[1] According to Jusserand, 1398.
LANGLEY, SAMUEL PIERPONT (1834-1906), American physicist and astronomer,
was born at Roxbury, Boston, Massachusetts, on the 22nd of August 1834.
After acting for a short time as assistant in Harvard College
Observatory, he was appointed assistant professor of mathematics in the
U.S. Naval Academy in 1866, and in the following year became director of
the Allegheny Observatory at Pittsburg, a position which he held until
his selection in 1887 as secretary of the Smithsonian Institution at
Washington. His name is especially associated with two main branches of
investigation--aeronautics, and the exploration of the infra-red
portions of the solar spectrum. The study of the latter he took up as a
result of the publication in 1871 of an energy-curve of the spectrum by
S. I. Lamansky. The imperfections of the thermopile, with which he began
his work, led him, about 1880, to the invention of the bolometer, an
instrument of extraordinary delicacy, which in its most refined form is
believed to be capable of detecting a change of temperature amounting to
less than one-hundred-millionth of a degree Centigrade. Depending on the
fact that the electrical conductivity of a metallic conductor is
decreased by heat, it consists of two strips of platinum, arranged to
form the two arms of a Wheatstone bridge; one strip being exposed to a
source of radiation from which the other is shielded, the heat causes a
change in the resistance of one arm, the balance of the bridge is
destroyed, and a deflection is marked on the galvanometer. The platinum
strips are exceedingly minute, being in some cases only 1/250 in. in
width, and less than one-tenth of that amount in thickness. By the aid
of this instrument, Langley, working on Mount Whitney, 12,000 ft. above
sea-level, discovered in 1881 an entirely unsuspected extension of the
invisible infra-red rays, which he called the "new spectrum." The
importance of his achievement may be judged from the fact that, while
the visible spectrum includes rays having wave-lengths of from about 0.4
[mu] to 0.76 [mu], and no invisible heat-rays were known before 1881
having a wave-length greater than 1.8 [mu], he detected rays having a
wave-length of 5.3 [mu]. In addition, taking advantage of the accuracy
with which the bolometer can determine the position of a source of heat
by which it is affected, he mapped out in this infra-red spectrum over
700 dark lines or bands resembling the Fraunhofer lines of the visible
spectrum, with a probable accuracy equal to that of refined astronomical
observations. In aeronautics he succeeded in demonstrating the
practicability of mechanical flight. He first undertook a preliminary
inquiry into the principles upon which flight depends, and established
at Allegheny a huge "whirling table," the revolving arm of which could
be driven by a steam-engine at any circumferential speed up to 70 m. an
hour. The construction of a flying machine was next attempted. The first
difficulty was to make it sufficiently light in relation to the power
its machinery could develop; and several machines were built in which
trials were made of steam, and of compressed air and carbonic acid gas
as motive agents. About 1893 a satisfactory machine was ready, and a
new series of troubles had to be faced, for it had to be launched at a
certain initial speed, and in the face of any wind that might be
blowing. To enable these conditions to be fulfilled, as well as to
ensure that the machine, when it fell, should fall on water, the
experiments were carried out on the Potomac river, some 30 m. below
Washington. It was not till the autumn of 1894 that an efficient
launching apparatus was devised, and then the wings were found not to be
strong enough to bear the pressures to which they were subjected.
Various other delays and mishaps followed, but ultimately, on the 6th of
May 1896, a successful flight was made. On that day an aerodrome,
weighing about 30 lb. and about 16 ft. in length, with wings measuring
between 12 and 13 ft. from tip to tip, twice sustained itself in the air
for 1½ minutes (the full time for which it was supplied with fuel and
water), and traversed on each occasion a distance of over half a mile,
falling gently into the water when the engines stopped. Later in the
same year, on the 28th of November, a similar aerodrome flew about
three-quarters of a mile, attaining a speed of 30 m. an hour. In 1903 he
experimented with an aerodrome capable of carrying a man, but repeated
accidents prevented it from being launched, and finally through lack of
funds the experiments had to be abandoned without the machine ever
having been free in the air (see also FLIGHT AND FLYING). Langley died
on the 27th of February 1906.
