FOOTNOTE:

[1] John Landseer died February 29, 1852, aged ninety-one (or

eighty-three, according to Cosmo Monkhouse). Sir Edwin's eldest

brother Thomas, an A.R.A. and a famous engraver, whose

interpretations of his junior's pictures have made them known

throughout the world, was born in 1795, and died January 20, 1880.

Charles Landseer, R.A., and Keeper of the Royal Academy, the second

brother, was born in 1799, and died July 22, 1879. John Landseer's

brother Henry was a painter of some reputation, who emigrated to

Australia.

LAND'S END, a promontory of Cornwall, forming the western most point of

England. It is a fine headland of granite, pierced by a natural arch, on

a coast renowned for its cliff scenery. Dangerous reefs lie off the

point, and one group a mile from the mainland is marked by the Longships

Lighthouse, in 50° 4´ N. 5° 43´ W. The Land's End is the westernmost of

the granite masses which rise at intervals through Cornwall from

Dartmoor. The phenomenon of a raised beach may be seen here, but

indications of a submerged forest have also been discovered in the

neighbourhood.

LANDSHUT, a town in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the right bank of the

Isar, 40 m. N.E. of Munich on the main line of railway to Regensburg.

Pop. (1905) 24,217. Landshut is still a quaint, picturesque place; it

consists of an old and a new town and of four suburbs, one part of it

lying on an island in the Isar. It contains a fine street, the Altstadt,

and several interesting medieval buildings. Among its eleven churches

the most noteworthy are those of St Martin, with a tower 432 ft. high,

of St Jodocus, and of the Holy Ghost, or the Hospital church, all three

begun before 1410. The former Dominican convent, founded in 1271, once

the seat of the university, is now used as public offices. The

post-office, formerly the meeting-house of the Estates, a building

adorned with old frescoes; the royal palace, which contains some very

fine Renaissance work; and the town-hall, built in 1446 and restored in

1860, are also noteworthy. The town has monuments to the Bavarian king,

Maximilian II., and to other famous men; it contains a botanical garden

and a public park. On a hill overlooking Landshut is the castle of

Trausnitz, called also Burg Landshut, formerly a stronghold of the dukes

of Lower Bavaria, whose burial-place was at Seligenthal also near the

town. The original building was erected early in the 13th century, but

the chapel, the oldest part now existing, dates from the 14th century.

The upper part of the castle has been made habitable. The industries of

Landshut are not important; they include brewing, tanning and spinning,

and the manufacture of tobacco and cloth. Market gardening and an

extensive trade in grain are also carried on.

Landshut was founded about 1204, and from 1255 to 1503 it was the

principal residence of the dukes of Lower Bavaria and of their

successors, the dukes of Bavaria-Landshut. During the Thirty Years' War

it was captured several times by the Swedes and in the 18th century by

the Austrians. In April 1809 Napoleon defeated the Austrians here and

the town was stormed by his troops. From 1800 to 1826 the university,

formerly at Ingolstadt and now at Munich, was located at Landshut. Owing

to the three helmets which form its arms the town is sometimes called

"Dreihelm Stadt."

See Staudenraus, _Chronik der Stadt Landshut_, (Landshut 1832);

Wiesend, _Topographische Geschichte von Landshut_ (Landshut, 1858);

Rosenthal, _Zur Rechtsgeschichte der Städte Landshut und Straubing_

(Würzberg, 1883); Kalcher, _Führer durch Landshut_ (Landshut, 1887);

Haack, _Die gotische Architektur und Plastik der Stadt Landshut_

(Munich, 1894); and _Geschichte der Stadt Landshut_ (Landshut, 1835).

LANDSKNECHT, a German mercenary foot-soldier of the 16th century. The

name (German for "man of the plains") was given to mark the contrast

between the force of these soldiers, formed by the emperor Maximilian

I. about the end of the 15th century, and the Swiss, the "men of the

mountains," at that time the typical mercenary infantry of Europe. After

the battles of Marignan and Pavia, where the military reputation of the

Swiss had been broken, the Swabian _landsknechte_ came to be considered

the best fighting troops in Europe. Though primarily a German force and

always the mainstay of imperial armies, they served in organized bodies

as mercenaries elsewhere in Europe; in France they fought for the League

and for the Protestants indiscriminately. In fact _landsknecht_, and

more particularly its French corruption _lansquenet_, became in western

Europe a general term for mercenary foot-soldiers. It is owing to the

_lange Spiesse_ (long pike or lance), the typical weapon with which they

were armed, that the corrupted French form, as well as a German form,

_lanzknecht_, and an English "lance-knight" came into use.

The landsknechts were raised by colonels (_Oberst_), to whom the emperor

issued recruiting commissions corresponding to the English "indents";

they were organized in regiments made up of a colonel, lieut.-colonel

and regimental staff, with a varying number of companies, "colours"

(_Fähnlein_), commanded by captains (_Hauptmann_); subaltern officers

were lieutenants and ensigns (_Fähnrich_). In thus defining the titles

and duties of each rank, and in almost every detail of regimental

customs and organization, discipline and interior economy, the

landsknechts may be considered as the founders of the modern military

system on a regimental basis (see further ARMY).

LANDSKRONA, a seaport of Sweden, on the east side of the Sound, 15 m.

N.E. of Copenhagen. Pop. (1900) 14,399. The harbour is excellent, giving

a depth of 35 ft., with 15 ft. beside the quays. The town is among the

first twelve manufacturing centres of Sweden in value of output, the

principal industries being tanning and sugar manufacture and refining

from beetroot. On the little island of Hven, immediately opposite the

town, Tycho Brahe built his famous subterranean observatory of

Uranienborg in the second half of the 16th century. Landskrona,

originally called Landora or Landör, owed its first importance to King

Erik XIII., who introduced a body of Carmelite monks from Germany in

1410, and bestowed on the place the privileges of a town. During the

wars of the 16th and 17th centuries it played too conspicuous a part for

its own prosperity. On the 24th of July 1677 a great naval battle was

fought in the neighbourhood in which the Swedes defeated the Danes.

LANDSTURM, the German equivalent of the _levée en masse_, or general

levy of all men capable of bearing arms and not included in the other

regularly organized forces, standing army or its second line formations,

of Continental nations.

LANDWEHR, a German word meaning "defence of the country"; but the term

as applied to an insurrectional militia is very ancient, and "lantveri"

are mentioned in _Baluzii Capitularia_, as quoted in Hallam's _Middle

Ages_, i. 262, 10th ed. The landwehr in Prussia was first formed by a

royal edict of the 17th of March 1813, which called up all men capable

of bearing arms between the ages of eighteen and forty-five, and not

serving in the regular army, for the defence of the country. After the

peace of 1815 this force was made an integral part of the Prussian army,

each brigade being composed of one line and one landwehr regiment. This,

however, retarded the mobilization and diminished the value of the first

line, and by the re-organization of 1859 the landwehr troops were

relegated to the second line. In Austria the landwehr is a totally

different organization. It is in reality a _cadre_ force existing

alongside the regular army, and to it are handed over such recruits as,

for want of vacancies, cannot be placed in the latter. In Switzerland

the landwehr is a second line force, in which all citizens serve for

twelve years, after passing twelve in the "Auszug" or field army.

LANE, EDWARD WILLIAM (1801-1876), English Arabic scholar, son of Dr

Theophilus Lane, prebendary of Hereford, was born on the 17th of

September 1801. He was educated at Bath and Hereford grammar schools,

where he showed marked mathematical ability, and was designed for

Cambridge and the church, but this purpose was abandoned, and for some

time he studied the art of engraving. Failure of health compelled him to

throw aside the burin, and in 1825 he started for Egypt, where he spent

three years, twice ascended the Nile, proceeding as far as the second

cataract, and composed a complete description of Egypt, with a portfolio

of one hundred and one drawings. This work was never published, but the

account of the modern Egyptians, which formed a part of it, was accepted

for separate publication by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful

Knowledge. To perfect this work Lane again visited Egypt in 1833-1835,

residing mainly in Cairo, but retiring to Luxor during the plague of

1835. Lane took up his residence in the Mahommedan quarter, and under

the name of Mansur Effendi lived the life of an Egyptian scholar. He was

fortunate in the time when he took up his work, for Cairo had not then

become a modern city, and he was thus able to describe aspects of

Arabian life that no longer exist there. Perfected by the additional

observations collected during these years, the _Modern Egyptians_

appeared in 1836, and at once took the place which it has never lost as

the best description of Eastern life and an Eastern country ever

written. It was followed from 1838 to 1840 by a translation of the

_Arabian Nights_, with notes and illustrations, designed to make the

book a sort of encyclopaedia of Eastern manners. The translation itself

is an admirable proof of scholarship, but is characterized by a somewhat

stilted mannerism, which is not equally appropriate to all parts of the

motley-coloured original. The character of some of the tales and the

tedious repetitions of the same theme in the Arabic collection induced

Lane to leave considerable parts of the work untranslated. The value of

his version is increased by the exhaustive notes on Mahommedan life and

customs. In 1840 Lane married a Greek lady. A useful volume of

_Selections from the Kur-an_ was published in 1843, but before it passed

through the press Lane was again in Egypt, where he spent seven years

(1842-1849) collecting materials for a great Arabic lexicon, which the

munificence of Lord Prudhoe (afterwards duke of Northumberland) enabled

him to undertake. The most important of the materials amassed during

this sojourn (in which he was accompanied by his wife and by his sister,

Mrs Poole, authoress of the _Englishwoman in Egypt_, with her two sons,

afterwards well known in Eastern letters) was a copy in 24 thick quarto

volumes of Sheikh Murtada's great lexicon, the _Taj el 'Arus_, which,

though itself a compilation, is so extensive and exact that it formed

the main basis of Lane's subsequent work. The author, who lived in Egypt

in the 18th century, used more than a hundred sources, interweaving what

he learned from them with the _al-Qamus_ of Fairuzabadi in the form of a

commentary. By far the larger part of this commentary was derived from

the _Lisan el 'Arab_ of Ibn Mokarram, a work of the 13th century, which

Lane was also able to use while in Cairo.

