy and others. In 1809 a comedy called _Lantara, or the

Painter in the Pothouse_, was brought out at the Vaudeville with great

success.

See E. Bellier de la Chavignerie, _Recherches sur le peintre Lantara_

(Paris, 1852).

LANTERN (an adaptation of the Fr. _lanterne_ from Lat. _lanterna_ or

_laterna_, supposed to be from Gr. [Greek: lamptêr], a torch or lamp,

[Greek: lampein], to shine, cf. "lamp"; the 16th- and 17th-century form

"lanthorn" is due to a mistaken derivation from "horn," as a material

frequently used in the making of lanterns), a metal case filled in with

some transparent material, and used for holding a light and protecting

it from rain or wind. The appliance is of two kinds--the hanging lantern

and the hand lantern--both of which are ancient. At Pompeii and

Herculaneum have been discovered two cylindrical bronze lanterns, with

ornamented pillars, to which chains are attached for carrying or hanging

the lantern. Plates of horn surrounded the bronze lamp within, and the

cover at the top can be removed for lighting and for the escape of

smoke. The hanging lantern for lighting rooms was composed of ornamental

metal work, of which iron and brass were perhaps most frequently used.

Silver, and even gold, were, however, sometimes employed, and the

artificers in metal of the 17th and 18th centuries produced much

exceedingly artistic work of this kind. Oriental lanterns in open-work

bronze were often very beautiful. The early lantern had sides of horn,

talc, bladder or oiled paper, and the primitive shape remains in the

common square stable lantern with straight glass sides, to carry a

candle. The hand lantern was usually a much more modest appliance than

the hanging lantern, although in great houses it was sometimes richly

worked and decorated. As glass grew cheaper it gradually ousted all

other materials, but the horn lantern which was already ancient in the

13th century was still being used in the early part of the 19th. By the

end of the 18th century lanterns in rooms had been superseded by the

candlestick. The collapsible paper lanterns of China and Japan, usually

known as Chinese lanterns, are globular or cylindrical in shape, and the

paper is pleated and when not in use folds flat. For illuminative and

decorative purposes they are coloured with patterns of flowers, &c. The

lanterns carried by the ordinary foot passenger are made of oiled paper.

In China the "Feast of Lanterns" takes place early in the New Year and

lasts for four days. In Japan the festival of Bon is sometimes known as

the "feast of lanterns." It is then that the spirits of the dead

ancestors return to the household altar. The festival takes place in

July. The "bull's-eye" lantern has a convex lens which concentrates the

light and allows it to be thrown in the shape of a diverging cone. The

"dark lantern" has a shutter or slide arrangement by which the light can

be shut off at will. Ships' lanterns are used as masthead or other

signal lights. On Trajan's column is a representation of a heavy

poop-lantern on a ship. The ships' lanterns of the 16th and 17th

centuries were highly ornamental, especially when placed on the poop. At

the Armeria Real in Madrid is a collection of these 16th-century ships'

lanterns. The protected cages which contain the lights used in

lighthouses are also known as "lanterns" (see LIGHTHOUSES).

In architecture a lantern is primarily a framework of timber, with

windows all round, to admit ample light, placed on the top of a roof. In

a broader sense, it is applied to those portions of buildings which are

largely perforated with windows, and more especially to the upper part

of the towers of cathedrals and churches, as in the octagon of Ely

cathedral, or the tower of Boston church, Lincolnshire. The term is also

applied to the entire church, as in the case of Bath Abbey church, which

was called the "lantern of England," from the number of its windows, and

St John's Priory at Kilkenny, the "lantern of Ireland," on account of

the window on the south side of the choir which was 54 ft. long. In the

Renaissance style the lantern was looked upon as a decorative feature

surmounting the dome, as in St Peter's, Rome, the Invalides, Paris, and

St Paul's, London.

_Magic or Optical Lantern._

The magic or optical lantern is an instrument for projecting on a white

wall or screen largely magnified representations of transparent pictures

painted or photographed on glass, or of objects--crystals, animals,

&c.--carried on glass slides or in glass vessels. If the light traverses

the object, the projection is said to be diascopic, if by reflected

light, episcopic.

The invention of the magic lantern is usually attributed to Athanasius

Kircher, who described it in the first edition (1646) of his _Ars magna

lucis et umbrae_, but it is very probably of earlier discovery. For a

long period the magic lantern was used chiefly to exhibit comic

pictures, or in the hands of so-called wizards to summon up ghosts and

perform other tricks, astonishing to those ignorant of the simple

optical principles employed. Within recent years, however, the optical

lantern has been greatly improved in construction, and its use widely

extended. By its means finely executed photographs on glass can be shown

greatly magnified to large audiences, thus saving the trouble and

expense of preparing large diagrams. When suitably constructed, it can

be used in the form of a microscope to exhibit on a screen the forms and

movements of minute living organisms, or to show to an audience delicate

physical and chemical experiments which could otherwise be seen only by

a few at a time Another application of the optical lantern is found in

the cinematograph (q.v.).

