to Bath and gas to the town of Manchester might be generally adopted in
supplying water to the population. Powers would be required to enter
into the lands adjacent to the towns on a reasonable compensation to the
owners to obtain supplies of water; and, as the management of
water-works requires appropriate skill, it would be necessary to appoint
an officer with special qualifications for their superintendence.
Ordinary service may be obtained for the public, if recourse be had to
the ordinary motives by which such service is engaged in private
companies. It is not mentioned invidiously, but as a matter of fact,
that the majority, not to say the whole, of such undertakings by joint
stock companies, are, in the first instance, moved by a solicitor, or
engineer, or other person, for the sake of the office of manager of the
works, and that the directors and shareholders, and the inducement of
profit to them, through the benefit undoubtedly to the public, are only
the machinery to the attainment of the object for which the undertaking
is primarily moved. If competent officers be appointed and adequately
remunerated for the service, there can be little doubt that the public
may, as at Bath and Manchester, be saved the expense of the management
by the occasional attendance of unskilled directors, and that they may
save the expense of dividends, or apply the profits to public
improvements, as at Manchester, and moreover avoid the inconveniences
and obstructions undoubtedly belonging to the supply of a commodity so
essential to the public health, comfort, and economy, by a private
monopoly. Bad supplies of water would, I apprehend, generally be less
tolerated by the influential inhabitants of all parties from a public
municipal agency than from a private company.
Another ground for the recommendation that supplies of water for the
labouring classes should be brought under some public authority, is that
some care may be taken to prevent the use of unwholesome supplies.
The queries transmitted to the medical officers were directed to
ascertain the sufficiency of the supplies for the purpose of cleansing,
but the returns frequently advert to the bad effect of inferior supplies
upon the health of the population; and it is scarcely conceivable to
what filthy water custom reconciles the people. Yet water containing
animal matter, which is the most feared, appears to be less frequently
injurious than that which is the clearest, namely, spring-water, from
the latter being oftener impregnated with mineral substances; but there
are instances of ill health produced by both descriptions of water. The
beneficial effects derived from care as to the qualities of the water is
now proved in the navy, where fatal dysentery formerly prevailed to an
immense extent, in consequence of the impure and putrid state of the
supplies; and care is now generally exercised on the subject by the
medical officers of the army. In the Dublin Hospital Reports, for
example, we have the following statement, which is still more important,
as showing the extent to which the nature of the water influences
health:—
“Dr. M. Barry affirms that the troops were frequently liable to
dysentery, while they occupied the old barracks at Cork; but he has
heard that it has been of rare occurrence in the new barracks. Several
years ago, when the disease raged violently in the old barracks, (now
the depôt for convicts,) the care of the sick was, in the absence of
the regimental surgeon, entrusted to the late Mr. Bell, surgeon, in
Cork. At the period in question the troops were supplied with water
from the river Lee, which, in passing through the city, is rendered
unfit for drinking by the influx of the contents of the sewers from
the houses, and likewise is brackish from the tide, which ascends into
their channels. Mr. Bell, suspecting that the water might have caused
the dysentery, upon assuming the care of the sick, had a number of
water-carts engaged to bring water for the troops from a spring called
the Lady’s Well, at the same time that they were no longer permitted
to drink the water from the river. From this simple, but judicious
arrangement, the dysentery very shortly disappeared among the
troops.”—_Dublin Hospital Reports_, vol. iii. 11. Paper by Dr. Cheyne
“On Dysentery.”