Returning to England in 1849, Lane devoted the remaining twenty-seven

years of his life to digesting and translating his Arabic material in

the form of a great thesaurus of the lexicographical knowledge of the

Arabs. In spite of weak health he continued this arduous task with

unflagging diligence till a few days before his death at Worthing on the

10th of August 1876. Five parts appeared during his lifetime

(1863-1874), and three posthumous parts were afterwards edited from his

papers by S. Lane-Poole. Even in its imperfect state the _Lexicon_ is an

enduring monument, the completeness and finished scholarship with which

it is executed making each article an exhaustive monograph. Two essays,

the one on Arabic lexicography and the other on Arabic pronunciation,

contributed to the magazine of the German Oriental Society, complete the

record of Lane's publications. His scholarship was recognized by many

learned European societies. He was a member of the German Oriental

Society, a correspondent of the French Institute, &c. In 1863 he was

awarded a small civil list pension, which was after his death continued

to his widow. Lane was not an original mind; his powers were those of

observation, industry and sound judgment. His personal character was

elevated and pure, his strong sense of religious and moral duty being of

the type that characterized the best circles of English evangelicalism

in the early part of the 19th century.

A Memoir, by his grand-nephew, S. Lane-Poole, was prefixed to part vi.

of the _Lexicon_. It was published separately in 1877.

LANE, GEORGE MARTIN (1823-1897), American scholar, was born at

Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 24th of December 1823. He graduated

in 1846 at Harvard, and in 1847-1851 studied at the universities of

Berlin, Bonn, Heidelberg and Göttingen. In 1851 he received his doctor's

degree at Göttingen for his dissertation _Smyrnaeorum Res Gestae et

Antiquitates_, and on his return to America he was appointed University

Professor of Latin in Harvard College. From 1869 until 1894, when he

resigned and became professor emeritus, he was Pope Professor of Latin

in the same institution. His _Latin Pronunciation_, which led to the

rejection of the English method of Latin pronunciation in the United

States, was published in 1871. He died on the 30th of June 1897. His

_Latin Grammar_, completed and published by Professor M. H. Morgan in

the following year, is of high value. Lane's assistance in the

preparation of Harper's Latin lexicons was also invaluable. English

light verse he wrote with humour and fluency, and his song _Jonah_ and

the _Ballad of the Lone Fishball_ were famous.

LANE, JAMES HENRY (1814-1866), American soldier and politician, was born

at Lawrenceburg, Indiana, on the 22nd of June 1814. He was the son of

Amos Lane (1778-1849), a political leader in Indiana, a member of the

Indiana House of Representatives in 1816-1818 (speaker in 1817-1818), in

1821-1822 and in 1839-1840, and from 1833 to 1837 a Democratic

representative in Congress. The son received a common school education,

studied law and in 1840 was admitted to the bar. In the Mexican War he

served as a colonel under General Taylor, and then commanded the Fifth

Indiana regiment (which he had raised) in the Southern Campaign under

General Scott. Lane was lieutenant-governor of Indiana from 1849 to

1853, and from 1853 to 1855 was a Democratic representative in Congress.

His vote in favour of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill ruined his political

future in his own state, and he emigrated in 1855 to the Territory of

Kansas, probably as an agent of Stephen A. Douglas to organize the

Democratic party there. He soon joined the Free State forces, however,

was a member of the first general Free State convention at Big Springs

in September 1855, and wrote its "platform," which deprecated

abolitionism and urged the exclusion of negroes from the Territory; and

he presided over the Topeka Constitutional Convention, composed of Free

State men, in the autumn of 1855. Lane was second in command of the

forces in Lawrence during the "Wakarusa War"; and in the spring of 1856

was elected a United States senator under the Topeka Constitution, the

validity of which, however, and therefore the validity of his election,

Congress refused to recognize. In May 1856, with George Washington

Deitzler (1826-1884), Dr Charles Robinson, and other Free State leaders,

he was indicted for treason; but he escaped from Kansas, made a tour of

the northern cities, and by his fiery oratory aroused great enthusiasm

in behalf of the Free State movement in Kansas. Returning to the

Territory with John Brown in August 1856, he took an active part in the

domestic feuds of 1856-1857. After Kansas became a state, Lane was

elected in 1861 to the United States Senate as a Republican. Immediately

on reaching Washington he organized a company to guard the President;

and in August 1861, having gained the ear of the Federal authorities and

become intimate with President Lincoln, he went to Kansas with vague

military powers, and exercised them in spite of the protests of the

governor and the regular departmental commanders. During the autumn,

with a brigade of 1500 men, he conducted a devastating campaign on the

Missouri border, and in July 1862 he was appointed commissioner of

recruiting for Kansas, a position in which he rendered faithful service,

though he frequently came into conflict with the state authorities. At

this time he planned a chimerical "great Southern expedition" against

New Mexico, but this came to nothing. In 1864 he laboured earnestly for

the re-election of Lincoln. When President Johnson quarrelled with the

Radical Republicans, Lane deserted the latter and defended the

Executive. Angered by his defection, certain senators accused him of

being implicated in Indian contracts of a fraudulent character; and in a

fit of depression following this accusation he took his own life, dying

near Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, on the 11th of July 1866, ten days after

he had shot himself in the head. Ambitious, unscrupulous, rash and

impulsive, and generally regarded by his contemporaries as an unsafe

leader, Lane was a man of great energy and personal magnetism, and

possessed oratorical powers of a high order.

See the article by L. W. Spring entitled "The Career of a Kansas

Politician," in vol. iv. (October 1898) of the _American Historical

Review_; and for the commoner view, which makes him not a coward as

does Spring, but a "grim chieftain" and a hero, see John Speer, _Life

of Gen. James H. Lane_, "_The Saviour of Kansas_," (Garden City,

Kansas, 1896).

Senator Lane should not be confused with James Henry Lane (1833-1907),

who served on the Confederate side during the Civil War, attaining the

rank of brigadier-general in 1862, and after the war was professor of

natural philosophy and military tactics in the Virginia Agricultural

and Mechanical College from 1872 to 1880, and professor of civil

engineering and drawing in the Alabama Polytechnic Institute from 1882

until his death.

LANESSAN, JEAN MARIE ANTOINE DE (1843- ), French statesman and

naturalist, was born at Sainte-André de Cubzac (Gironde) on the 13th of

July 1843. He entered the navy in 1862, serving on the East African and

Cochin-China stations in the medical department until the Franco-German

War, when he resigned and volunteered for the army medical service. He

now completed his studies, taking his doctorate in 1872. Elected to the

Municipal Council of Paris in 1879, he declared in favour of communal

autonomy and joined with Henri Rochefort in demanding the erection of a

monument to the Communards; but after his election to the Chamber of

Deputies for the 5th arrondissement of Paris in 1881 he gradually veered

from the extreme Radical party to the Republican Union, and identified

himself with the cause of colonial expansion. A government mission to

the French colonies in 1886-1887, in connexion with the approaching

Paris exhibition, gave him the opportunity of studying colonial

questions, on which, after his return, he published three works: _La

Tunisie_ (Paris, 1887); _L'Expansion coloniale de la France_ (_ib._,

1888), _L'Indo-Chine française_ (_ib._, 1889). In 1891 he was made civil

and military governor of French Indo-China, where his administration,

which involved him in open rupture with Admiral Fournier, was severely

criticized. Nevertheless he consolidated French influence in Annam and

Cambodia, and secured a large accession of territory on the Mekong river

from the kingdom of Siam. He was recalled in 1894, and published an

apology for his administration (_La Colonisation française en

Indo-Chine_) in the following year. In the Waldeck-Rousseau cabinet of

1899 to 1902 he was minister of marine, and in 1901 he secured the

passage of a naval programme intended to raise the French navy during

the next six years to a level befitting the place of France among the

great powers. At the general election of 1906 he was not re-elected. He

was political director of the _Siècle_, and president of the French

Colonization Society, and wrote, besides the books already mentioned,

various works on political and biological questions.