LANGLOIS, HIPPOLYTE (1839- ), French general, was born at Besançon in
1839, and, after passing through the École Polytechnique, was appointed
to the artillery as sub-lieutenant in 1858, attaining the rank of
captain in 1866. He served in the army of Metz in the war of 1870. Eight
years later he became major, in 1887 lieutenant-colonel and in 1888
colonel. At this time he was appointed professor of artillery at the
École de Guerre, and in this post he devoted himself to working out the
tactical principles of the employment of field artillery under the new
conditions of armament of which he foresaw the advent. The public result
of his work was the great treatise _L'Artillerie de campagne_
(1891-1892), which may still be regarded as the classic of the arm. In
1894 he became general of brigade, and in 1898 general of division. For
two years after this he was the commandant of the École de Guerre at the
time that the modern French strategical and tactical "doctrine" was
being developed and taught. He was, however, regarded as a leader as
well as a theorist, and in 1901 he was selected to command the XX. Army
Corps on the German frontier, popularly called the "iron" corps. In 1902
he became a member of the Conseil supérieur de la Guerre, consisting of
senior generals marked out for the higher commands in war. He retired
from the active list in 1904 on reaching the age limit, and devoted
himself with the greatest energy to critical military literature. In
1907 he began the publication of a monthly journal of military art and
history, the _Revue militaire générale_. The most important of his other
works are _Enseignements de deux guerres recentes_ and _Conséquences
tactiques du progrès de l'armement_.
LANGPORT, a market town in the eastern parliamentary division of
Somersetshire, England, 13½ m. E. of Taunton by the Great Western
railway. Pop. (1901) 890. It lies on the right (east) bank of the river
Parret, near the point where that river debouches from the hills on to
the plain through which it flows to the Bristol Channel. The main street
leads up a slope from the river to the fine Perpendicular church of All
Saints. Close to this an archway crosses the road, bearing a
Perpendicular building known as the hanging chapel. After serving this
purpose it housed first the grammar-school (founded 1675), then the
Quekett museum, named after John Thomas Quekett (1815-1861) the
histologist, a native of the town, whose father was master of the
school. The hanging chapel afterwards became a masonic hall. Not far
distant is the church of Huish Episcopi, with one of the finest of the
Perpendicular towers for which Somersetshire is noted. Langport has a
considerable general and agricultural trade.
Langport (_Llongborth_, _Langeberga_, _Langeport_) owed its origin to
its defensible position on a hill, and its growth to its facilities
for trade on the chief river of Somerset. It occupies the site of the
British town of Llongborth, and was important during the Roman
occupation. It was a royal borough in Saxon times, and in 1086 had 34
resident burgesses. The first charter, given by Elizabeth in 1562,
recognized that Langport was a borough of great antiquity, which had
enjoyed considerable privileges, being governed by a portreve. It was
incorporated by James I. in 1617, but the corporation was abolished in
1883. Langport was represented in parliament in 1304 and 1306. The
charter of 1562 granted three annual fairs to Langport, on the 28th of
June, the 11th of November and the second Monday in Lent. One fair
only is now held, on the 3rd of September, which is a horse and cattle
fair. A Saturday market was held under the grant of 1562, but in the
19th century the market day was changed to Tuesday.
LANGREO, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo, in very
hilly country, on the left bank of the river Nalon, and on a branch
railway from Oviedo to Labiana. Pop. (1900) 18,714. In the neighbourhood
large quantities of wheat, hemp, fruit and cider are produced; and there
are important coal and iron mines, foundries, and factories for the
manufacture of coarse cloth.
LANGRES, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the
department of Haute-Marne, 22 m. S.S.E. of Chaumont on the eastern
railway to Belfort. Pop. (1906) town, 6663; commune, 9803. Langres
stands at a height of some 1550 ft. on a jutting promontory of the
tableland known as the plateau de Langres, and overlooks eastward and
westward respectively the valleys of the Marne and its tributary the
Bonnelle. From the cathedral tower and the ramparts which surround the
town there is an extensive view over the valley of the Marne, the Vosges
and the Côte d'Or, and in clear weather Mt Blanc (160 m. distant) is
visible. The cathedral of St Mammès, for the most part in the
Transitional style of the 12th century, has a west front in the
Graeco-Roman style of the 18th century and a fine Renaissance chapel.
The church of St Martin (13th, 15th and 18th centuries) possesses a
figure of Christ of the 16th century, one of the finest wood carvings
known. The ramparts are protected by several towers, most of which date
from the 16th century. The Gallo-Roman gate, one of four entrances in
the Roman period, is preserved, but is walled up. The Porte des Moulins
(17th century) is the most interesting of the other gates. The town
possesses a museum rich in Gallo-Roman antiquities, a picture gallery
and an important library. The birth of Denis Diderot here is
commemorated by a statue. Langres is the seat of a bishop and a
sub-prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a
higher ecclesiastical seminary and communal colleges for both sexes. It
manufactures well-known cutlery and grind-stones. Trade is in grain and
other farm-produce, live stock, wine, &c.