_Parent du Chatelet_, the most industrious and able of modern
investigators into questions of public health, gives the following
instance, which in like manner demonstrates the amount of disease
generated solely by the use of bad water, as well as the difficulty of
detecting the specific effects produced by it:—
“When I visited last year the prisons of Paris with my friend
Villermé, who was interested in prisons generally, I was extremely
surprised at the proportion of sick in the hospital of St. Lazarus,
relatively to the whole population of the prisons. The prison, uniting
all the conditions necessary to health as regards its position,
construction, the dress and food of the prisoners, who were constantly
kept at work, how explain the much greater proportion of sick to what
we remark in other prisons of a bad condition, and in which are found
united all the apparent causes of unhealthiness?—This, I must confess,
has baffled all calculation, and has driven every one to say that
there must be a cause for the peculiarity, but that it could not he
discovered. I do not despair to have hit upon that cause, and I
believe it is to be recognised in the nature of the water drunk by the
prisoners. Having tasted it in the wooden reservoir behind the house,
which was in bad order, and full of plants of the genus confervæ, I
found it had a detestable and truly repulsive taste, a circumstance
which does not appear to have been hitherto remarked. Might not the
cause, then, he detected in the chemical nature of the water of
Belleville and of the neighbourhood of St. Gervais, of which the
prisoners drink exclusively? What proves it is the striking
resemblance which exists in this respect between the water of
Belleville and that in the wells of the entrance-court of the hospital
of the Salpêtriere, which both contain a very great proportion of
sulphate of lime, and other purgative salts. Now the venerable
Professor Pinel and his pupil Schwilgué have remarked for more than 20
years the influence that the water of the wells of which I speak has
upon the portion of the population of the hospital who make use of it,
and they believe that certain affections connected evidently with
locality cannot be attributed to any other cause, and particularly the
disposition to chronic diarrhœa which is so often observed in this
hospital. It turns out upon examination _that the greater part of the
sick who fill the infirmary of the prison of St. Lazarus are brought
there for illnesses of the same identical nature_. In the prison they
are obliged to have recourse to the water of the Seine to cook the
vegetables and other food, an evident proof of the truth, or at least
the probability, of all I have just advanced.”
In the metropolis the public owes the analysis of the supplies of water
and some improvement of supplies not in their nature essentially bad,
chiefly to the stirring of speculators in rival companies. But the
population of the rural districts, and of the smaller towns, afford no
means for the payment of companies, still less any field for pecuniary
competition. As in the cases cited, it is to be feared that the
knowledge gained for the safety of the health of the soldiers and the
prisoners was not proclaimed for the protection of the bulk of the
poorest population, who, under existing arrangements, only receive care
in the shape of alleviations, when the suffering from disease is
attended by the destitution which establishes the claim to relief. The
middle classes are exposed to the like inconveniences, and put up with
very inferior water, whilst supplies of a salubrious quality might be
obtained by extended public arrangements for the common benefit.
It will not be deemed necessary to attempt to develope all the
considerations applicable to the subject; and I confine myself to the
representation of the fact,—That there is wide foundation for the
complaint that proper supplies of water to large portions of the
community are extensively wanting—that those obtained are frequently of
inferior quality—that they are commonly obtained at the greatest expense
when obtained by hand labour—that the supplies by private companies,
though cheaper and better, are defective, and chiefly restricted to the
use of the higher and middle classes, unless in such inconvenient modes
(_i. e._ by cocks in courts), as seriously to impede the growth of
habits of cleanliness amongst the working classes. To which I venture to
add, as the expression of an opinion founded on communications from all
parts of the kingdom, that as a highly important sanitary measure
connected with any general building regulations, whether for villages or
for any class of towns, arrangements should be made for all houses to be
supplied with good water, and should be prescribed as being as essential
to cleanliness and health as the possession of a roof or of due space;
that for this purpose, and in places where the supplies are not at
present satisfactory, power should be vested in the most eligible local
administrative body, which will generally be found to be that having
charge of cleansing and structural arrangements, to procure proper
supplies for the cleansing of the streets, for sewerage, for protection
against fires, as well as for domestic use.
_Sanitary Effect of Land Drainage._
In considering the circumstances external to the residence which affect
the sanitary condition of the population, the importance of a general
land drainage is developed by the inquiries as to the causes of the
prevalent diseases, to be of a magnitude of which no conception had been
formed at the commencement of the investigation: its importance is
manifested by the severe consequences of its neglect in every part of
the country, as well as by its advantages in the increasing salubrity
and productiveness wherever the drainage has been skilful and effectual.
