LANZA, DOMENICO GIOVANNI GIUSEPPE MARIA (1810-1882), Italian politician,
was born at Casale, Piedmont, on the 15th of February 1810. He studied
medicine at Turin, and practised for some years in his native place. He
was one of the promoters of the agrarian association in Turin, and took
an active part in the rising of 1848. He was elected to the Piedmontese
parliament in that year, and attached himself to the party of Cavour,
devoting his attention chiefly to questions of economy and finance. He
became minister of public instruction in 1855 in the cabinet of Cavour,
and in 1858 minister of finance. He followed Cavour into his temporary
retirement in July 1859 after the peace of Villafranca, and for a year
(1860-1861) was president of the Chamber. He was minister of the
interior (1864-1865) in the La Marmora cabinet, and arranged the
transference of the capital to Florence. He maintained a resolute
opposition to the financial policy of Menabrea, who resigned when Lanza
was a second time elected, in 1869, president of the Chamber. Lanza
formed a new cabinet in which he was himself minister of the interior.
With Quintino Sella as minister of finance he sought to reorganize
Italian finance, and resigned office when Sella's projects were rejected
in 1873. His cabinet had seen the accomplishment of Italian unity and
the installation of an Italian government in Rome. He died in Rome on
the 9th of March 1882.
See Enrico Tavallini, _La Vita ed i tempi di Giovanni Lanza_ (2 vols.,
Turin and Naples, 1887).
LANZAROTE, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming part of the Spanish
archipelago of the Canary Islands (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 17,546; area,
326 sq. m. Lanzarote, the most easterly of the Canaries, has a length of
31 m. and a breadth varying from 5 to 10 m. It is naked and mountainous,
bearing everywhere marks of its volcanic origin. Montaña Blanca, the
highest point (2000 ft.), is cultivated to the summit. In 1730 the
appearance of half the island was altered by a volcanic outburst. A
violent earthquake preceded the catastrophe, by which nine villages
were destroyed. In 1825 another volcanic eruption took place accompanied
by earthquakes, and two hills were thrown up. The port of Naos on the
south-east of the island affords safe anchorage. It is protected by two
forts. A short distance inland is the town of Arrecife (pop. 3082). The
climate is hot and dry. There is only a single spring of fresh water on
the island, and that in a position difficult of access. From the total
failure of water the inhabitants were once compelled to abandon the
island. Dromedaries are used as beasts of burden. Teguise (pop. 3786),
on the north-west coast, is the residence of the local authorities. A
strait about 6 m. in width separates Lanzarote from Fuerteventura.
Graciosa, a small uninhabited island, is divided from the north-eastern
extremity of Lanzarote by a channel 1 m. in width, which affords a
capacious and safe harbour for large ships; but basaltic cliffs, 1500
ft. high, prevent intercourse with the inhabited part of Lanzarote. A
few persons reside on the little island Allegranza, a mass of lava and
cinders ejected at various times from a now extinct volcano, the crater
of which has still a well-defined edge.
LANZI, LUIGI (1732-1810), Italian archaeologist, was born in 1732 and
educated as a priest. In 1773 he was appointed keeper of the galleries
of Florence, and thereafter studied Italian painting and Etruscan
antiquities and language. In the one field his labours are represented
by his _Storia Pittorica della Italia_, the first portion of which,
containing the Florentine, Sienese, Roman and Neapolitan schools,
appeared in 1792, the rest in 1796. The work is translated by Roscoe. In
archaeology his great achievement was _Saggio di lingua Etrusca_ (1789),
followed by _Saggio delle lingue Ital. antiche_ (1806). In his memoir on
the so-called Etruscan vases (_Dei vasi antichi dipinti volgarmente
chiamati Etruschi_, 1806) Lanzi rightly perceived their Greek origin and
characters. What was true of the antiquities would be true also, he
argued, of the Etruscan language, and the object of the _Saggio di
lingua Etrusca_ was to prove that this language must be related to that
of the neighbouring peoples--Romans, Umbrians, Oscans and Greeks. He was
allied with E. Q. Visconti in his great but never accomplished plan of
illustrating antiquity altogether from existing literature and
monuments. His notices of ancient sculpture and its various styles
appeared as an appendix to the _Saggio di lingua Etrusca_, and arose out
of his minute study of the treasures then added to the Florentine
collection from the Villa Medici. The abuse he met with from later
writers on the Etruscan language led Corssen (_Sprache der Etrusker_, i.
p. vi.) to protest in the name of his real services to philology and
archaeology. Among his other productions was an edition of Hesiod's
_Works and Days_, with valuable notes, and a translation in _terza
rima_. Begun in 1785, it was recast and completed in 1808. The list of
his works closes with his _Opere sacre_, a series of treatises on
spiritual subjects. Lanzi died on the 30th of March 1810. He was buried
in the church of the Santa Croce at Florence by the side of
Michelangelo.