The optical lantern, in its simpler forms, consists of the following

parts: (1) the lantern body, (2) a source of light, (3) an optical

system for projecting the images. The lantern body is a rectangular

casing usually made of Russian iron, but sometimes covered with wood

(which must be protected by asbestos at parts liable to damage by

heat), provided with the openings necessary to the insertion of the

source of light, windows for viewing the same, a chimney for conveying

away the products of combustion, fittings to carry the slides and the

optical system. In the earlier and simpler lanterns, oil lamps were

commonly used, and in the toy forms either an oil flame or an ordinary

gas jet is still employed. Natural petroleum burnt in a specially

constructed lamp by means of two or three parallel wicks set edgeways

to the lenses was employed in the sciopticon, an improved lantern

invented in America which gave well-defined pictures 6 to 10 ft. in

diameter. The Argand gas burner also found application. A great

improvement attended the introduction of lime-light, i.e. the light

emitted by a block of lime made incandescent by an impinging

oxyhydrogen or oxygen-coal-gas flame, and the readiness with which

hydrogen and oxygen can be prepared and rendered available by

compression in steel cylinders and the increased commercial supply of

coal-gas greatly popularized these illuminants. Many improvements have

been made on the original apparatus. The lime-cylinders are specially

prepared to withstand better the disintegrating effects of the flame,

and are mounted on a rotating pin in order that fresh surfaces may be

brought into play. Cones of zirconia are also used in the same way; or

a thorium mantle in conjunction with alcohol vapour may be employed.

Two types of burner are in use: (1) the "blow-through jet," in which

the oxygen is forced through the jet of the burning gas (this is the

safest type), and (2) where the gases are mixed before combustion

(this is the more dangerous but also the more powerful type). Ether

burners are also in use. In one type the oxygen supply is divided into

two streams, one of which passes through a chamber containing cotton

wool soaked with ether, and then rejoins the undiverted stream at the

jet. The application of the incandescent gas mantle is limited by the

intensity of the heat emitted and the large area of the source. Of

electrical illuminants the platinum and carbon filament lamps are not

much used, the Nernst lamp (in which the preliminary heating is

effected by a spirit lamp and not by an auxiliary coil) being

preferred. But the arc light is undoubtedly the best illuminant for

use in the projecting lantern. The actual size of the source is

comparatively small, and hence it is necessary to mount the carbons so

that the arc remains at one point on the axis of the optical system.

It is also advisable to set back the carbons relatively to one another

and to tilt them, so that the brightest part of the "crater" faces the

lens.

_Optical System._--In the ordinary (or vertically) projecting lantern

the rays are transmitted through a lens termed the "condenser," then

through the object, and finally through another lens termed the

"objective." In the horizontally projecting types the light, after

passing through the condenser, is reflected vertically by a plane

mirror inclined at 45° to the direction of the light; it then

traverses another lens, then the object, then the objective, and is

finally projected horizontally by a plane mirror inclined at 45°, or

by a right angled glass prism, the hypothenuse face of which is

silvered. In episcopic projection, the light, having traversed the

condenser, is reflected on to the object, placed horizontally, by an

inclined mirror. The rays reflecting the object then traverse the

objective, and are then projected horizontally by a mirror or prism.

This device inverts the object; a convenient remedy is to place an

erecting prism before the lens. The object of the condenser is to

collect as much light as possible from the source, and pass it through

the object in a uniform beam. For this purpose the condenser should

subtend as large an angle as possible at the source of light. To

secure this, it should be tolerably large, and its distance from the

light, that is, its focal length, small. Since effective single lenses

of large diameter are necessarily of long focus, a really good

condenser of considerable diameter and yet of short focus must be a

combination of two or more lenses. It is essential that the condenser

be white and limpid and free from defects or striae.

In the earlier lanterns, as still in the cheaper forms, only a single

plano-convex lens or bull's-eye was employed as a condenser. A good

compound condenser for ordinary work is that proposed by Herschel,

consisting of a biconvex lens and a meniscus mounted together with the

concave side of the meniscus next the light. Other types employ two

plano-convex lenses, the curved surfaces nearly in contact; or a

concavo-convex and a plano-convex lens. Or it may be a triple

combination, the object always being to increase the aperture. The

focus must not be so short as to bring the lens too near the light,

and render it liable to crack from the intense heat. In some lanterns

this is guarded against by placing a plate of thin glass between the

condenser and the light. If the source of light be broad, an iris

diaphragm may be introduced so as to eliminate inequalities in

illumination.