The following instance is presented in a report from _Mr. John Marshall,
Jun._, the clerk to the union in the Isle of Ely:—
“It has been shown that the Isle of Ely was at one period in a
desolate state, being frequently inundated by the upland waters, and
destitute of adequate means of drainage; the lower parts became a
wilderness of stagnant pools, the exhalations from which loaded the
air with pestiferous vapours and fogs; now, by the improvements which
have from time to time been made, and particularly within the last
fifty years, an alteration has taken place which may appear to be the
effect of magic. By the labour, industry, and spirit of the
inhabitants, a forlorn waste has been converted into pleasant and
fertile pastures, and they themselves have been rewarded by bounteous
harvests. Drainage, embankments, engines, and enclosures have given
stability to the soil (which in its nature is as rich as the Delta of
Egypt) as well as salubrity to the air. These very considerable
improvements, though carried on at a great expense, have at last
turned to a double account, both in reclaiming much ground and
improving the rest, and in contributing to the healthiness of the
inhabitants. Works of modern refinement have given a totally different
face and character to this once neglected spot; much has been
performed, much yet remains to be accomplished by the rising
generation. The demand for labour produced by drainage is
incalculable, but when it is stated that where sedge and rushes but a
few years since we now have fields of waving oats and even wheat, it
must be evident that it is very great.
“On reference to a very perfect account of the baptisms, marriages,
and burials, in Wisbech, from 1558 to 1826, I find that in the
decennial periods, of which 1801, 1811, and 1821, were the middle
years, the baptisms and burials were as under:—
Baptisms. Burials. Population in 1801.
1796 to 1805 1,627 1,535 4,710
1806 to 1815 1,654 1,313 5,209
1816 to 1825 2,165 1,390 6,515
“In the first of the three periods the mortality was 1 in 31; in the
second, 1 in 40; in the third, 1 in 47; the latter being less than the
exact mean mortality of the kingdom for the last two years. (_See
Registrar-general’s Second Report, p. 4, folio edition._) These
figures clearly show that the mortality has wonderfully diminished in
the last half century, and who can doubt but that the increased
salubrity of the fens produced by drainage is a chief cause of the
improvement.”
_Mr. R. Turner_, medical officer of the Newhaven union, states,—
“The district which has been under my care comprises five parishes,
three of which, viz., Kingston, Iford, and Rodmell, are (more
especially the two latter) situate in close proximity to marshes,
which were formerly for a considerable portion of the year inundated;
of late very extensive improvements have taken place in the drainage
of these levels, and in consequence of that change, the diseases
constantly engendered by marsh miasmata, viz., typhus and intermittent
fevers, are not more common than in other districts which present to
the eye a fairer prospect of health.”
_Mr. G. R. Rowe_, medical officer of the Ongar union, observes,—
“It is worthy of remark, that in the districts surrounding Chigwell no
malignant, infectious, or contagious disease has appeared during my
experience of thirty years’ occasional residence, and even during the
prevalence of cholera not one case occurred. The land is well drained,
the situation elevated, and the cleanly habits of the poor, with the
benevolence of its residents, have tended much to the prevention of
disease, and its amelioration when occurring.”
_Mr. W. Sanders_, medical officer of the Gravesend and Milton union,
states,—
“I beg leave to suggest how extreme are the beneficial effects of a
proper drainage, which shall prevent stagnant water, and its
deleterious consequences, accumulating in crowded neighbourhoods. This
is exemplified in this town, and also in Tilbury Fort opposite, which
is built on a marsh, and where, during the cholera period, then under
my care, not a single case occurred.”
_Mr. Emerson_, one of the medical officers of the Eastry union, states,—
“There is, I believe, no locality which has been for some years so
exempt from fevers of a malignant and contagious character as the
eastern coast of Kent. Accordingly, idiopathic fever, under the form
of synochus and typhus, very rarely occurs, and when it does appear,
is generally of an isolated kind. Intermittents, also, which fifteen
or twenty years since were so generally prevalent in this district,
have become comparatively of rare occurrence, and indeed have almost
disappeared from the catalogue of our local endemics. This exemption
from ague and other febrile epidemics of an infectious nature may be
justly imputed to the total absence of malaria, and of all those
causes which usually generate an unwholesome and contaminating
atmosphere, viz., from the whole district being secured from
inundations by the most complete and effectual system of drainage and
sewerage. Also, from the exposed state of the country favouring a free
and rapid evaporation from the surface of the soil.”