LAOAG, a town, port for coasting vessels, and capital of the province of
Ilocos Norte, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Laoag river, about 5 m.
from its mouth, and in the N.W. part of the island. Pop. (1903) 34,454;
in 1903, after the census had been taken, the municipality of San
Nicolás (pop. 1903, 10,880) was added to Laoag. Laoag is on an extensive
coast plain, behind which is a picturesque range of hills; it is well
built and is noted for its fine climate, the name "Laoag" signifying
"clear." It is especially well equipped for handling rice, which is
shipped in large quantities; Indian corn, tobacco and sugar are also
shipped. Cotton is grown in the vicinity, and is woven by the women into
fabrics, which find a ready sale among the pagan tribes of the
mountains. The language is Ilocano.
LAOCOON, in Greek legend a brother of Anchises, who had been a priest of
Apollo, but having profaned the temple of the god he and his two sons
were attacked by serpents while preparing to sacrifice a bull at the
altar of Poseidon, in whose service Laocoon was then acting as priest.
An additional motive for his punishment consisted in his having warned
the Trojans against the wooden horse left by the Greeks. But, whatever
his crime may have been, the punishment stands out even among the
tragedies of Greek legend as marked by its horror--particularly so as it
comes to us in Virgil (_Aeneid_, ii. 199 sq.), and as it is represented
in the marble group, the Laocoon, in the Vatican. In the oldest existing
version of the legend--that of Arctinus of Miletus, which has so far
been preserved in the excerpts of Proclus--the calamity is lessened by
the fact that only one of the two sons is killed; and this, as has been
pointed out (_Arch. Zeitung_, 1879, p. 167), agrees with the
interpretation which Goethe in his _Propylaea_ had put on the marble
group without reference to the literary tradition. He says: "The younger
son struggles and is powerless, and is alarmed; the father struggles
ineffectively, indeed his efforts only increase the opposition; the
elder son is least of all injured, he feels neither anguish nor pain,
but he is horrified at what he sees happening to his father, and he
screams while he pushes the coils of the serpent off from his legs. He
is thus an observer, witness, and participant in the incident, and the
work is then complete." Again, "the gradation of the incident is this:
the father has become powerless among the coils of the serpent; the
younger son has still strength for resistance but is wounded; the elder
has a prospect of escape." Lessing, on the other hand, maintained the
view that the marble group illustrated the version of the legend given
by Virgil, with such differences as were necessary from the different
limits of representation imposed on the arts of sculpture and of poetry.
These limits required a new definition, and this he undertook in his
still famous work, _Laokoon_ (see the edition of Hugo Blümner, Berlin,
1876, in which the subsequent criticism is collected). The date of the
Laocoon being now fixed (see AGESANDER) to 40-20 B.C., there can be no
question of copying Virgil. The group represents the extreme of a
pathetic tendency in sculpture (see GREEK ART, Plate I. fig. 52).
LAODICEA, the name of at least eight cities, founded or renovated in the
later Hellenic period. Most of them were founded by the Seleucid kings
of Syria. Seleucus, founder of the dynasty, is said by Appian to have
named five cities after his mother Laodice. Thus in the immense realm of
the Seleucidae from the Aegean Sea to the borders of India we find
cities called Laodicea, as also Seleucia (q.v.). So long as Greek
civilization held its ground, these were the commercial and social
centres. The chief are Laodicea _ad Lycum_ (see below); _Combusta_ on
the borders of Phrygia, Lycaonia and Pisidia; a third in Pontus; a
fourth, _ad mare_, on the coast of Syria; a fifth, _ad Libanum_, beside
the Lebanon mountains; and three others in the far east--Media, Persia
and the lower Tigris valley. In the latter countries Greek civilization
was short-lived, and the last three cities disappeared; the other five
continued great throughout the Greek and Roman period, and the second,
third and fourth retain to the present day the ancient name under the
pronunciation Ladik, Ladikiyeh or Latakia (q.v.).
LAODICEA AD LYCUM (mod. _Denizli_, q.v.) was founded probably by
Antiochus II. Theos (261-46 B.C.), and named after his wife Laodice. Its
site is close to the station of Gonjeli on the Anatolian railway. Here
was one of the oldest homes of Christianity and the seat of one of the
seven churches of the Apocalypse. Pliny states (v. 29) that the town was
called in older times Diospolis and Rhoas; but at an early period
Colossae, a few miles to the east, and Hierapolis, 6 m. to the north,
were the great cities of the neighbourhood, and Laodicea was of no
importance till the Seleucid foundation (Strabo, p. 578). A favourable
site was found on some low hills of alluvial formation, about 2 m. S. of
the river Lycus (Churuk Su) and 9 m. E. of the confluence of the Lycus
and Maeander. The great trade route from the Euphrates and the interior
passed to it through Apamea. There it forked, one branch going down the
Maeander valley to Magnesia and thence north to Ephesus, a distance of
about 90 m., and the other branch crossing the mountains by an easy pass
to Philadelphia and the Hermus valley, Sardis, Thyatira and at last
Pergamum. St Paul (Col. iv. 15) alludes to the situation of Laodicea
beside Colossae and Hierapolis; and the order in which the last five
churches of the Apocalypse are enumerated (Rev. i. 11) is explained by
their position on the road just described. Placed in this situation, in
the centre of a very fertile district, Laodicea became a rich city. It
was famous for its money transactions (Cic. _Ad Fam._ ii. 17, iii. 5),
and for the beautiful soft wool grown by the sheep of the country
(Strabo 578). Both points are referred to in the message to the church
(Rev. iii. 17, 18).