LANFRANC (d. 1089), archbishop of Canterbury, was a Lombard by

extraction. He was born in the early years of the 11th century at Pavia,

where his father, Hanbald, held the rank of a magistrate. Lanfranc was

trained in the legal studies for which northern Italy was then becoming

famous, and acquired such proficiency that tradition links him with

Irnerius of Bologna as a pioneer in the renaissance of Roman law. Though

designed for a public career Lanfranc had the tastes of a student. After

his father's death he crossed the Alps to found a school in France; but

in a short while he decided that Normandy would afford him a better

field. About 1039 he became the master of the cathedral school at

Avranches, where he taught for three years with conspicuous success. But

in 1042 he embraced the monastic profession in the newly founded house

of Bec. Until 1045 he lived at Bec in absolute seclusion. He was then

persuaded by Abbot Herluin to open a school in the monastery. From the

first he was celebrated (_totius Latinitatis magister_). His pupils were

drawn not only from France and Normandy, but also from Gascony,

Flanders, Germany and Italy. Many of them afterwards attained high

positions in the Church; one, Anselm of Badagio, became pope under the

title of Alexander II. In this way Lanfranc set the seal of intellectual

activity on the reform movement of which Bec was the centre. The

favourite subjects of his lectures were logic and dogmatic theology. He

was therefore naturally invited to defend the doctrine of

transubstantiation against the attacks of Berengar of Tours. He took up

the task with the greatest zeal, although Berengar had been his personal

friend; he was the protagonist of orthodoxy at the councils of Vercelli

(1050), Tours (1054) and Rome (1059). To his influence we may attribute

the desertion of Berengar's cause by Hildebrand and the more

broad-minded of the cardinals. Our knowledge of Lanfranc's polemics is

chiefly derived from the tract _De corpore et sanguine Domini_ which he

wrote many years later (after 1079) when Berengar had been finally

condemned. Though betraying no signs of metaphysical ability, his work

was regarded as conclusive and became a text-book in the schools. It is

the most important of the works attributed to Lanfranc; which,

considering his reputation, are slight and disappointing.

In the midst of his scholastic and controversial activities Lanfranc

became a political force. While merely a prior of Bec he led the

opposition to the uncanonical marriage of Duke William with Matilda of

Flanders (1053) and carried matters so far that he incurred a sentence

of exile. But the quarrel was settled when he was on the point of

departure, and he undertook the difficult task of obtaining the pope's

approval of the marriage. In this he was successful at the same council

which witnessed his third victory over Berengar (1059), and he thus

acquired a lasting claim on William's gratitude. In 1066 he became the

first abbot of St Stephen's at Caen, a house which the duke had been

enjoined to found as a penance for his disobedience to the Holy See.

Henceforward Lanfranc exercised a perceptible influence on his master's

policy. William adopted the Cluniac programme of ecclesiastical reform,

and obtained the support of Rome for his English expedition by assuming

the attitude of a crusader against schism and corruption. It was

Alexander II., the former pupil of Lanfranc, who gave the Norman

Conquest the papal benediction--a notable advantage to William at the

moment, but subsequently the cause of serious embarrassments.

Naturally, when the see of Rouen next fell vacant (1067), the thoughts

of the electors turned to Lanfranc. But he declined the honour, and he

was nominated to the English primacy as soon as Stigand had been

canonically deposed (1070). The new archbishop at once began a policy of

reorganization and reform. His first difficulties were with Thomas of

Bayeux, archbishop-elect of York, who asserted that his see was

independent of Canterbury and claimed jurisdiction over the greater part

of midland England. Lanfranc, during a visit which he paid the pope for

the purpose of receiving his pallium, obtained an order from Alexander

that the disputed points should be settled by a council of the English

Church. This was held at Winchester in 1072. Thanks to a skilful use of

forged documents, the primate carried the council's verdict upon every

point. Even if he were not the author of the forgeries he can scarcely

have been the dupe of his own partisans. But the political dangers to be

apprehended from the disruption of the English Church were sufficiently

serious to palliate the fraud. This was not the only occasion on which

Lanfranc allowed his judgment to be warped by considerations of

expediency. Although the school of Bec was firmly attached to the

doctrine of papal sovereignty, he still assisted William in maintaining

the independence of the English Church; and appears at one time to have

favoured the idea of maintaining a neutral attitude on the subject of

the quarrels between papacy and empire. In the domestic affairs of

England the archbishop showed more spiritual zeal. His grand aim was to

extricate the Church from the fetters of the state and of secular

interests. He was a generous patron of monasticism. He endeavoured to

enforce celibacy upon the secular clergy. He obtained the king's

permission to deal with the affairs of the Church in synods which met

apart from the Great Council, and were exclusively composed of

ecclesiastics. Nor can we doubt that it was his influence which shaped

the famous ordinance separating the ecclesiastical from the secular

courts (_c._ 1076). But even in such questions he allowed some weight to

political considerations and the wishes of his sovereign. He

acknowledged the royal right to veto the legislation of national synods.

In the cases of Odo of Bayeux (1082) and of William of St Calais, bishop

of Durham (1088), he used his legal ingenuity to justify the trial of

bishops before a lay tribunal. He accelerated the process of

substituting Normans for Englishmen in all preferments of importance;

and although his nominees were usually respectable, it cannot be said

that all of them were better than the men whom they superseded. For this

admixture of secular with spiritual aims there was considerable excuse.

By long tradition the primate was entitled to a leading position in the

king's councils; and the interests of the Church demanded that Lanfranc

should use his power in a manner not displeasing to the king. On several

occasions when William I. was absent from England Lanfranc acted as his

vicegerent; he then had opportunities of realizing the close connexion

between religious and secular affairs.

Lanfranc's greatest political service to the Conqueror was rendered in

1075, when he detected and foiled the conspiracy which had been formed

by the earls of Norfolk and Hereford. But this was not the only occasion

on which he turned to good account his influence with the native

English. Although he regarded them as an inferior race he was just and

honourable towards their leaders. He interceded for Waltheof's life and

to the last spoke of the earl as an innocent sufferer for the crimes of

others; he lived on terms of friendship with Bishop Wulfstan. On the

death of the Conqueror (1087) he secured the succession for William

Rufus, in spite of the discontent of the Anglo-Norman baronage; and in

1088 his exhortations induced the English militia to fight on the side

of the new sovereign against Odo of Bayeux and the other partisans of

Duke Robert. He exacted promises of just government from Rufus, and was

not afraid to remonstrate when the promises were disregarded. So long as

he lived he was a check upon the worst propensities of the king's

administration. But his restraining hand was too soon removed. In 1089

he was stricken with fever and he died on the 24th of May amidst

universal lamentations. Notwithstanding some obvious moral and

intellectual defects, he was the most eminent and the most disinterested

of those who had co-operated with William I. in riveting Norman rule

upon the English Church and people. As a statesman he did something to

uphold the traditional ideal of his office; as a primate he elevated the

standards of clerical discipline and education. Conceived in the

Hildebrandine spirit, his reforms led by a natural sequence to strained

relations between Church and State; the equilibrium which he established

was unstable, and depended too much upon his personal influence with the

Conqueror. But of all the Hildebrandine statesmen who applied their

teacher's ideas within the sphere of a particular national church he was

the most successful.

The chief authority is the _Vita Lanfranci_ by Milo Crispin, who was

precentor at Bec and died in 1149. Milo drew largely upon the _Vita

Herluini_, composed by Gilbert Crispin, abbot of Westminster. The

_Chronicon Beccensis abbatiae_, a 14th-century compilation, should

also be consulted. The first edition of these two sources, and of

Lanfranc's writings, is that of L. d'Achery, _Beati Lanfranci opera

omnia_ (Paris, 1648). Another edition, slightly enlarged, is that of

J. A. Giles, _Lanfranci opera_ (2 vols., Oxford, 1844). The

correspondence between Lanfranc and Gregory VII. is given in the

_Monumenta Gregoriana_ (ed. P. Jaffé, Berlin, 1865). Of modern works

A. Charma's _Lanfranc_ (Paris, 1849), H. Boehmer's _Die Fälschungen

Erzbischof Lanfranks von Canterbury_ (Leipzig, 1902), and the same

author's _Kirche und Staat in England und in der Normandie_ (Leipzig,

1899) are useful. See also the authorities cited in the articles on

WILLIAM I. and WILLIAM II. (H. W. C. D.)

LANFREY, PIERRE (1828-1877), French historian and politician, was born

at Chambéry (Savoie) on the 26th of October 1828. His father had been

one of Napoleon's officers. The son studied philosophy and history in

Paris and wrote historical works of an anti-clerical and rationalizing

tendency. These included _L'Église et les philosophes au XVIII^e siècle_

(1855; new edition, with a notice of the author by E. de Pressensé,

1879); _Essai sur la révolution française_ (1858); _Histoire politique

des papes_ (1860); _Lettres d Evérard_ (1860), a novel in the form of

letters; _Le Rétablissement de la Pologne_ (1863). His _magnum opus_ was

his _Histoire de Napoléon I^(er)_ (5 vols., 1867-1875 and 1886; Eng.

trans., 4 vols., 1871-1879), which ceased unfortunately at the end of

1811 with the preparations for the Russian campaign of 1812. This book,

based on the emperor's correspondence published in 1858-1870, attempted

the destruction of the legends which had grown up around his subject,

and sought by a critical examination of the documents to explain the

motives of his policy. In his desire to controvert current

misconceptions and exaggerations of Napoleon's abilities Lanfrey unduly

minimized his military and administrative genius. A stanch republican,

he was elected to the National Assembly in 1871, became ambassador at

Bern (1871-1873), and life senator in 1875. He died at Pau on the 15th

of November 1877.