_Mr. George Elgar_, another of the medical officers of the Eastry union,
observes that,—
“The parishes forming the fifth district of the Eastry union, are,
with one or two exceptions, close to marshes separating the Isle of
Thanet from this portion of East Kent, and consequently, during the
spring and autumn, the inhabitants are exposed to the malaria
therefrom; but for these last few years, owing to the excellent plan
of draining, very few diseases have occurred (in my opinion) that can
be said to be produced by malaria. There is very little ague, scarcely
any continued fevers; and a case of typhus, I believe, has not been
known along the borders of the marshes for these last three or four
years. Some years back, a great portion of the parishes adjoining
these marshes was under water from the end of autumn to the early part
of the following spring; then, agues and fevers of all characters
prevailed to a very great extent. Although the malaria does not
produce diseases of any _decided character_, yet, during a wet spring
or autumn, there are always cases of inflammation of the lungs or
bowels, and rheumatism, both in acute and chronic forms. The houses in
general are good, well drained and well ventilated, having one or two
sitting-rooms, as many bed-rooms, sometimes more, scullery, &c., and
convenient receptacles for refuse and fuel. The cottages generally are
_extremely cleanly_; of course there must be some exceptions, where
the occupiers would not be clean and careful under any circumstances.”
_Mr. Spurgin_, the medical officer of the Dunmow union, states—
“In this district great attention is paid to the cultivation of land,
under drainage being much attended to, on which account partly we are
not exposed to malaria, neither does ague prevail to any extent. A few
cases have occurred, and when they have it has been for the most part
in individuals whose systems have been impaired by irregular habits,
and consequently the more readily affected by external impressions, as
atmospheric vicissitudes.”
_Mr. D. R. M’Nab_, the medical officer of the Epping union, states that—
“The health of the inhabitants of these two parishes is on the whole
highly satisfactory, as will appear by this return, but I would
observe that the sanitary condition of two localities would be greatly
improved by a little attention on the part of the public surveyors and
others to the drains and ditches immediately abutting on the dwellings
of the poor inhabitants. I refer more especially to that part of
Epping which is denominated the Back-street, and the greater part of
which is in the parish of Coopersall. In very wet weather the drains
and ditches are flooded; in very dry, on the contrary, they are by the
evaporation of the fluids rendered very offensive, and thus almost all
our cases of malignant fever are situated amongst those dwellings; if
the neighbourhood had been crowded with inhabitants the mischief would
have been much greater; and even as it now is, it has been the cause
of much fatality among the able-bodied men and women. The same
observations are applicable to Duck-lane in the parish of Weald, and
also at the Gullett, but in the latter case it is principally owing to
the carelessness and filth of one or two families, who have thrown all
sorts of excrementitious substances around their dwellings, and in the
course of putrefaction it has occasionally become pestiferous.
“I may also venture to add the following observation, after twenty-six
years’ practice in this neighbourhood, that I have scarcely ever had a
case of typhus fever in a malignant form without discovering some
stagnant drain or overcharged cesspool, or some other manifest cause
of malaria in the immediate residence of the patient.”
In the reports given from the parish ministers in the statistical
accounts of Scotland, the effects of drainage upon the general health of
the population are strongly marked in almost every county, expressed in
notes made from an examination of the returns. Sutherland—parish of
_Rogart_, “healthy, and a good deal of draining.” _Farr_, “subject to no
particular disease; a deal of draining.” Ross and Cromarty—_Alness_, dry
and healthy, “climate improved by drainage.” It is to be understood that
drainage appears to form the essential part of agricultural improvement,
which is connected with the improvement of health. Thus the notes from
another parish in the same county, _Kilmuir_, _Wester_ and _Suddy_,
states it as “healthy; great improvement; scarcely an acre in its
original state.” _Rosemarkie_, “healthy; agriculture much improved.”
Elgin—_New Spynie_, “healthy, much waste reclaimed, much draining.”