Langres, the ancient _Andematunum_, was capital of the _Lingones_. Under
Roman rule it was at first to some extent autonomous, but was reduced to
the rank of colony after the revolt of the chief Sabinus in A.D. 71. The
bishopric was founded about 200 and in the middle ages its holders
became peers of the realm and enjoyed the temporal power in the town. In
301 the Alemanni were defeated at Langres by the Romans, but in the next
century it was burnt by the Vandals and by Attila.
The "plateau of Langres" appears frequently in the military history of
the 18th and 19th centuries as a dominant strategic point, though its
importance as such has appealed chiefly to the advocates of wars of
positions and passive defence. The modern fortifications of Langres,
which serves as a second line fortress, consist of (a) Fort St Menge
or Ligniville on high ground above the confluence of the Marne and the
Neuilly brook, about 5 m. N. by W. of the town; (b) the west front,
comprising Humes battery (2¼ m. N.W. of Langres), Fort de la Pointe de
Diamant, and the redoubts of Perrancey, Le Fays and Noidant (the last
4 m. S.W. of the town), overlooking the deep valley of the Mouche
brook (this front was attacked in the mock siege of August 1907); (c)
the south front, comprising Fort de la Bonnelle or Décrès (2 m. S.S.W.
of the town), a small work commanding the Chalon-Langres road, Le Mont
and Le Pailly batteries, Fort Vercingetorix, the last, 5 m. S.W. of
the place, standing on a steep and narrow spur of the main plateau,
and in second line the old fort de la Marnotte, and the large
bastioned citadel (the town enceinte is "déclassée"); (d) the east
front, marked by Forts Montlandon and Plesnoy at the north and south
ends respectively of a long steep ridge, 6 m. E. of Langres, the
bridges over the Marne leading to these works being commanded by Fort
Peigney, a work about half a mile east of the town; (e) Fort
Dampierre, 8 m. N.E. of the town, which commands all the main
approaches from the north, and completes the circle by crossing its
fire with that of Fort St Menge.
LANGTOFT, PETER (d. c. 1307), English chronicler, took his name from the
village of Langtoft in Yorkshire, and was a canon of the Augustinian
priory in Bridlington. His name is also given as Langetoft and
Langetost. He wrote in French verse a _Chronicle_ dealing with the
history of England from the earliest times to the death of Edward I. in
1307. It consists of three parts and contains about 9000 rhyming verses.
The earlier part of the _Chronicle_ is taken from Geoffrey of Monmouth
and other writers; for the period dealing with the reign of Edward I.
Langtoft is a contemporary and valuable authority, especially for
affairs in the north of England and in Scotland. Langtoft's _Chronicle_
seems to have enjoyed considerable popularity in the north, and the
latter part of it was translated into English by Robert Mannyng,
sometimes called Robert of Brunne, about 1330. It has been edited for
the Rolls Series by T. Wright (1866-1868).
See Wright's preface, and also O. Preussner, _Robert Mannyng of
Brunne's Übersetzung von Pierre de Langtofts Chronicle und ihr
Verhältniss zum Originale_ (Breslau, 1891).
LANGTON, JOHN (d. 1337), chancellor of England and bishop of Chichester,
was a clerk in the royal chancery, and became chancellor in 1292. He
obtained several ecclesiastical appointments, but owing to the
resistance of Pope Boniface VIII. he failed to secure the bishopric of
Ely in 1298, although he was supported by Edward I. and visited Rome to
attain his end. Resigning his office as chancellor in 1302, he was
chosen bishop of Chichester in 1305, and again became chancellor shortly
after the accession of Edward II. in 1307. Langton was one of the
"ordainers" elected in 1310, and it was probably his connexion with this
body that led to his losing the office of chancellor about this time. He
continued, however, to take part in public affairs; mediating between
the king and Earl Thomas of Lancaster in 1318, and attempting to do so
between Edward and his rebellious barons in 1321. He died in June or
July 1337. Langton built the chapterhouse at Chichester, and was a
benefactor of the university of Oxford.
LANGTON, STEPHEN (d. 1228), cardinal and archbishop of Canterbury, was
the son of English parents; but the date and place of his birth are
unknown. Since he became early in his career a prebendary of York, and
since his brother Simon (d. 1248) was elected[1] to that see in 1215, we
may suppose the family to have been of northern extraction. Stephen,
however, migrated to Paris, and having graduated in that university
became one of its most celebrated theologians. This was probably the
time when he composed his voluminous commentaries (many of which still
exist in manuscript) and divided the Bible into chapters. At Paris also
he contracted the friendship with Lothar of Segni, the future Innocent
III., which played so important a part in shaping his career. Upon
becoming pope, Innocent summoned Langton to Rome, and in 1206 designated
him as cardinal-priest of S. Chrysogonus. Immediately afterwards Langton
was drawn into the vortex of English politics.