The function of the objective is to produce a magnified inverted image

of the picture on the screen. In toy lanterns it is a simple

double-convex lens of short focus. This, however, can only produce a

small picture, and that not very distinct at the edges. The best

objective is the portrait combination lens usually of the Petzval type

as used in ordinary photographic cameras. These are carefully

corrected both for spherical and chromatic aberration, which is

absolutely essential in the objective, although not so necessary in

the condenser.

_Objects._--The commonest objects used for exhibiting with the optical

lantern are named "slides" and consist of pictures printed on

transparent surfaces. Solid objects mounted on glass after the

ordinary manner of mounting microscopic objects are also possible of

exhibition, and hollow glass tanks containing organisms or substances

undergoing some alteration are also available for use with the

lantern. If it be necessary to eliminate the heat rays, which may act

deleteriously on the object, a vessel is introduced containing either

water or a 5% solution of ferric chloride. In the ordinary slide the

pictures are painted with transparent water or oil colours, or

photographed on pieces of glass. If parts of the picture are to be

movable, two disks of glass are employed, the one movable in front of

the other, the fixed part of the picture being painted on the fixed

disk and the movable part on the other. By means of a lever the latter

disk is moved in its own plane; and in this way a cow, for instance,

can be represented drinking, or a donkey cutting amusing capers. In

the chromatrope slide two circular disks of glass are placed face to

face, each containing a design radiating from the centre, and painted

with brilliant transparent colours. By a small pinion gearing in

toothed wheels or endless bands the disks are made to move in opposite

directions in their own plane. The effect produced is a singularly

beautiful change of design and colour. In astronomical slides the

motions of the heavenly bodies, eclipses, the phases of the moon or

the like are similarly represented by mechanical means.

_Dissolving Views._--For this purpose two magic lanterns are

necessary, arranged either side by side or the one on the top of the

other. The fronts of the lanterns are slightly inclined to each other

so as to make the illuminated disks on the screen due to each lantern

coincide. By means of a pair of thin metallic shutters terminating in

comb-like teeth, and movable by a rack or lever, the light from either

lantern can be gradually cut off at the same time that the light from

the other is allowed gradually to fall on the screen. In this way one

view appears to melt or dissolve into another. This arrangement was

first adopted by Childe in 1811.

_Phantasmagoria._--In this arrangement the pictures on the screen

appear gradually to increase or diminish in size and brightness. To

effect this a semi-transparent screen of cotton or other material is

used, the lantern being behind and the audience in front. The lantern

is mounted on wheels so that it can be rapidly moved up to or

withdrawn from the screen; and an automatic arrangement is provided

whereby simultaneously with this the objective is made to approach or

recede from the slide so as to focus the picture on the screen in any

position of the lantern. In this way a very small picture appears

gradually to grow to enormous dimensions.

See L. Wright, _Optical Projection_ (1891); E. Trutat, _Traité des

Projections_ (Paris, 1897 and 1901); P. E. Liesegang, _Die

Projektions-Kunst_ (Leipzig, 1909).

LANTERN-FLY, the name given to insects belonging to the homopterous

division of the Hemiptera, and referable to the genus _Fulgora_ and

allied forms. They are mostly of large size, with a superficial

resemblance to lepidoptera due to their brilliant and varied coloration.

Characteristic of the group is the presence on the front of the head of

a hollow process, simulating a snout, which is sometimes inflated and as

large as the rest of the insect, sometimes elongated, narrow and

apically upturned. It was believed, mainly on the authority of Marie

Sibylle de Mérian, that this process, the so-called "lantern," was

luminous at night. Linnaeus adopted the statement without question and

made use of a number of specific names, such as _lanternaria_,

_phosphorea_, _candelaria_, &c., to illustrate the supposed fact, and

thus aided in disseminating a belief which subsequent observations have

failed to establish and which is now generally rejected.

LANTERNS OF THE DEAD, the architectural name for the small towers in

stone, found chiefly in the centre and west of France, pierced with

small openings at the top, where a light was exhibited at night to

indicate the position of a cemetery. These towers were usually circular,

with a small entrance in the lower part giving access to the interior,

so as to raise the lamps by a pulley to the required height. One of the

most perfect in France is that at Cellefrouin (Charente), which consists

of a series of eight attached semicircular shafts, raised on a pedestal,

and is crowned with a conical roof decorated with fir cones; it has only

one aperture, towards the main road. Other examples exist at Ciron

(Indre) and Antigny (Vienne).

[Illustration: Lantern of the Dead at Cellefrouin (Charente).]

LANTHANUM [symbol La, atomic weight 139.0 (O = 16)] one of the metals of

the cerium group of rare earths. Its name is derived from the Gr.

[Greek: lanthanein], to lie hidden. It was first isolated in 1839 by C.

G. Mosander from the "cerium" of J. Berzelius. It is found in the

minerals gadolinite, cerite, samarskite and fergusonite, and is usually

obtained from cerite. For details of the complex process for the

separation of the lanthanum salts from cerite, see R. Bunsen (_Pogg.