_Alves_, “dry and healthy, well cultivated, wood sometimes used for
drains.” Banff—_Deckford_, “healthy, and people long lived, much
draining.” Kincardine—_Fordoun_, “so much draining that now no swamps:
formerly, agues common, now quite unknown.” Angus—_Carmylie_, “health
improved from draining.” Kinross—_Kinross_, “agues prevalent sixty years
ago in consequence of marshes, now never met with.” _Oswell_, “ague
prevailed formerly, but not since the land was drained.”
Perth—_Methven_, “the north much improved by draining.” _Redgorton_,
“healthy; no prevailing disease; ague was frequent formerly, but not
since the land has been drained and planted.” _Moneydie_, “healthy; an
immense improvement by draining.” _Abernyte_, “since the land was
drained, scrofula rare and ague unknown.” _Monzie_, “healthy; a good
deal of land reclaimed.” _Auchterarder_, “much draining, and waste land
reclaimed—climate good.” _Muckhart_, “great improvement in agriculture;
ague formerly prevalent—not so now.” _Muthill_, “healthy, much draining
and cultivation extended.” And similar statements are made from the
rural districts in all parts of the country.
In the course of inquiries as to what have been the effects of land
drainage upon health, one frequent piece of information received has
been that the rural population had not observed the effects on their own
health, but they had marked the effects of drainage on the health and
improvement of the stock. Thus the less frequent losses of stock from
epidemics are beginning to be perceived as accompanying the benefits of
drainage in addition to those of increased vegetable production.
_Dr. Edward Harrison_, in a paper in which he points out the connexion
between the rot in sheep and other animals, and some important disorders
in the human constitution, observes:—
“The connexion between humidity and the rot is universally admitted by
experienced graziers; and it is a matter of observation, that since
the brooks and rivulets in the county of Lincoln have been better
managed, and the system of laying ground dry, by open ditches and
under-draining, has been more judiciously practised, the rot is become
far less prevalent. Sir John Pringle informs us, that persons have
maintained themselves in good health, during sickly seasons, by
inhabiting the upper stories of their houses; and I have reason to
believe that, merely by confining sheep on high grounds through the
night, they have escaped the rot.”
_Dr. Harrison_ makes some observations on the effects of imperfect
drainage in aggravating the evils intended to be remedied, of which
frequent instances are presented in the course of this inquiry:—
“A grazier of my acquaintance has, for many years, occupied a large
portion of an unenclosed fen, in which was a shallow piece of water
that covered about an acre and a half of land. To recover it for
pasturage, he cut in it several open ditches to let off the water, and
obtained an imperfect drainage. His sheep immediately afterwards
became liable to the rot, and in most years he lost some of them. In
1792 the drains failed so entirely, from the wetness of the season,
that he got another pond of living water, and sustained, in that
season, no loss of his flock. For a few succeeding years, he was
generally visited with the rot; but having satisfied himself by
experience, that whenever the pit was, from the weather, either
completely dry or completely under water, his flock was free from the
disorder, he attempted a more perfect drainage, and succeeded in
making the land dry at all times. Since that period he has lost no
sheep from the rot, though, till within the last two years, he
continued to occupy the fen. * * *
“Mr. Harrison, of Fisherton, near Lincoln, has by judicious management
laid the greatest part of his farm completely dry, and is now little
troubled with the rot, unless when he wishes to give it to some
particular animals. His neighbours, who have been less provident, are
still severe sufferers by it, nor are their misfortunes confined to
sheep alone. Pigs, cows, asses, horses, poultry, hares, and rabbits,
become rotten in this lordship, and have flukes in their
livers. * * * *
“The late Mr. Bakewell was of opinion, that after May-Day, he could
communicate the rot at pleasure, by flooding, and afterwards stocking
his closes, while they were drenched and saturated with moisture. In
summer, rivers and brooks are often suddenly swollen by
thunder-storms, so as to pass over their banks, and cover the adjacent
low lands. In this state, no injury is sustained during the
inundation; but when the water returns to its former channel, copious
exhalations are produced from the swamps and low lands, which are
exceedingly dangerous to the human constitution, and to several other
animals, as well as sheep. * *