His _Oeuvres complètes_ were published in 12 vols. (1879 seq.), and

his _Correspondance_ in 2 vols. (1885).

LANG, ANDREW (1844- ), British man of letters, was born on the 31st of

March 1844, at Selkirk, Scotland. He was educated at the Edinburgh

Academy, St Andrews University and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he

took a first class in the final classical schools in 1868, becoming a

fellow and subsequently honorary fellow of Merton College. As a

journalist, poet, critic and historian, he soon made a reputation as one

of the ablest and most versatile writers of the day. His first

publication was a volume of metrical experiments, _The Ballads and

Lyrics of Old France_ (1872), and this was followed at intervals by

other volumes of dainty verse, _xxii._ _Ballades in Blue China_ (1880,

enlarged edition, 1888), _Ballads and Verses Vain_ (1884), selected by

Mr Austin Dobson; _Rhymes à la Mode_ (1884), _Grass of Parnassus_

(1888), _Ban and Arrière Ban_ (1894), _New Collected Rhymes_ (1905). He

collaborated with S. H. Butcher in a prose translation (1879) of the

_Odyssey_, and with E. Myers and Walter Leaf in a prose version (1883)

of the _Iliad_, both of them remarkable for accurate scholarship and

excellence of style. As a Homeric scholar, of conservative views, he

took a high rank. His _Homer and the Epic_ appeared in 1893; a new prose

translation of _The Homeric Hymns_ in 1899, with essays literary and

mythological, in which parallels to the Greek myths are given from the

traditions of savage races; and his _Homer and his Age_ in 1906. His

purely journalistic activity was from the first of a varied description,

ranging from sparkling "leaders" for the _Daily News_ to miscellaneous

articles for the _Morning Post_, and for many years he was literary

editor of _Longman's Magazine_; no critic was in more request, whether

for occasional articles and introductions to new editions or as editor

of dainty reprints. To the study of Scottish history Mr Lang brought a

scholarly care for detail, a piquant literary style, and a gift for

disentangling complicated questions. The _Mystery of Mary Stuart_ (1901,

new and revised ed., 1904) was a consideration of the fresh light thrown

on Mary's history by the Lennox MSS. in the University library,

Cambridge, strengthening her case by restating the perfidy of her

accusers. He also wrote monographs on _The Portraits and Jewels of Mary

Stuart_ (1906) and _James VI. and the Gowrie Mystery_ (1902). The

somewhat unfavourable view of John Knox presented in his book _John Knox

and the Reformation_ (1905) aroused considerable controversy. He gave

new information about the continental career of the Young Pretender in

_Pickle the Spy_ (1897), an account of Alastair Ruadh Macdonell, whom he

identified with Pickle, a notorious Hanoverian spy. This was followed in

1898 by _The Companions of Pickle_, and in 1900 by a monograph on

_Prince Charles Edward_. In 1900 he began a _History of Scotland from

the Roman Occupation_, the fourth volume of which (1907) brought

Scottish history down to 1746. _The Valet's Tragedy_ (1903), which takes

its title from an essay on the "Man with the Iron Mask," (see IRON

MASK), collects twelve papers on historical mysteries, and _A Monk of

Fife_ (1896) is a fictitious narrative purporting to be written by a

young Scot in France in 1429-1431. Mr Lang's versatility was also shown

in his valuable works on folk-lore and on primitive religion. The

earliest of these works was _Custom and Myth_ (1884); in _Myth,

Literature and Religion_ (2 vols., 1887, French trans., 1896) he

explained the irrational elements of mythology as survivals from earlier

savagery; in _The Making of Religion_ (an idealization of savage

animism) he maintained the existence of high spiritual ideas among

savage races, and instituted comparisons between savage practices and

the occult phenomena among civilized races; he dealt with the origins of

totemism (q.v.) in _Social Origins_, printed (1903) together with J.

J. Atkinson's _Primal Law_. He was one of the founders of the study of

"Psychical Research," and his other writings on anthropology include

_The Book of Dreams and Ghosts_ (1897), _Magic and Religion_ (1901) and

_The Secret of the Totem_ (1905). He carried the humour and sub-acidity

of discrimination which marked his criticism of fellow folk-lorists into

the discussion of purely literary subjects in his _Books and Bookmen_

(1886), _Letters to Dead Authors_ (1886), _Letters on Literature_

(1889), &c. His _Blue Fairy Tale Book_ (1889), beautifully produced and

illustrated, was followed annually at Christmas by a book of fairy tales

and romances drawn from many sources. He edited _The Poems and Songs of

Robert Burns_ (1896), and was responsible for the _Life and Letters_

(1897) of J. G. Lockhart, and _The Life, Letters and Diaries_ (1890) of

Sir Stafford Northcote, first earl of Iddesleigh.

LANG, KARL HEINRICH, RITTER VON (1764-1835), German historian, was born

on the 7th of June 1764 at Balgheim, near Nördlingen. From the first he

was greatly attracted towards historical studies, and this was shown

when he began to attend the gymnasium of Oettingen, and in 1782, when he

went to the university of Altdorf, near Nuremberg. At the same time he

studied jurisprudence, and in 1782 became a government clerk at

Oettingen. About the same period began his activities as a journalist

and publicist. But Lang did not long remain an official. He was of a

restless, changeable character, which constantly involved him in

personal quarrels, though he was equally quick to retire from them. In

1788 he obtained a position as private tutor in Hungary, and in 1789

became private secretary to Baron von Bühler, the envoy of Württemberg

at Vienna. This led to further travels and to his entering the service

of the prince of Oettingen-Wallerstein. In 1792 Lang again betook

himself to a university, this time to Göttingen. Here he came under the

influence of the historian, Ludwig Timotheus Spittler, from whom, as

also from Johannes von Müller and Friedrich Schlegel, his historical

studies received a fresh impulse. At intervals from 1793 to 1801 Lang

was closely connected with the Prussian statesman Hardenberg, who

employed him as his private secretary and archivist, and in 1797 he was

present with Hardenberg at the congress of Rastadt as secretary to the

legation. He was occupied chiefly with affairs of the principalities of

Anspach and Bayreuth, newly acquired by Prussia, and especially in the

settlement of disputes with Bavaria as to their boundaries.

When in 1805 the principalities became part of Bavaria, Lang entered the

Bavarian service (1806), was ennobled in 1808 and from 1810 to 1817 held

the office of archivist in Munich. He again devoted himself with great

enthusiasm to historical studies, which naturally dealt chiefly with

Bavarian history. He evolved the theory, among other things, that the

boundaries of the old counties or _pagi_ (_Gaue_) were identical with

those of the dioceses. This theory was combated in later days, and

caused great confusion in the province of historical geography. For the

rest, Lang did great service to the study of the history of Bavaria,

especially by bringing fresh material from the archives to bear upon it.

He also kept up his activity as a publicist, in 1814 defending in a

detailed and somewhat biassed pamphlet the policy of the minister

Montgelas, and he undertook critical studies in the history of the

Jesuits. In 1817 Lang retired from active life, and until his death,

which took place on the 26th of March 1835, lived chiefly in Ansbach.

Lang is best known through his _Memoiren_, which appeared at Brunswick

in two parts in 1842, and were republished in 1881 in a second edition.

They contain much of interest for the history of the period, but have to

be used with the greatest caution on account of their pronounced

tendency to satire. Lang's character, as can be gathered especially from

a consideration of his behaviour at Munich, is darkened by many shadows.

He did not scruple, for instance, to strike out of the lists of

witnesses to medieval charters, before publishing them, the names of

families which he disliked.

Of his very numerous literary productions the following may be

mentioned: _Beiträge zur Kenntnis der natürlichen und politischen

Verfassung des oettingischen Vaterlandes_ (1786); _Ein Votum über den

Wucher von einem Manne sine voto_ (1791); _Historische Entwicklung der

deutschen Steuerverfassungen_ (1793); _Historische Prüfung des

vermeintlichen Alters der deutschen Landstände_ (1796); _Neuere

Geschichte des Fürstentums Bayreuth_ (1486-1603) (1798-1811);

_Tabellen über Flächeninhalt &c. und bevorstehende Verluste der

deutschen Reichsstände_. (On the occasion of the congress of Rastadt,

1798); _Der Minister Graf von Montgelas_ (1814); _Geschichte der

Jesuiten in Bayern_ (1819); and _Bayerns Gauen_ (Nuremberg, 1830).

See K. Th. v. Heigel, _Augsburger allgemeine Zeitung_ for 1878, p.

1969 et seq., 1986 et seq. (Beilage of the 14th and 15th of May); F.

Muncker, in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, vol. xvii. (1883); F. X.

v. Wegele, _Geschichte der deutschen Historiographie_ (1885).

(J. Hn.)