Little is known of the history of the town. It suffered greatly from a
siege in the Mithradatic war, but soon recovered its prosperity under
the Roman empire. The Zeus of Laodicea, with the curious epithet Azeus
or Azeis, is a frequent symbol on the city coins. He is represented
standing, holding in the extended right hand an eagle, in the left a
spear, the _hasta pura_. Not far from the city was the temple of Men
Karou, with a great medical school; while Laodicea itself produced
some famous Sceptic philosophers, and gave origin to the royal family
of Polemon and Zenon, whose curious history has been illustrated in
recent times (W. H. Waddington, _Mélanges de Numism._ ser. ii.; Th.
Mommsen, _Ephem. Epigraph._ i. and ii.; M. G. Rayet, _Milet et le
Golfe Latmique_, chap. v.). The city fell finally into decay in the
frontier wars with the Turkish invaders. Its ruins are of wide extent,
but not of great beauty or interest; there is no doubt, however, that
much has been buried beneath the surface by the frequent earthquakes
to which the district is exposed (Strabo 580; Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 27).
See W. M. Ramsay, _Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia_, i.-ii. (1895);
_Letters to the Seven Churches_ (1904); and the beautiful drawings of
Cockerell in the _Antiquities of Ionia_, vol. iii. pl. 47-51.
(A. H. S.)
LAODICEA, SYNOD OF, held at Laodicea ad Lycum in Phrygia, some time
between 343 and 381 (so Hefele; but Baronius argues for 314, and others
for a date as late as 399), adopted sixty canons, chiefly disciplinary,
which were declared ecumenical by the council of Chalcedon, 451. The
most significant canons are those directly affecting the clergy, wherein
the clergy appear as a privileged class, far above the laity, but with
sharply differentiated and carefully graded orders within itself. For
example, the priests are not to be chosen by the people; penitents are
not to be present at ordinations (lest they should hear the failings of
candidates discussed); bishops are to be appointed by the metropolitan
and his suffragan; sub-deacons may not distribute the elements of the
Eucharist; clerics are forbidden to leave a diocese without the bishop's
permission. Other canons treat of intercourse with heretics, admission
of penitent heretics, baptism, fasts, Lent, angel-worship (forbidden as
idolatrous) and the canonical books, from which the Apocrypha and
Revelation are wanting.
See Mansi ii. 563-614; Hardouin i. 777-792; Hefele, 2nd ed., i.
746-777 (Eng. trans. ii. 295-325). (T. F. C.)
LAOMEDON, in Greek legend, son of Ilus, king of Troy and father of
Podarces (Priam). The gods Apollo and Poseidon served him for hire,
Apollo tending his herds, while Poseidon built the walls of Troy. When
Laomedon refused to pay the reward agreed upon, Apollo visited the land
with a pestilence, and Poseidon sent up a monster from the sea, which
ravaged the land. According to the oracle, the wrath of Poseidon could
only be appeased by the sacrifice of one of the king's daughters. The
lot fell upon Hesione, who was chained to a rock to await the monster's
coming. Heracles, on his way back from the land of the Amazons, offered
to slay the monster and release Hesione, on condition that he should
receive the wonderful horses presented by Zeus to Tros, the father of
Ganymede, to console him for the loss of his son. Again Laomedon broke
his word; whereupon Heracles returned with a band of warriors, attacked
Troy, and slew Laomedon and all his sons except Priam. According to
Diodorus Siculus, Laomedon aggravated his offence by imprisoning
Iphiclus and Telamon, who had been sent by Heracles to demand the
surrender of the horses. Laomedon was buried near the Scaean gate, and
it was said that so long as his grave remained undisturbed, so long
would the walls of Troy remain impregnable.
See Homer, _Iliad_, v. 265, 640, vii. 452, xxi. 443; Apollodorus ii.
5. 9 and 6. 4; Diod. Sic. iv. 32, 42, 49; Hyginus, _Fab._ 89; Horace,
_Odes_ iii. 3, 22; Ovid, _Metam._ xi. 194.