Ann._, 1875, 155, p. 377); P. T. Cleve (_Bull. de la soc. chim._, 1874,

21, p. 196); and A. v. Welsbach (_Monats. f. Chem._, 1884, 5, p. 508).

The metal was obtained by Mosander on heating its chloride with

potassium, and by W. F. Hillebrand and T. Norton (_Pogg. Ann._, 1875,

156, p. 466) on electrolysis of the fused chloride, while C. Winkler

(_Ber._, 1890, 23, p. 78) prepared it by heating the oxide with a

mixture of magnesium and magnesia. Muthmann and Weiss (_Ann._, 1904,

331, p. 1) obtained it by electrolysing the anhydrous chloride. It may

be readily hammered, but cannot be drawn. Its specific gravity is

6.1545, and it melts at 810°. It decomposes cold water slowly, but hot

water violently. It burns in air, and also in chlorine and bromine, and

is readily oxidized by nitric acid.

_Lanthanum oxide_, La2O3, is a white powder obtained by burning the

metal in oxygen, or by ignition of the carbonate, nitrate or sulphate.

It combines with water with evolution of heat, and on heating with

magnesium powder in an atmosphere of hydrogen forms a hydride of

probable composition La2H3 (C. Winkler, _Ber._ 1891, 24, p. 890).

_Lanthanum hydroxide_, La(OH)3, is a white amorphous powder formed by

precipitating lanthanum salts by potassium hydroxide. It decomposes

ammonium salts. _Lanthanum chloride_, LaCl3, is obtained in the

anhydrous condition by heating lanthanum ammonium chloride or,

according to C. Matignon (_Compt. rend._, 1905, 40, p. 1181), by the

action of chlorine or hydrochloric acid on the residue obtained by

evaporating the oxide with hydrochloric acid. It forms a deliquescent

crystalline mass. By evaporation of a solution of lanthanum oxide in

hydrochloric acid to the consistency of a syrup, and allowing the

solution to stand, large colourless crystals of a hydrated chloride of

the composition 2LaCl3·15H2O are obtained. _Lanthanum sulphide_,

La2S3, is a yellow powder, obtained when the oxide is heated in the

vapour of carbon bisulphide. It is decomposed by water, with evolution

of sulphuretted hydrogen. _Lanthanum sulphate_, La2(SO4)3·9H2O, forms

six-sided prisms, isomorphous with those of the corresponding cerium

salt. By careful heating it may be made to yield the anhydrous salt.

_Lanthanum nitrate_, La(NO3)3·6H2O, is obtained by dissolving the

oxide in nitric acid. It crystallizes in plates, and is soluble in

water and alcohol. _Lanthanum carbide_, LaC2, is prepared by heating

the oxide with carbon in the electric furnace (H. Moissan, _Compt.

rend._, 1896, 123, p. 148). It is decomposed by water with the

formation of acetylene, methane, ethylene, &c. _Lanthanum carbonate_,

La2CO3·8H2O, occurs as the rare mineral lanthanite, forming

greyish-white, pink or yellowish rhombic prisms. The atomic weight of

lanthanum has been determined by B. Brauner (_Proc. Chem. Soc._, 1901,

17, p. 63) by ignition of lanthanum sulphate at 500° C., the value

obtained being 139 (O = 16).

LANUVIUM (more frequently _Lanivium_ in imperial times, mod. _Civita

Lavinia_), an ancient city of Latium, some 19 m. S.E. of Rome, a little

S.W. of the Via Appia. It was situated on an isolated hill projecting S.

from the main mass of the Alban Hills, and commanding an extensive view

over the low country between it and the sea. It was one of the members

of the Latin League, and remained independent until conquered by Rome in

338 B.C. At first it did not enjoy the right of Roman citizenship, but

acquired it later; and even in imperial times its chief magistrate and

municipal council kept the titles of _dictator_ and _senatus_

respectively. It was especially famous for its rich and much venerated

temple of Juno Sospes, from which Octavian borrowed money in 31 B.C.,

and the possessions of which extended as far as the sea-coast (T. Ashby

in _Mélanges de l'école française_, 1905, 203). It possessed many other

temples, repaired by Antoninus Pius, who was born close by, as was also

Commodus. Remains of the ancient theatre and of the city walls exist in

the modern village, and above it is an area surrounded by a portico, in

_opus reticulatum_, upon the north side of which is a rectangular

building in _opus quadratum_, probably connected with the temple of

Juno. Here archaic decorative terra-cottas were discovered in

excavations carried on by Lord Savile. The acropolis of the primitive

city was probably on the highest point above the temple to the north.

The neighbourhood, which is now covered with vineyards, contains remains

of many Roman villas, one of which is traditionally attributed to

Antoninus Pius.