LANGDELL, CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS (1826-1906), American jurist, was born in

New Boston, Hillsborough county, New Hampshire, on the 22nd of May 1826,

of English and Scotch-Irish ancestry. He studied at Phillips Exeter

Academy in 1845-1848, at Harvard College in 1848-1850 and in the Harvard

Law School in 1851-1854. He practised law in 1854-1870 in New York City,

but he was almost unknown when, in January 1870, he was appointed Dane

professor of law (and soon afterwards Dean of the Law Faculty) of

Harvard University, to succeed Theophilus Parsons, to whose _Treatise on

the Law of Contracts_ (1853) he had contributed as a student. He

resigned the deanship in 1895, in 1900 became Dane professor emeritus,

and on the 6th of July 1906 died in Cambridge. He received the degree of

LL.D. in 1875; in 1903 a chair in the law school was named in his

honour; and after his death one of the school's buildings was named

Langdell Hall. He made the Harvard Law School a success by remodelling

its administration and by introducing the "case" system of instruction.

Langdell wrote _Selection of Cases on the Law of Contracts_ (1870, the

first book used in the "case" system; enlarged, 1877); _Cases on

Sales_ (1872); _Summary of Equity Pleading_ (1877, 2nd ed., 1883);

_Cases in Equity Pleading_ (1883); and _Brief Survey of Equity

Jurisdiction_ (1905).

LANGDON, JOHN (1741-1819), American statesman, was born in Portsmouth,

New Hampshire, on the 25th of June 1741. After an apprenticeship in a

counting-house, he led a seafaring life for several years, and became a

shipowner and merchant. In December 1774, as a militia captain he

assisted in the capture of Fort William and Mary at New Castle, New

Hampshire, one of the first overt acts of the American colonists against

the property of the crown. He was elected to the House of

Representatives of the last Royal Assembly of New Hampshire and then to

the second Continental Congress in 1775, and was a member of the first

Naval Committee of the latter, but he resigned in 1776, and in June 1776

became Congress's agent of prizes in New Hampshire and in 1778

continental (naval) agent of Congress in this state, where he supervised

the building of John Paul Jones's "Ranger" (completed in June 1777), the

"America," launched in 1782, and other vessels. He was a judge of the

New Hampshire Court of Common Pleas in 1776-1777, a member (and speaker)

of the New Hampshire House of Representatives from 1776 until 1782, a

member of the state Constitutional Convention of 1778 and of the state

Senate in 1784-1785, and in 1783-1784 was again a member of Congress. He

contributed largely to raise troops in 1777 to meet Burgoyne; and he

served as a captain at Bennington and at Saratoga. He was president of

New Hampshire in 1785-1786 and in 1788-1789; a member of the Federal

Constitutional Convention in 1787, where he voted against granting to

Congress the power of issuing paper money; a member of the state

convention which ratified the Federal Constitution for New Hampshire; a

member of the United States Senate in 1789-1801, and its president _pro

tem_. during the first Congress and the second session of the second

Congress; a member of the New Hampshire House of Representatives in

1801-1805 and its speaker in 1803-1805; and governor of the state in

1805-1809 and in 1810-1812. He received nine electoral votes for the

vice-presidency in 1808, and in 1812 was an elector on the Madison

ticket. He died in Portsmouth on the 18th of September 1819. He was an

able leader during the Revolutionary period, when his wealth and social

position were of great assistance to the patriot party. In the later

years of his life in New Hampshire he was the most prominent of the

local Republican leaders and built up his party by partisan

appointments. He refused the naval portfolio in Jefferson's cabinet.

His elder brother, WOODBURY LANGDON (1739-1805), was a delegate to the

Continental Congress in 1779-1780, a member of the executive council of

New Hampshire in 1781-1784, judge of the Supreme Court of the state in

1782 and in 1786-1790 (although he had had no legal training), and a

state senator in 1784-1785.

Alfred Langdon Elwyn has edited _Letters by Washington, Adams,

Jefferson and Others, Written During and After the Revolution, to John

Langdon of New Hampshire_ (Philadelphia, 1880), a book of great

interest and value. See a biographical sketch of John Langdon by

Charles R. Corning in the _New England Magazine_, vol. xxii. (Boston,

1897).

LANGE, ANNE FRANÇOISE ELIZABETH (1772-1816), French actress, was born in

Genoa on the 17th of September 1772, the daughter of a musician and an

actress at the Comédie Italienne. She made her first appearance on the

stage at Tours in 1787 and a successful début at the Comédie Française

in 1788 in _L'Écossaise_ and _L'Oracle_. She followed Talma and the

others in 1791 to the Rue Richelieu, but returned after a few months to

the Comédie Française. Here her talent and beauty gave her an enormous

success in François de Neuchâteau's _Pamela_, the performance of which

brought upon the theatre the vials of wrath of the Committee of Safety.

With the author and the other members of the caste, she was arrested and

imprisoned. After the 9th Thermidor she rejoined her comrades at the

Feydeau, but retired on the 16th of December 1797, reappearing only for

a few performances in 1807. She had, meantime, married the son of a rich

Belgian named Simons. She died on the 25th of May 1816.

LANGE, ERNST PHILIPP KARL (1813-1899), German novelist, who wrote under

the pseudonym _Philipp Galen_, was born at Potsdam on the 21st of

December 1813. He studied medicine at Berlin (1835-1840), and on taking

his degree, in 1840, entered the Prussian army as surgeon. In this

capacity he saw service in the Schleswig-Holstein campaign of 1849. He

settled at Bielefeld as medical practitioner and here issued his first

novel, _Der Inselkönig_ (1852, 3rd ed., 1858), which enjoyed

considerable popularity. In Bielefeld he continued to work at his

profession and to write, until his retirement, with the rank of

_Oberstabsarzt_ (surgeon-general) to Potsdam in 1878; there he died on

the 20th of February 1899. Lange's novels are distinguished by local

colouring and pretty, though not powerful, descriptions of manners and

customs. He particularly favoured scenes of English life, though he had

never been in that country, and on the whole he succeeded well in his

descriptions. Chief among his novels are, _Der Irre von St James_ (1853,

5th ed., 1871), and _Emery Glandon_ (3rd ed., Leip., 1865), while of

those dealing with the Schleswig-Holstein campaign _Andreas Burns_

(1856) and _Die Tochter des Diplomaten_ (1865) commanded considerable

attention.

His _Gesammelte Schriften_ appeared in 36 vols. (1857-1866).

LANGE, FRIEDRICH ALBERT (1828-1875), German philosopher and sociologist,

was born on the 28th of September 1828, at Wald, near Solingen, the son

of the theologian, J. P. Lange (q.v.). He was educated at Duisburg,

Zürich and Bonn, where he distinguished himself by gymnastics as much as

by study. In 1852 he became schoolmaster at Cologne; in 1855

_privatdozent_ in philosophy at Bonn; in 1858 schoolmaster at Duisburg,

resigning when the government forbade schoolmasters to take part in

political agitation. Lange then entered on a career of militant

journalism in the cause of political and social reform. He was also

prominent in the affairs of his town, yet found leisure to write most of

his best-known books, _Die Leibesübungen_ (1863), _Die Arbeiterfrage_

(1865, 5th ed. 1894), _Geschichte des Materialismus und Kritik seiner

Bedeutung in der Gegenwart_ (1866; 7th ed. with biographical sketch by

H. Cohen, 1902; Eng. trans., E. C. Thomas, 1877), and _J. S. Mill's

Ansichten über die sociale Frage_ (1866). In 1866, discouraged by

affairs in Germany, he moved to Winterthur, near Zürich, to become

connected with the democratic newspaper, _Winterthurer Landbote_. In

1869 he was _Privatdozent at Zürich_, and next year professor. The

strong French sympathies of the Swiss in the Franco-German War led to

his speedy resignation. Thenceforward he gave up politics. In 1872 he

accepted a professorship at Marburg. Unhappily, his vigorous frame was

already stricken with disease, and, after a lingering illness, he died

at Marburg, on the 23rd of November 1875, diligent to the end. His

_Logische Studien_ was published by H. Cohen in 1877 (2nd ed., 1894).

His main work, the _Geschichte des Materialismus_, which is brilliantly

written, with wide scientific knowledge and more sympathy with English

thought than is usual in Germany, is rather a didactic exposition of

principles than a history in the proper sense. Adopting the Kantian

standpoint that we can know nothing but phenomena, Lange maintains that

neither materialism nor any other metaphysical system has a valid claim

to ultimate truth. For empirical phenomenal knowledge, however, which is

all that man can look for, materialism with its exact scientific methods

has done most valuable service. Ideal metaphysics, though they fail of

the inner truth of things, have a value as the embodiment of high

aspirations, in the same way as poetry and religion. In Lange's

_Logische Studien_, which attempts a reconstruction of formal logic, the

leading idea is that reasoning has validity in so far as it can be

represented in terms of space. His _Arbeiterfrage_ advocates an

ill-defined form of socialism. It protests against contemporary

industrial selfishness, and against the organization of industry on the

Darwinian principle of struggle for existence.