LAON, a town of northern France, capital of the department of Aisne, 87
m. N.E. of Paris on the Northern railway. Pop. (1906), town, 9787,
commune (including troops) 15,288. It is situated on an isolated ridge,
forming two sides of a triangle, which rises some 330 ft. above the
surrounding plain and the little river of Ardon. The suburbs of St
Marcel and Vaux extend along the foot of the ridge to the north. From
the railway station, situated in the plain to the north, a straight
staircase of several hundred steps leads to the gate of the town, and
all the roads connecting Laon with the surrounding district are cut in
zigzags on the steep slopes, which are crowned by promenades on the site
of the old ramparts. The 13th-century gates of Ardon, Chenizelles and
Soissons, the latter in a state of ruin, have been preserved. At the
eastern extremity of the ridge rises the citadel; at its apex is the
parade-ground of St Martin, and at the southern end stands the ancient
abbey of St Vincent. The deep depression between the arms of the ridge,
known as the Cuve St Vincent, has its slopes covered with trees,
vegetable gardens and vineyards. From the promenade along the line of
the ramparts there is an extensive view northward beyond St Quentin,
westward to the forest of St Gobain, and southward over the wooded hills
of the Laonnais and Soissonnais.
The cathedral of Laon (see ARCHITECTURE, Romanesque and Gothic
Architecture in France) is one of the most important creations of the
art of the 12th and 13th centuries. It took the place of the old
cathedral, burned at the beginning of the communal struggles mentioned
below. The building is cruciform, and the choir terminates in a straight
wall instead of in an apse. Of the six towers flanking the façades, only
four are complete to the height of the base of the spires, two at the
west front with huge figures of oxen beneath the arcades of their upper
portion, and one at each end of the transept. A square central tower
forms a lantern within the church. The west front, with three porches,
the centre one surmounted by a fine rose window, ranks next to that of
Notre-Dame at Paris in purity. The cathedral has stained glass of the
13th century and a choir grille of the 18th century. The chapter-house
and the cloister contain beautiful specimens of the architecture of the
beginning of the 13th century. The old episcopal palace, contiguous to
the cathedral, is now used as a court-house. The front, flanked by
turrets, is pierced by great pointed windows. There is also a Gothic
cloister and an old chapel of two storeys, of a date anterior to the
cathedral. The church of St Martin dates from the middle of the 12th
century. The old abbey buildings of the same foundation are now used as
the hospital. The museum of Laon had collections of sculpture and
painting. In its garden there is a chapel of the Templars belonging to
the 12th century. The church of the suburb of Vaux near the railway
station dates from the 11th and 12th centuries. Numerous cellars of two
or three storeys have taken the place of the old quarries in the
hill-side. Laon forms with La Fère and Reims a triangle of important
fortresses. Its fortifications consist of an inner line of works on the
eminence of Laon itself, and two groups of detached forts, one some 2½
m. S.E. about the village of Bruyères, the other about 3 m. W.S.W., near
Laniscourt. To the S.S.W. forts Malmaison and Condé connect Laon with
the Aisne and with Reims.
Laon is the seat of a prefect and a court of assizes, and possesses a
tribunal of first instance, a lycée for boys, a college for girls, a
school of agriculture and training colleges. Sugar-making and
metal-founding are carried on, but neither industry nor trade, which is
in grain and wine, are of much importance.
The hilly district of Laon (Laudunum) has always had some strategic
importance. In the time of Caesar there was a Gallic village where the
Remi (inhabitants of the country round Reims) had to meet the onset of
the confederated Belgae. Whatever may have been the precise locality
of that battlefield, Laon was fortified by the Romans, and
successively checked the invasions of the Franks, Burgundians,
Vandals, Alani and Huns. St Remigius, the archbishop of Reims who
baptized Clovis, was born in the Laonnais, and it was he who, at the
end of the 5th century, instituted the bishopric of the town.
Thenceforward Laon was one of the principal towns of the kingdom of
the Franks, and the possession of it was often disputed. Charles the
Bald had enriched its church with the gift of very numerous domains.
After the fall of the Carolingians Laon took the part of Charles of
Lorraine, their heir, and Hugh Capet only succeeded in making himself
master of the town by the connivance of the bishop, who, in return
for this service, was made second ecclesiastical peer of the kingdom.
Early in the 12th century the communes of France set about
emancipating themselves, and the history of the commune of Laon is one
of the richest and most varied. The citizens had profited by a
temporary absence of Bishop Gaudry to secure from his representatives
a communal charter, but he, on his return, purchased from the king of
France the revocation of this document, and recommenced his
oppressions. The consequence was a revolt, in which the episcopal
palace was burnt and the bishop and several of his partisans were put
to death. The fire spread to the cathedral, and reduced it to ashes.
Uneasy at the result of their victory, the rioters went into hiding
outside the town, which was anew pillaged by the people of the
neighbourhood, eager to avenge the death of their bishop. The king
alternately interfered in favour of the bishop and of the inhabitants
till 1239. After that date the liberties of Laon were no more
contested till 1331, when the commune was abolished. During the
Hundred Years' War it was attacked and taken by the Burgundians, who
gave it up to the English, to be retaken by the French after the
consecration of Charles VII. Under the League Laon took the part of
the Leaguers, and was taken by Henry IV. During the campaign of 1814
Napoleon tried in vain to dislodge Blücher from it. In 1870 an
engineer blew up the powder magazine of the citadel at the moment when
the German troops were entering the town. Many lives were lost; and
the cathedral and the old episcopal palace were damaged. At the
Revolution Laon permanently lost its rank as a bishopric.