Archbishop Hubert Walter had died in 1205, and the election of his
successor had raised thorny questions. The suffragans of Canterbury
claimed a share in choosing the new primate, although that right had
been exclusively reserved to the monks of Canterbury by a papal
privilege; and John supported the bishops since they were prepared to
give their votes for his candidate, John de Gray, bishop of Norwich. A
party of the younger monks, to evade the double pressure of the king and
bishops, secretly elected their sub-prior Reginald and sent him to Rome
for confirmation. The plot leaked out; the rest of the monks were
induced to elect John de Gray, and he too was despatched to Rome. After
hearing the case Innocent declared both elections void; and with John's
consent ordered that a new election should be made in his presence by
the representatives of the monks. The latter, having confessed that they
had given John a secret pledge to elect none but the bishop of Norwich,
were released from the promise by Innocent; and at his suggestion
elected Stephen Langton, who was consecrated by the pope on the 17th of
June 1207. On hearing the news the king banished the monks of Canterbury
and lodged a protest with the pope, in which he threatened to prevent
any English appeals from being brought to Rome. Innocent replied by
laying England under an interdict (March 1208), and excommunicating the
king (November 1209). As John still remained obstinate, the pope at
length invited the French king Philip Augustus to enter England and
depose him. It was this threat which forced John to sue for a
reconciliation; and the first condition exacted was that he should
acknowledge Langton as archbishop. During these years Langton had been
residing at Pontigny, formerly the refuge of Becket. He had addressed to
the English people a dignified protest against the king's conduct, and
had at last pressed the pope to take extreme measures. But he had
consistently adopted towards John as conciliatory an attitude as his
duty to the church would allow, and had more than once entered upon
negotiations for a peaceful compromise. Immediately after entering
England (July 1213) he showed his desire for peace by absolving the
king. But, unlike the pope, he gave ear to the popular cry for redress
of political grievances; and persisted in associating with the baronial
opposition, even after he was ordered by Innocent to excommunicate them
as disturbers of the peace. Langton encouraged the barons to formulate
their demands, and is said to have suggested that they should take their
stand upon the charter of Henry I. It is uncertain what further share he
took in drafting Magna Carta. At Runnymede he appeared as a commissioner
on the king's side, and his influence must therefore be sought in those
clauses of the Charter which differ from the original petitions of the
barons. Of these the most striking is that which confirms the
"liberties" of the church; and this is chiefly remarkable for its
moderation.
Soon after the issue of the charter the archbishop left England to
attend the Fourth Lateran Council. At the moment of his departure he was
suspended by the representatives of Innocent for not enforcing the papal
censures against the barons. Innocent confirmed the sentence, which
remained in force for two years. During this time the archbishop resided
at Rome. He was allowed to return in 1218, after the deaths of Innocent
and John. From that date till his death he was a tower of strength to
the royal party. Through his influence Pandulf was recalled to Rome
(1221) and Honorius III. promised that no legate should be sent to
reside in England during the archbishop's lifetime. In 1222, in a synod
held at Oseney, he promulgated a set of Constitutions still recognized
as forming a part of the law of the English Church. Beyond this little
is recorded of his latter years. He died on the 9th of July 1228, and
was buried in Canterbury Cathedral, where his tomb, unless tradition
errs, may still be seen.
The authorities are mainly those for the reign of John. No
contemporary biography has come down to us. Some letters, by Langton
and others, relating to the quarrel over his election are preserved in
a Canterbury Chronicle (ed. W. Stubbs in the "Rolls" edition of
_Gervase of Canterbury_, vol. ii.). There are many references to him
in the correspondence of Innocent III. (Migne's _Patrologia Latina_,
vols. ccxiv.-ccxvii.). Of modern works see F. Hurter, _Geschichte
Papst Innocenz III._ (Hamburg, 1841-1844); W. F. Hook, _Lives of the
Archbishops of Canterbury_ (London, 1860-1876), and W. Stubbs's
preface to the second volume of _Walter of Coventry_ ("Rolls" ed.),
which devotes special attention to Langton. The MSS. of Langton's
writings are noticed in J. Bale's _Index Britanniae scriptorum_ (ed.
R. L. Poole, 1902); his Constitutions are printed in D. Wilkin's
_Concilia_, vol. ii. (London, 1737). (H. W. C. D.)
Another English prelate who bore the name of Langton was THOMAS
LANGTON, bishop of Winchester, chaplain to Edward IV. In 1483 he was
chosen bishop of St Davids; in 1485 he was made bishop of Salisbury
and provost of Queen's College, Oxford, and he became bishop of
Winchester in 1493. In 1501 he was elected archbishop of Canterbury,
but he died on the 27th of January 1501, before his election had been
confirmed.