See O. A. Ellissen, _F. A. Lange_ (Leipzig, 1891), and in _Monatsch.

d. Comeniusgesell_. iii., 1894, 210 ff.; H. Cohen in _Preuss_.

_Jahrb._ xxvii., 1876, 353 ff.; Vaihinger, _Hartmann, Dühring und

Lange_ (Iserlohn, 1876); J. M. Bösch, _F. A. Lange und sein Standpunkt

d. Ideals_ (Frauenfeld, 1890); H. Braun, _F. A. Lange, als

Socialökonom_ (Halle, 1881). (H. St.)

LANGE, JOHANN PETER (1802-1884), German Protestant theologian, was of

peasant origin and was born at Sonneborn near Elberfeld on the 10th of

April 1802. He studied theology at Bonn (from 1822) under K. I. Nitzsch

and G. C. F. Lücke, held several pastorates, and eventually (1854)

settled at Bonn as professor of theology in succession to Isaac A.

Dorner, becoming also in 1860 counsellor to the consistory. He died on

the 9th of July 1884. Lange has been called the poetical theologian _par

excellence_: "It has been said of him that his thoughts succeed each

other in such rapid and agitated waves that all calm reflection and all

rational distinction become, in a manner, drowned" (F. Lichtenberger).

As a dogmatic writer he belonged to the school of Schleiermacher. His

_Christliche Dogmatik_ (3 vols., 1849-1852, new edition, 1870) "contains

many fruitful and suggestive thoughts, which, however, are hidden under

such a mass of bold figures and strange fancies, and suffer so much from

want of clearness of presentation, that they did not produce any lasting

effect" (Otto Pfleiderer).

His other works include Das Leben Jesu (3 vols., 1844-1847), _Das

apostolische Zeitalter_ (2 vols., 1853-1854). _Grundriss der

theologischen Enzyklopädie_ (1877). _Grundriss der christlichen Ethik_

(1878), and _Grundriss der Bibelkunde_ (1881). In 1857 he undertook

with other scholars a _Theologisch-homiletisches Bibelwerk_, to which

he contributed commentaries on the first four books of the Pentateuch,

Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, Matthew, Mark, Revelation. The _Bibelwerk_

has been translated, enlarged and revised under the general editorship

of Dr Philip Schaff.

LANGEAIS, a town of west-central France in the department of

Indre-et-Loire, on the right bank of the Loire, 16 m. W.S.W. of Tours by

rail. Pop. (1906) town, 1755; commune, 3550. Langeais has a church of

the 11th, 12th and 15th centuries but is chiefly interesting for the

possession of a large château built soon after the middle of the 15th

century by Jean Bourré, minister of Louis XI. Here the marriage of

Charles VIII. and Anne of Brittany took place in 1491. In the park are

the ruins of a keep of late 10th-century architecture, built by Fulk

Nerra, count of Anjou.

LANGEN, JOSEPH (1837-1901), German theologian, was born at Cologne on

the 3rd of June 1837. He studied at Bonn, was ordained priest in 1859,

was nominated professor extraordinary at the university of Bonn in 1864,

and a professor in ordinary of the exegesis of the New Testament in

1867--an office which he held till his death. He was one of the able

band of professors who in 1870 supported Döllinger in his resistance to

the Vatican decrees, and was excommunicated with Ignaz v. Döllinger,

Johann Huber, Johann Friedrich, Franz Heinrich Reusch, Joseph Hubert

Reinkens and others, for refusing to accept them. In 1878, in

consequence of the permission given to priests to marry, he ceased to

identify himself with the Old Catholic movement, although he was not

reconciled with the Roman Catholic Church. Langen was more celebrated as

a writer than as a speaker. His first work was an inquiry into the

authorship of the Commentary on St Paul's Epistles and the Treatise on

Biblical Questions, ascribed to Ambrose and Augustine respectively. In

1868 he published an _Introduction to the New Testament_, a work of

which a second edition was called for in 1873. He also published works

on the _Last Days of the Life of Jesus_, on _Judaism in the Time of

Christ_, on _John of Damascus_ (1879) and an _Examination of the Vatican

Dogma in the Light of Patristic Exegesis of the New Testament_. But he

is chiefly famous for his _History of the Church of Rome to the

Pontificate of Innocent III._ (4 vols., 1881-1893), a work of sound

scholarship, based directly upon the authorities, the most important

sources being woven carefully into the text. He also contributed largely

to the _Internationale theologische Zeitschrift_, a review started in

1893 by the Old Catholics to promote the union of National Churches on

the basis of the councils of the Undivided Church, and admitting

articles in German, French and English. Among other subjects, he wrote

on the School of Hierotheus, on Romish falsifications of the Greek

Fathers, on Leo XIII., on Liberal Ultramontanism, on the Papal Teaching

in regard to Morals, on Vincentius of Lerins and he carried on a

controversy with Professor Willibald Beyschlag, of the German

Evangelical Church, on the respective merits of Protestantism and Old

Catholicism regarded as a basis for teaching the Christian faith. An

attack of apoplexy put an end to his activity as a teacher and hastened

his death, which occurred in July 1901. (J. J. L.*)

LANGENBECK, BERNHARD RUDOLF KONRAD VON (1810-1887), German surgeon, was

born at Horneburg on the 9th of November 1810, and received his medical

education at Göttingen, where he took his doctor's degree in 1835 with a

thesis on the structure of the retina. After a visit to France and

England, he returned to Göttingen as _Privatdozent_, and in 1842 became

professor of surgery and director of the Friedrichs Hospital at Kiel.

Six years later he succeeded J. F. Dieffenbach (1794-1847) as director

of the Clinical Institute for Surgery and Ophthalmology at Berlin, and

remained there till 1882, when failing health obliged him to retire. He

died at Wiesbaden on the 30th of September 1887. Langenbeck was a bold

and skilful operator, but was disinclined to resort to operation while

other means afforded a prospect of success. He devoted particular

attention to military surgery, and was a great authority in the

treatment of gunshot wounds. Besides acting as general field-surgeon of

the army in the war with Denmark in 1848, he saw active service in 1864,

1866, and again in the Franco-German campaign of 1870-71. He was in

Orleans at the end of 1870, after the city had been taken by the

Prussians, and was unwearied in his attentions, whether as operator or

consultant, to wounded men with whom every public building was packed.

He also utilized the opportunities for instruction that thus arose, and

the "Militär-Aerztliche Gesellschaft," which met twice a week for some

months, and in the discussions of which every surgeon in the city was

invited to take part, irrespective of nationality, was mainly formed by

his energy and enthusiasm. He was ennobled for his services in the

Danish War of 1864.

LANGENSALZA, a town in the Prussian province of Saxony, on the Salza,

about 20 m. N. W. from Erfurt. Pop. (1905) 12,545. Near it are the

remains of the old Benedictine monastery of Homburg or Hohenburg, where

the emperor Henry IV. defeated the Saxons in 1075. The manufacture of

cloth is the chief industry; lace, starch, machines, cigars and

chemicals are also produced, while spinning, dyeing, brewing and

printing are carried on. There is a sulphur bath in the neighbourhood,

situated in a pleasant park, in which there are monuments to those who

fell in the war of 1866. Langensalza became a town in 1211 and was

afterwards part of the electorate of Saxony. In 1815 it came into the

possession of Prussia. It is remarkable in history as the scene of three

battles: (1) the victory of the Prussians and English over the imperial

army on the 15th of February 1761; (2) that of the Prussians over the

Bavarians on the 17th of April 1813; and (3) the engagement on the 27th

of June 1866 between the Prussians and the Hanoverians, in which the

latter, though victorious in the field, were compelled to lay down their

arms on the arrival of overwhelming Prussian reinforcements.

See Göschel, _Chronik der Stadt Langensalza_ (Langensalza, 1818-1842);

G. and H. Schütz, _Chronik der Stadt Langensalza_ (Langensalza, 1901);

and Gutbier, _Schwefelbad Langensalza_ (Langensalza, 1900).

LANGHAM, SIMON (d. 1376), archbishop of Canterbury and cardinal, was

born at Langham in Rutland, becoming a monk in the abbey of St Peter at

Westminster, and later prior and then abbot of this house. In 1360 he

was made treasurer of England and in 1361 he became bishop of Ely; he

was appointed chancellor of England in 1363 and was chosen archbishop of

Canterbury in 1366. Perhaps the most interesting incident in his primacy

was when he drove the secular clergy from their college of Canterbury

Hall, Oxford, and filled their places with monks. The expelled head of

the seculars was a certain John de Wiclif, who has been identified with

the great reformer Wycliffe. Notwithstanding the part Langham as

chancellor had taken in the anti-papal measures of 1365 and 1366 he was

made a cardinal by Pope Urban V. in 1368. This step lost him the favour

of Edward III., and two months later he resigned his archbishopric and

went to Avignon. He was soon allowed to hold other although less exalted

positions in England, and in 1374 he was elected archbishop of

Canterbury for the second time; but he withdrew his claim and died at

Avignon on the 22nd of July 1376. Langham's tomb is the oldest monument

to an ecclesiastic in Westminster Abbey; he left the residue of his

estate--a large sum of money--to the abbey, and has been called its

second founder.