LAOS, a territory of French Indo-China, bounded N. by the Chinese
province of Yun-nan, W. by the British Shan states and Siam, S. by
Cambodia and Annam, E. by Annam and N.E. by Tongking. Northern Laos is
traversed by the Mekong (q.v.) which from Chieng-Khan to a point below
Stung-Treng forms the boundary between Laos (on the left bank) and Siam
and Cambodia (on the right). French Laos constitutes a strip of
territory between 700 and 800 m. in length with an average breadth of
155 m., an approximate area of 88,780 sq. m., and a population of about
550,000. Its northern region between the Mekong and Tongking is covered
by a tangle of mountain chains clothed with dense forests and traversed
by the Nam-Hou, the Nam-Ta and other tributaries of the Mekong. The
culminating point exceeds 6500 ft. in height. South of this is the
extensive wooded plateau of Tran-Ninh with an average altitude of
between 3000 and 5000 ft. Towards the 18th degree of latitude this
mountain system narrows into a range running parallel to and closely
approaching the coast of the China Sea as it descends south. The
boundary between Laos and Annam follows the crest-line of this range,
several peaks of which exceed 6500 ft. (Pu-Atwat, over 8000 ft.). On the
west its ramifications extend to the Mekong enclosing wide plains
watered by the affluents of that river.
Laos is inhabited by a mixed population falling into three main
groups--the Thais (including the Laotions (see below)); various
aboriginal peoples classed as Khas; and the inhabitants of neighbouring
countries, e.g. China, Annam, Cambodia, Siam, Burma, &c.
Laos has a rainy season lasting from June to October and corresponding
to the S.W. monsoon and a dry season coinciding with the N.E. monsoon
and lasting from November to May. Both in northern and southern Laos the
heat during April and May is excessive, the thermometer reaching 104° F.
and averaging 95° F. With the beginning of the rains the heat becomes
more tolerable. December, January and February are cool months, the
temperature in south Laos (south of 19°) averaging 77°, in north Laos
from 50° to 53°. The plateau of Tran-Ninh and, in the south, that of the
Bolovens are distinguished by the wholesomeness of their climate.
The forests contain bamboo and many valuable woods amongst which only
the teak of north Laos and rattan are exploited to any extent; other
forest products are rubber, stick lac, gum, benjamin, cardamoms, &c.
Rice and maize, and cotton, indigo, tobacco, sugar-cane and cardamoms
are among the cultivated plants. Elephants are numerous and the forests
are inhabited by tigers, panthers, bears, deer and buffalo. Hunting and
fishing are leading occupations of the inhabitants. Many species of
monkeys, as well as peacocks, pheasants and woodcock are found, and the
reptiles include crocodiles, turtles, pythons and cobras.
Scarcity of labour and difficulty of communication hinder the working
of the gold, tin, copper, argentiferous lead, precious stones and other
minerals of the country and the industries in general are of a primitive
kind and satisfy only local needs.
The buffalo, the ox, the horse and the elephant are domesticated, and
these together with cardamoms, rice, tobacco and the products of the
forests form the bulk of the exports. Swine are reared, their flesh
forming an important article of diet. Imports are inconsiderable,
comprising chiefly cotton fabrics, garments and articles for domestic
use. Trade is chiefly in the hands of the Chinese and is carried on for
the most part with Siam. The Mekong is the chief artery of transit;
elsewhere communication is afforded by tracks sometimes passable only
for pedestrians. Luang-Prabang (q.v.) is the principal commercial
town. Before the French occupation of Laos, it was split up into small
principalities (_muongs_) of which the chief was that of Vien-Tiane.
Vien-Tiane was destroyed in 1828 by the Siamese who annexed the
territory. In 1893 they made it over to the French, who grouped the
_muongs_ into provinces. Of these there are twelve each administered by
a French commissioner and, under his surveillance, by native officials
elected by the people from amongst the members of an hereditary
nobility. At the head of the administration there is a resident-superior
stationed at Savannaket. Up till 1896 Laos had no special budget, but
was administered by Cochin-China, Annam and Tongking. The budget for
1899 showed receipts £78,988 and expenditure £77,417. For 1904 the
budget figures were, receipts £82,942, expenditure £76,344. The chief
sources of revenue are the direct taxes (£15,606 in 1904), especially
the poll-tax, and the contribution from the general budget of Indo-China
(£54,090 in 1904). The chief items of expenditure in 1904 were
Government house, &c., £22,558, transport, £19,191, native guard,
£17,327.
See M. J. F. Garnier, _Voyage d'exploration en Indo-Chine_ (Paris,
1873); C. Gosselin, _Le Laos et le protectorat français_ (Paris,
1900); L. de Reinach, _Le Laos_ (Paris, 1902) and _Notes sur le Laos_
(Paris, 1906); and bibliography under INDO-CHINA, FRENCH.
LAOS, or LAOTIONS, an important division of the widespread Thai or Shan
race found throughout Indo-China from 28° N. and the sources of the
Irrawaddy as far as Cambodia and 7° N. in the Malay Peninsula. This Thai
family includes the Shans proper, and the Siamese. The name Lao, which
appears to mean simply "man," is the collective Siamese term for all the
Thai peoples subject to Siam, while Shan, said to be of Chinese origin,
is the collective Burmese term for those subject to Burma. Lao is
therefore rather a political than an ethnical title, and the people
cordially dislike the name, insisting on their right to be called Thai.
Owing to the different circumstances which have attended their
migrations, the Thai peoples have attained to varying degrees of
civilization. The Lao, who descended from the mountain districts of
Yunnan, Szechuen and Kweichow to the highland plains of upper
Indo-China, and drove the wilder Kha peoples whom they found in
possession into the hills, mostly adopted Buddhism, and formed small
settled communities or states in which laws were easy, taxes light and a
very fair degree of comfort was attained. There are two main divisions,
the Lao Pong Dam ("Black Paunch Laos"), so-called from their habit of
tattooing the body from the waist to the knees, and the Lao Pong Kao
("White Paunch Laos") who do not tattoo. Lao tattooing is of a most
elaborate kind. The Lao Pong Dam now form the western branch of the Lao
family, inhabiting the Siamese Lao states of Chieng Mai Lapaun, 'Tern
Pre and Nan, and reaching as far south as 17° N. Various influences have
contributed to making the Lao the pleasant, easy-going, idle fellow that
he is. The result is that practically all the trade of these states is
in the hands of Bangkok Chinese firms, of a certain number of European
houses and others, while most of the manual labour connected with the
teak industry is done by Ka Mus, who migrate in large numbers from the
left bank of the Mekong. The Lao Pong Kao, or eastern branch, appear to
have migrated southwards by the more easterly route of the Nam-u and the
Mekong valley. In contradistinction to the Lao Pong Dam, who have
derived their written language from the Burmese character, the eastern
race has retained what appears to be the early form of the present
Siamese writing, from which it differs little. They formed important
settlements at various points on the Mekong, notably Luang Prabang,
Wieng Chan (Vien-Tiane) Ubon and Bassac; and, heading inland as far as
Korat on the one side and the Annamite watershed in the east, they drove
out the less civilized Kha peoples, and even the Cambodians, as the Lao
Pong Dam did on the west. Vien-Tiane during the 18th century was the
most powerful of the Lao principalities, and was feared and respected
throughout Indo-China. It was destroyed by the Siamese in 1828. The
inhabitants, in accordance with the Indo-Chinese custom of the day, were
transported to Lower Siam. The Lao Pong Kao below 18° N. are a less
merry and less vivacious people, and are for the most part shorter and
more thick-set than those of Luang Prabang and the north. If possible,
they are as a race lazier than the western Lao, as they are certainly
more musical. The "khen," or mouth organ, which is universal among them,
is the sweetest-toned of eastern instruments.
After 1828 the Laos became entirely subject to Siam, and were governed
partly by khiao, or native hereditary princes, partly by mandarins
directly nominated by the Bangkok authorities. The khiao were invested
by a gold dish, betel-box, spittoon and teapot, which were sent from
Bangkok and returned at their death or deposition. Of all the khiao the
most powerful was the prince of Ubon (15° N., 105° E.), whose
jurisdiction extended nearly from Bassac on the Mekong northwards to the
great southern bend of that river. Nearly all the Laos country is now
divided between France and Siam, and only a few tribes retain a nominal
independence.
The many contradictory accounts of the Laos are due to the fact that the
race has become much mixed with the aboriginal inhabitants. The
half-castes sprung from alliances with the wild tribes of Caucasic stock
present every variety between that type and the Mongolian. But the pure
Laos are still distinguished by the high cheek-bones, small flat nose,
oblique eyes, wide mouth, black lank hair, sparse beard, and yellow
complexion of the Thai and other branches of the Mongol family. In
disposition the Laos are an apathetic, peace-loving, pleasant-mannered
race. Though the women have to work, they are free and well treated, and
polygamy is rare. The Laos are very superstitious, believe in
wer-wolves, and that all diseases are caused by evil spirits. Their
chief food is rice and fish. Men, women and children all smoke tobacco.
The civilized Laos were long addicted to slave-hunting, not only with
the sanction but even with the co-operation of their rulers, the Lao
mandarins heading regular expeditions against the wilder tribes.