LANGHOLM, a burgh of barony and police burgh of Dumfriesshire, Scotland.

Pop. (1901) 3142. It is situated on both sides of the Esk, 16 m. N.E. of

Annan, the terminus of a branch line connecting with the North British

railway system at Riddings Junction. The Esk is crossed by a

three-arched stone bridge, uniting the old town on the left bank with

the new on the right, and a suspension bridge. Ewes Water, which falls

into the river, is spanned by a two-arched bridge, 1 m. N. of the town.

The public buildings include the town hall--a substantial edifice with a

tower rising in three tiers from the body of the structure, the Telford

library, and the Hope hospital for aged poor. Already famous for its

plaids and blankets, the prosperity of the burgh advanced when it took

up the manufacture of tweeds. Distilling, brewing, dyeing and tanning

are also important industries. The Esk and Liddel being favourite

fishing streams, Langholm is the headquarters of the association which

protects the rights of anglers. About 1 m. to the N.W. stands Langholm

Lodge, a seat of the duke of Buccleuch, and some 4 m. S.E. is Gilnockie

Tower, the peel-house that belonged to Johnny Armstrong, the freebooter,

who was executed by order of James V. in 1530.

LANGHORNE, JOHN (1735-1779), English poet and translator of Plutarch,

was born at Kirkby Stephen, Westmorland. He At first supported himself

as a private tutor and schoolmaster, and, having taken orders, was

appointed (1766) to the rectory of Blagdon, Somerset, where he died on

the 1st of April 1779. His poems (original and translations), and

sentimental tales, are now forgotten, but his translation of Plutarch's

_Lives_ (1770), in which he had the co-operation of his elder brother

William (1721-1772), is not yet superseded. It is far less vigorous than

Sir Thomas North's version (translated from Amyot) but is free from its

inaccuracies. His poems were published in 1804 by his son, J. T.

Langhorne, with a memoir of the author; they will also be found in R.

Anderson's _Poets of Great Britain_, xi. (1794) and A. Chalmers's

_English Poets_, xvi. (1810), with memoir. Of his poems, _The Country

Justice_, a plea for the neglected poor, and _The Fables of Flora_, were

the most successful; of his prose writings, _The Correspondence between

Theodosius and Constantia_, founded on a well-known story in the

_Spectator_ (No. 164).

LANGIEWICZ, MARYAN (1827-1887), Polish patriot, was born at Krotoszyn,

in the province of Posen, on the 5th of August 1827, his father being

the local doctor. Langiewicz was educated at Posen, Breslau and Prague,

and was compelled to earn his daily bread by giving lectures. He

subsequently entered the Prussian _Landwehr_ and served for a year in

the royal guard. In 1860 he migrated to Paris and was for a time

professor in the high school founded there by Mieroslawski. The same

year he took part in Garibaldi's Neapolitan campaign, and was then a

professor in the military school at Cuneo till the establishment was

closed. In 1862 he entered into communication with the central Polish

committee at Warsaw, and on the outbreak of the insurrection of the 22nd

of January 1863, took the command of the armed bands. He defeated the

Russians at Wachock and Slupia (February), capturing 1000 muskets and 8

cannon. This victory drew hundreds of young recruits to his standard,

till at last he had 12,000 men at his disposal. On the 23rd of February

he again defeated the Russians, at Malogoszcza, and captured 500 muskets

and 2 cannon. On the 10th of March he proclaimed himself dictator and

attempted to form a regular government; but either he had insufficient

organizing talent, or had not time enough to carry out his plans, and

after a fresh series of engagements his army was almost annihilated at

Zagosc (18th of March), whereupon he took refuge in Austrian territory

and was interned at Tarnow. He was subsequently transferred to the

fortress of Josephstadt, from which he was released in 1865. He then

lived at Solothurn as a citizen of the Swiss Republic, and subsequently

entered the Turkish service as Langie Bey. He died at Constantinople on

the 11th of May 1887.

See Boleslaw Limanowski, _The National Insurrection of 1863-64_ (Pol.)

(Lemberg, 1900); Paolo Mazzoleni, _I Bergamaschi in Polonia nel 1863_

(Bergamo, 1893); W. H. Bavink, _De Poolsche opstand 1863_, &c.

(Haarlem, 1864).

LANGLAND, WILLIAM (_c._ 1332-_c._ 1400), the supposed English poet,

generally regarded until recently as the single author of the remarkable

14th-century poem _Piers the Plowman_. Its full title is--_The Vision of

William concerning Piers the Plowman, together with Vita de Do-wel,

Do-bet, et Do-best, secundum Wit et Resoun_; usually given in Latin as

_Visio Willelmi de Petra Plowman, &c._; the whole work being sometimes

briefly described as _Liber de Petro Plowman_. We know nothing of

William Langland except from the supposed evidence of the MSS. of the

poem and the text itself, and it will be convenient first to give a

brief general description of them.

The poem exists in three forms. If we denote these by the names of

A-text (or Vernon), B-text (or Crowley), and C-text (or Whitaker), we

find, of the first, ten MSS., of the second fourteen, and of the third

seventeen, besides seven others of a mixed type. It will be seen that we

thus have abundance of material, a circumstance which proves the great

popularity of the poem in former times. Owing to the frequent

expressions which indicate a desire for reformation in religion, it was,

in the time of Edward VI., considered worthy of being printed. Three

impressions of the B-text were printed by Robert Crowley in 1550; and

one of these was badly reprinted by Owen Rogers in 1561. In 1813 the

best MS. of the C-text was printed by Dr E. Whitaker. In 1842 Mr Thomas

Wright printed an edition from an excellent MS. of the B-text in the

library of Trinity College, Cambridge (2nd ed., 1856, new ed., 1895). A

complete edition of all three texts was printed for the Early English

Text Society as edited by the Rev. W. W. Skeat, with the addition of

_Richard the Redeless_, and containing full notes to all three texts,

with a glossary and indexes, in 1867-1885. The Clarendon Press edition,

by the same editor, appeared in 1886.

The A-text contains a prologue and 12 passus or cantos (i.-iv., the

vision of the Lady Meed; v.-viii., the vision of Piers the Plowman;

ix.-xii., the vision of Do-wel, Do-bet and Do-best), with 2567 lines.

The B-text is much longer, containing 7242 lines, with additional passus

following after xi. of A, the earlier passus being altered in various

respects. The C-text, with 7357 lines, is a revision of B.

The general contents of the poem may be gathered from a brief

description of the C-text. This is divided into twenty-three passus,

nominally comprising four parts, called respectively Visio de Petro

Plowman, Visio de Do-wel, Visio de Do-bet and Visio de Do-best. Here

_Do-bet_ signifies "do better" in modern English; the explanation of the

names being that he who does a kind action _does well_, he who teaches

others to act kindly _does better_, whilst he who combines both practice

and theory, both doing good himself and teaching others to do the same,

_does best_. But the visions by no means closely correspond to these

descriptions; and Skeat divides the whole into a set of eleven visions,

which may be thus enumerated: (1) Vision of the Field Full of Folk, of

Holy Church, and of the Lady Meed (passus i.-v.); (2) Vision of the

Seven Deadly Sins, and of Piers the Plowman (pass. vi.-x.); (3) Wit,

Study, Clergy and Scripture (pass. xi., xii.); (4) Fortune, Nature,

Recklessness and Reason (pass. xiii., xiv.); (5) Vision of Imaginative

(pass. xv.); (6) Conscience, Patience and Activa-Vita (pass. xvi.,

xvii.); (7) Free-will and the Tree of Charity (pass. xviii., xix.); (8)

Faith, Hope and Charity (pass. xx.); (9) The Triumph of Piers the

Plowman, i.e. the Crucifixion, Burial and Resurrection of Jesus Christ

(pass. xxi.); (10) The Vision of Grace (pass. xxii.); (11) The Vision of

Antichrist (pass. xxiii.).

The bare outline of the C-text gives little idea of the real nature of

the poem. The author's object, as Skeat describes it, was to "afford

himself opportunities (of which he has amply availed himself) for

describing the life and manners of the poorer classes; for inveighing

against clerical abuses and the rapacity of the friars; for representing

the miseries caused by the great pestilences then prevalent and by the

hasty and ill-advised marriages consequent thereupon; and for denouncing

lazy workmen and sham beggars, the corruption and bribery then too

common in the law courts, and all the numerous forms of falsehood which

are at all time the fit subjects for satire and indignant exposure. In

describing, for example, the seven deadly sins, he gives so exact a

description of Glutton and Sloth that the reader feels them to be no

mere abstractions, but drawn from the life; and it becomes hardly more

difficult to realize Glutton than it is to realize Sir John Falstaff.

The numerous allegorical personages so frequently introduced, such as

Scripture, Clergy, Conscience, Patience and the like, are all

mouthpieces of the author himself, uttering for the most part his own

sentiments, but sometimes speaking in accordance with the character

which each is supposed to represent. The theological disquisitions which

are occasionally introduced are somewhat dull and tedious, but the

earnestness of the author's purpose and his energy of language tend to

relieve them, and there are not many passages which might have been

omitted without loss. The poem is essentially one of those which improve

on a second reading, and as a linguistic monument it is of very high

value. Mere extracts from the poem, even if rather numerous and of some

length, fail to give a fair idea of it. The whole deserves, and will

repay, a careful study; indeed, there are not many single works from

which a student of English literature and of the English language may

derive more substantial benefit.