Closely allied with the Lao are a number of tribes found throughout
the hill regions of the upper Mekong, between Yunnan and Kwangsi in
China and the upper waters of the Menam in Siam. They have all within
recent times been partakers in the general movement towards the
south-west from the highland districts of southern China, which has
produced so many recruits for the peopling of the Indo-Chinese
peninsula. Of this group of people, among whom may be named the Yao,
Yao Yin, Lanten, Meo, Musur (or Muhso) and Kaw, perhaps the best known
and most like the Lao are the Lu--both names meaning originally
"man"--who have in many cases adopted a form of Buddhism (flavoured
strongly by their natural respect for local spirits as well as
tattooing) and other relatively civilized customs, and have forsaken
their wandering life among the hills for a more settled village
existence. Hardy, simple and industrious, fond of music, kind-hearted,
and with a strangely artistic taste in dress, these people possess in
a wonderful degree the secret of cheerful contentment.
AUTHORITIES.--M. J. F. Garnier, _Voyage d'exploration en Indo-Chine_;
A. H. Mouhot, _Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China, Cambodia
and Laos_ (1864); Holt S. Hallett, _A Thousand Miles on an Elephant in
the Shan States_ (1890); A. R. Colquhoun, _Amongst the Shâns_ (1885);
Lord Lamington, _Proc. R.G.S._ vol. xiii. No. 12; Archer, _Report on a
Journey in the Mekong Valley_; Prince Henri d'Orléans, _Around Tonkin
and Siam_ (1894); M'Carthy, _Report on a Survey in Siam_ (1894);
Bulletins, Paris Geographical Society: H. Warington Smyth, _Notes of a
Journey on the Upper Mekong_ (1895); _Five Years in Siam_ (1898);
Harmand, _Le Laos et les populations sauvages de l'Indo-Chine_ (1880).
See also bibliography to preceding article.
LÂO-TSZE, or LAOU-TSZE, the designation of the Chinese author of the
celebrated treatise called _Tâo Teh King_, and the reputed founder of
the religion called _Tâoism_. The Chinese characters composing the
designation may mean either "the Old Son," which commonly assumes with
foreigners the form of "the Old Boy," or "the Old Philosopher." The
latter significance is attached to them by Dr Chalmers in his
translation of the treatise published in 1868 under the title of _The
Speculations on Metaphysics, Polity and Morality of "the Old
Philosopher," Lâo-tsze_. The former is derived from a fabulous account
of Lâo-tsze in the _Shan Hsien Chwan_; "The Account of Spirits and
Immortals," of Ko Hung in the 4th century A.D. According to this, his
mother, after a supernatural conception, carried him in her womb
sixty-two years (or seventy-two, or eighty-one--ten years more or fewer
are of little importance in such a case), so that, when he was born at
last, his hair was white as with age, and people might well call him
"the old boy." The other meaning of the designation rests on better
authority. We find it in the _Kiâ Yü_, or "Narratives of the Confucian
School," compiled in the 3rd century A.D. from documents said to have
been preserved among the descendants of Confucius, and also in the brief
history of Lâo-tsze given in the historical records of Sze-ma Ch'ien
(about 100 B.C.). In the latter instance the designation is used by
Confucius, and possibly it originated with him. It should be regarded
more as an epithet of respect than of years, and is equivalent to "the
Venerable Philosopher."
All that Ch'ien tells us about Lâo-tsze goes into small compass. His
surname was Lî, and his name Urh. He was a native of the state of
Ch'û, and was born in a hamlet not far from the present prefectural
city of Kwei-te in Ho-nan province. He was one of the recorders or
historiographers at the court of Chow, his special department being
the charge of the whole or a portion of the royal library. He must
thus have been able to make himself acquainted with the history of his
country. Ch'ien does not mention the year of his birth, which is often
said, though on what Chinese authority does not appear, to have taken
place in the third year of King Phing, corresponding to 604 B.C. That
date cannot be far from the truth. That he was contemporary with
Confucius is established by the concurrent testimony of the _Lî Kî_
and the _Kiâ Yü_ on the Confucian side, and of Chwang-tsze and Sze-ma
Ch'ien on the Tâoist. The two men whose influence has been so great on
all the subsequent generations of the Chinese people--Kung-tsze
(Confucius) and Lâo-tsze--had at least one interview, in 517 B.C.,
when the former was in his thirty-fifth year. The conversation between
them was interesting. Lâo was in a mocking mood; Kung appears to the
greater advantage. If it be true that Confucius, when he was fifty-one
years old, visited Lâo-tsze as Chwang-tsze says (in the _Thien Yun_,
the fourteenth of his treatises), to ask about the _Tâo_, they must
have had more than one interview. Dr Chalmers, however, has pointed
out that both Chwang-tsze and Lieh-tsze (a still earlier Tâoist
writer) produce Confucius in their writings, as the lords of the
Philistines did the captive Samson on their festive occasions, "to
make sport for them." Their testimony is valueless as to any matter of
fact. There may have been several meetings between the two in 517
B.C., but we have no evidence that they were together in the same
place after that time. Ch'ien adds:--"Lâo-tsze cultivated the _Tâo_
and virtue, his chief aim in his studies being how to keep himself
concealed and unknown. He resided at (the capital of) Chow; but after
a long time, seeing the decay of the dynasty, he left it, and went
away to the Gate (leading from the royal domain into the regions
beyond--at the entrance of the pass of Han-kû, in the north-west of
Ho-nan). Yin Hsî, the warden of the Gate, said to him, 'You are about
to withdraw yourself out of sight; I pray you to compose for me a book
(before you go).' On this Lâo-tsze made a writing, setting forth his
views on the _tâo_ and virtue, in two sections, containing more than
5000 characters. He then went away, and it is not known where he
died." The historian then mentions the names of two other men whom
some regarded as the true Lâo-tsze. One of them was a Lâo Lâi, a
contemporary of Confucius, who wrote fifteen treatises (or sections)
on the practices of the school of _Tâo_. Subjoined to the notice of
him is the remark that Lâo-tsze was more than one hundred and sixty
years old, or, as some say, more than two hundred, because by the
cultivation of the _Tâo_ he nourished his longevity. The other was "a
grand historiographer" of Chow, called Tan, one hundred and
twenty-nine (? one hundred and nineteen) years after the death of
Confucius. The introduction of these disjointed notices detracts from
the verisimilitude of the whole narrative in which they occur.