"The metre is alliterative, and destitute of final rhyme. It is not very

regular, as the author's earnestness led him to use the fittest words

rather than those which merely served the purpose of rhythm. The chief

rule is that, in general, the same letter or combination of letters

should begin _three_ stressed syllables in the same line, as, for

example, in the line which may be modernized thus: 'Of all _m_anner of

_m_en, the _m_ean and the rich.' Sometimes there are but _two_ such

rhyme-letters, as: '_M_ight of the commons _m_ade him to reign.'

Sometimes there are _four_, as: 'In a summer season, when soft was the

sun.' There is invariably a pause, more or less distinct, in the middle

of each line" (_Ency. Brit._, 9th ed., art. LANGLAND).

The traditional view, accepted by such great authorities as Skeat and

Jusserand, that a single author--and that author Langland--was

responsible for the whole poem, in all its versions, has been so

recently disputed that it seems best to state it in Skeat's own words,

before giving briefly the alternative view, which propounds a theory of

composite authorship, denying any real existence to "William Langland."

The account of the single-author theory is repeated from Professor

Skeat's article in the 9th edition of this work, slightly revised by him

in 1905 for this edition.

"The author's name is not quite certain, and the facts concerning his

life are few and scanty. As to his Christian name we are sure, from

various allusions in the poem itself, and the title _Visio Willelmi_,

&c., in many MSS.; so that we may at once reject the suggestion that his

name may have been Robert. In no less than three MSS. [of the C-text;

one not later than 1427] occurs the following colophon: 'Explicit visio

Willelmi W. de Petro le Plowman.' What is here meant by W. it is

difficult to conjecture; but it is just possible that it may represent

Wychwood (of which more presently), or Wigornensis, i.e. of Worcester.

As to the surname, we find the note that 'Robert or William Langland

made pers ploughman,' in a handwriting of the 15th century, on the

fly-leaf of a MS. copy [of the B-text] formerly belonging to Lord

Ashburnham, and now in the British Museum; and in a Dublin MS. [of the

C-text] is the note [in a 15th-century hand]: 'Memorandum, quod Stacy de

Rokayle, pater Willielmi de Langlond, qui Stacius fuit generosus et

morabatur in Schiptone-under-Whicwode, tenens domini le Spenser in

comitatu Oxon., qui predictus Willielmus fecit librum qui vocatur Perys

Ploughman.' There is no trace of any Langland family in the midland

counties, while the Langley family were wardens of Wychwood forest in

Oxfordshire between the years 1278 and 1362; but this consideration can

hardly set aside the above statement. According to Bale, our author was

born at Cleobury Mortimer, which is quite consistent with the

supposition that his father may have removed from that place to Shipton

in Oxfordshire, as there seems to have been a real connexion between the

families in those places.

"The internal evidence concerning the author is fuller and more

satisfactory. By piecing together the various hints concerning himself

which the poet gives us, we may compile the following account. His name

was William (and probably Langland), and he was born about 1332, perhaps

at Cleobury Mortimer in Shropshire. His father, who was doubtless a

franklin or farmer, and his other friends put him to school, made a

'clerk' or scholar of him, and taught him what Holy Writ meant. In 1362,

at the age of about thirty, he found himself wandering upon the Malvern

hills, and fell asleep beside a stream, and saw in a vision a field full

of folk, i.e. this present world, and many other remarkable sights

which he duly records. From this supposed circumstance he named his poem

_The Vision of William_, though it is really a succession of visions,

since he mentions several occasions on which he awoke, and afterwards

again fell asleep; and he even tells us of some adventures which befel

him in his waking moments. In some of these visions there is no mention

of Piers the Plowman, but in others he describes him as being the coming

reformer who was to remedy all abuses, and restore the world to a right

condition. It is remarkable that his conception of this reformer changes

from time to time, and becomes more exalted as the poem advances. At

first he is no more than a ploughman, one of the true and honest

labourers who are the salt of the earth; but at last he is identified

with the great reformer who has come already, the regenerator of the

world in the person of Jesus Christ; in the author's own

phrase--'Petrus est Christus.' If this be borne in mind, it will not be

possible to make the mistake into which so many have fallen, of speaking

of Piers the Plowman as being the author, not the subject, of the poem.

The author once alludes to the nickname of Long Will bestowed upon him

from his tallness of stature--just as the poet Gascoigne was familiarly

called Long George. Though there is mention of the Malvern hills more

than once near the beginning of the poem, it is abundantly clear that

the poet lived for 'many years in Cornhill (London), with his wife Kitte

and his daughter Calote.' He seems to have come to London soon after the

date of the first commencement of his work, and to have long continued

there. He describes himself as being a tall man, one who was loath to

reverence lords or ladies or persons in gay apparel, and not deigning to

say 'God save you' to the sergeants whom he met in the street, insomuch

that many people took him to be a fool. He was very poor, wore long

robes, and had a shaven crown, having received the clerical tonsure. But

he seems only to have taken minor orders, and earned a precarious living

by singing the _placebo_, _dirige_ and seven psalms for the good of

men's souls. The fact that he was married may explain why he never rose

in the church. But he had another source of livelihood in his ability to

write out legal documents, and he was extremely familiar with the law

courts at Westminster. His leisure time must have been entirely occupied

with his poem, which was essentially the work of his lifetime. He was

not satisfied with rewriting it once, but he actually re-wrote it twice;

and from the abundance of the MSS. which still exist we can see its

development from the earliest draught (A-text), written about 1362, to

its latest form (C-text), written about 1393.[1]

"In 1399, just before the deposition of Richard II., appeared a poem

addressed to the king, who is designated as 'Richard the Redeless,'

i.e. devoid of counsel. This poem, occurring in only one MS. [of the

B-text] in which it is incomplete, breaking off abruptly in the middle

of a page, may safely be attributed to Langland, who was then in

Bristol. As he was at that time about sixty-seven years of age, we may

be sure that he did not long survive the accession of Henry IV. It may

here be observed that the well-known poem, entitled _Pierce Ploughman's

Crede_, though excellently written, is certainly an imitation by another

hand; for the Pierce Ploughman of the _Crede_ is very different in

conception from the subject of 'William's Vision.'"

On the other hand, the view taken by Professor J. M. Manly, of Chicago,

which has recently obtained increasing acceptance among scholars, is

that the early popularity of the _Piers Plowman_ poems has resulted in

"the confusion of what is really the work of five different men," and

that Langland himself is "a mythical author." The argument for the

distinction in authorship rests on internal evidence, and on analysis of

the style, diction and "visualizing" quality within the different texts.

Whereas Skeat, regarding the three texts as due to the same author,

gives most attention to the later versions, and considers B the

intermediate form, as on the whole the best, Manly recognizes in A the

real poet, and lays special stress on the importance of attention to the

A-text, and particularly pass. i.-viii. In this A-text the two first

visions are regarded as by a single author of genius, but the third is

assigned to a continuator who tried to imitate him, the whole conclusion

of the 12th passus being, moreover, by a third author, whose name, John

But, is in fact given towards the end, but in a way leading Skeat only

to credit him with a few lines. The same process of analysis leads to

crediting the B-text and the C-text to separate and different authors, B

working over the three visions of the A-text and making additions of his

own, while C again worked over the B-text. The supposed references to

the original author A, introduced by B and C, are then to be taken as

part of the fiction. Who were the five authors? That question is left

unsolved. John But, according to Professor Manly, was "doubtless a

scribe" or "a minstrel." B, C and the continuator of A "seem to have

been clerics, and, from their criticisms of monks and friars, to have

been of the secular clergy," C being "a better scholar than either the

continuator of A or B." A, who "exempts from his satire no order of

society except monks," may have been himself a monk, but "as he exhibits

no special technical knowledge or interests" he "may have been a

layman." As regards Richard the Redeless, Professor Manly attributes

this to another imitator; he regards identity of authorship as out of

the question, in consequences of differences in style and thought, apart

altogether from the conclusion as to the authorship of _Piers the

Plowman_.

See the editions already referred to: _The Deposition of Richard II._,

ed. T. Wright (Camden Society), which is the same poem as _Richard the

Redeless_; Warton, _Hist. of Eng. Poetry_; Rev. H. H. Milman, _Hist.

of Latin Christianity_; G. P. Marsh, _Lectures on English_; H. Morley,

_English Writers_; B. ten Brink, _Early English Literature_; J. J.

Jusserand, _Observations sur la vision de P. P._ (Paris, 1879); _Les

Anglais au moyen âge: L'Épopée mystique de William Langland_ (1893,

Eng. trans. _Piers Plowman_, revised and enlarged by another 1894); J.

M. Manly in _Cambridge Hist. of English Lit._, vol. ii. and

bibliography. A long and careful summary of the whole poem is given in

Morley's _English Writers_, and is repeated in his _Illustrations of

English Religion_, ch. iii.