Finally, Ch'ien states that "Lâo-tsze was a superior man, who liked to
keep in obscurity," traces the line of his posterity down to the 2nd
century B.C., and concludes with this important statement:--"Those who
attach themselves to the doctrine of Lâo-tsze condemn that of the
literati, and the literati on their part condemn Lâo-tsze, thus
verifying the saying, 'Parties whose principles are different cannot
take counsel together.' Lî Urh taught that transformation follows, as
a matter of course, the doing nothing (to bring it about), and
rectification ensues in the same way from being pure and still."
Accepting the _Tâo Teh King_ as the veritable work of Lâo-tsze, we may
now examine its contents. Consisting of not more than between five and
six thousand characters, it is but a short treatise--not half the size
of the Gospel of St Mark. The nature of the subject, however, the want
of any progress of thought or of logical connexion between its different
parts, and the condensed style, with the mystic tendencies and poetical
temperament of the author, make its meaning extraordinarily obscure.
Divided at first into two parts, it has subsequently and conveniently
been subdivided into chapters. One of the oldest, and the most common,
of these arrangements makes the chapters eighty-two.
Supposed harmony with Biblical teaching.
Some Roman Catholic missionaries, two centuries ago, fancied that they
found a wonderful harmony between many passages and the teaching of the
Bible. Montucci of Berlin ventured to say in 1808: "Many things about a
Triune God are so clearly expressed that no one who has read this book
can doubt that the mystery of the Holy Trinity was revealed to the
Chinese five centuries before the coming of Jesus Christ." Even Rémusat,
the first occupant of a Chinese chair in Europe, published at Paris in
1823 his _Mémoire sur la vie et les opinions de Lâo-tsze_, to vindicate
the view that the Hebrew name Yahweh was phonetically represented in the
fourteenth chapter by Chinese characters. These fancies were exploded by
Stanislas Julien, when he issued in 1842 his translation of the whole
treatise as _Le Livre de la voie et de la vertu_.
The most important thing is to determine what we are to understand by
the _Tâo_, for _Teh_ is merely its outcome, especially in man, and is
rightly translated by "virtue." Julien translated _Tâo_ by "la voie."
Chalmers leaves it untranslated. "No English word," he says (p. xi.),
"is its exact equivalent. Three terms suggest themselves--the way,
reason and the word; but they are all liable to objection. Were we
guided by etymology, 'the way' would come nearest the original, and in
one or two passages the idea of a way seems to be in the term; but this
is too materialistic to serve the purpose of a translation. 'Reason,'
again, seems to be more like a quality or attribute of some conscious
being than _Tâo_ is. I would translate it by 'the Word,' in the sense of
the Logos, but this would be like settling the question which I wish to
leave open, viz. what resemblance there is between the Logos of the New
Testament and this Chinese Tâo." Later Sinologues in China have employed
"nature" as our best analogue of the term. Thus Watters (_Lâo-tsze, A
Study in Chinese Philosophy_, p. 45) says:--"In the _Tâo Teh King_ the
originator of the universe is referred to under the names Non-Existence,
Existence, Nature (_Tâo_) and various designations--all which, however,
represent one idea in various manifestations. It is in all cases Nature
(_Tâo_) which is meant." This view has been skilfully worked out; but it
only hides the scope of "the Venerable Philosopher." "Nature" cannot be
accepted as a _translation_ of _Tâo_. That character was, primarily, the
symbol of a way, road or path; and then, figuratively, it was used, as
we also use _way_, in the senses of means and method--the _course_ that
we pursue in passing from one thing or concept to another as its end or
result. It is the name of a quality. Sir Robert Douglas has well said
(_Confucianism and Tâoism_, p. 189): "If we were compelled to adopt a
single word to represent the _Tâo_ of Lâo-tsze, we should prefer the
sense in which it is used by Confucius, 'the way,' that is, [Greek:
methodos]."