It can be proved by incontestable evidence, that the ancient Greeks
and Romans endeavoured, by means of some covering, to secure from
injury the hoofs of their horses and other animals of burden; but
it is equally certain that our usual shoes, which are nailed on,
were invented much later[1376]. We are told by Aristotle[1377] and
Pliny[1378], that shoes were put upon camels in the time of war, and
during long journeys; and the former gives them the same name as that
given to the shoes, or rather socks or soles, of the common people,
which were made of strong ox-leather. When the hoofs of cattle,
particularly oxen, had sustained any hurt, they were furnished with
shoes, made of some plant of the hemp kind[1379], wove or plaited
together[1380]. These indeed were only a sort of chirurgical bandages;
but such shoes were given in particular to mules, which in ancient
times were employed more than at present for riding; and it appears by
two instances of immoderate extravagance handed down to us by Roman
writers, that people of rank caused these shoes to be made very costly.
Nero, when he undertook short journeys, was drawn always by mules which
had silver shoes[1381]; and those of his wife Poppæa had shoes of
gold[1382]. The information of these authors however is not sufficient
to enable us to conjecture how these shoes were made; but from a
passage of Dio Cassius we have reason to think that the upper part only
was formed of those noble metals, or that they were perhaps plaited out
of thin slips[1383].
Arrian also reckons these soles or shoes among the riding-furniture
of an ass[1384]. Xenophon relates that certain people of Asia were
accustomed, when the snow lay deep on the ground, to draw socks over
the feet of their horses, as they would otherwise, he adds, have sunk
up to the bellies in the snow[1385]. I cannot comprehend how their
sinking among the snow could, by such means, have been prevented; and
I am inclined rather to believe, that their feet were covered in that
manner in order to save them from being wounded. The Russians, in some
parts, such as Kamtschatka, employ the same method in regard to the
dogs which draw their sledges, or catch seals on the ice. They are
furnished with shoes which are bound round their feet, and which are so
ingeniously made that their claws project through small holes[1386].
The shoes of the Roman cattle must have been very ill fastened, as they
were so readily lost in stiff clay[1387]; and it appears that they were
not used during a whole journey, but were put on either in miry places,
or at times when pomp or the safety of the cattle required it; for we
are informed by Suetonius, that the coachman of Vespasian once stopped
on the road to put on the shoes of his mules[1388].
The reason why mention of these shoes on horses occurs so seldom,
undoubtedly is, because, at the time when the before-quoted authors
wrote, mules and asses were more employed than horses, as has been
already remarked by Scheffer and others. Artemidorus speaks of a shod
horse, and makes use of the same expression employed in regard to other
cattle[1389]. Winkelmann has described a cut stone in the collection
of Baron Stosch[1390], on which is represented the figure of a man
holding up one foot of a horse, while another, kneeling, is employed
in fastening on a shoe. These are all the proofs of horses being shod
among the ancients with which I am acquainted. That they were never
shod in war, or at any rate, that these socks were not sufficient
to defend the hoof from injury, seems evident from the testimony of
various authors. When Mithridates was besieging Cyzicus, he was obliged
to send his cavalry to Bithynia, because the hoofs of the horses were
entirely spoiled and worn out[1391]. In the Latin translation it is
added that this was occasioned by the horses not having shoes; but
there are no such words in the original, which seems rather to afford a
strong proof that in the army of Mithridates there was nothing of the
kind. The case seems to have been the same in the army of Alexander;
for we are told by Diodorus Siculus, that with uninterrupted marching
the hoofs of his horses were totally broken and destroyed[1392]. An
instance of the like kind is to be found in Cinnamus, where the cavalry
were obliged to be left behind, as they had suffered considerably in
the hoofs; an evil, says the historian, to which horses are often
liable[1393].
From what has been said I think I may venture to draw this conclusion,
that the ancient Greek and Roman cavalry had not always, or in
common, a covering for the hoofs of their horses, and that they
were not acquainted with shoes like those used at present, which
are nailed on. In the remains of ancient sculpture, among the ruins
of Persepolis[1394], on Trajan’s pillar, those of Antoninus, Marcus
Aurelius, and many others, no representation of them is to be found;
and one can never suppose that the artists designedly omitted them,
as they have imitated with the utmost minuteness the shoes of the
soldiers, and the nails which fasten on the iron that surrounds
the wheels of carriages. The objection that the artists have not
represented the shoes then in use, and that for the same reason they
might have omitted shoes such as ours though common, is of no weight;
for the former were used only very seldom; they were not given to every
horse, and when they were drawn over the hoof and made fast, they had
an awkward appearance, which would not have been the case with iron
shoes like those of the moderns. A basso-relievo, it is true, may
still be seen in the Mattei palace at Rome, on which is represented a
hunting-match of Gallienus, and where one of the horses has a real iron
shoe on one of his feet. From this circumstance Fabretti[1395] infers
that the use of horse-shoes is of the same antiquity as that piece of
sculpture; but Winkelmann has remarked, that this foot is not ancient,
and that it has been added by a modern artist[1396].
I will readily allow that proofs drawn from an object not being
mentioned in the writings of the ancients are of no great importance,
and that they may be even very often false. I am however of opinion,
whatever may be said to the contrary, that Polybius, Xenophon in his
book on riding and horsemanship, Julius Pollux in his Dictionary
where he mentions fully everything that relates to horse-furniture
and riding-equipage, and the authors who treat on husbandry and the
veterinary art, could not possibly have omitted to take notice of
horse-shoes, had they been known at those periods when they wrote.
Can we suppose that writers would be silent respecting the shoeing of
horses, had it been practised, when they speak so circumstantially of
the breeding and rearing of these animals, and prescribe remedies for
the diseases and accidents to which they are liable? On account of
the danger which arises from horses being badly shod, the treatment
of all those disorders to which they are incident has been committed
to farriers; and is it in the least probable that this part of their
employment should have been entirely forgotten by Vegetius and the
rest of the ancients, who studied the nature and maladies of cattle?
They indeed speak seldom, and not very expressly, of the ancient shoes
put on horses; but this is not to be wondered at, as they had little
occasion to mention them, because they gave rise to no particular
infirmity. Where they could be of utility, they have recommended them,
which plainly shows that the use of them was not then common. Gesner
remarks very properly, that Lycinus, in Lucian, who was unacquainted
with riding, when enumerating the many dangers to which he might be
exposed by mounting on horseback, speaks only of being trod under the
feet of the cavalry, without making any mention of the injury to be
apprehended from iron shoes. To be sensible, however, of the full force
of this argument, one must read the whole passage[1397]. Many of the
ancient historians also, when they speak of armies, give an account of
all those persons who were most necessary in them, and of the duties
which they performed; but farriers are not even mentioned. When it was
necessary for the horses to have shoes, each rider put them upon his
own; no persons in particular were requisite for that service; but had
shoes, such as those of the moderns, been then in use, the assistance
of farriers would have been indispensable.
As our horse-shoes were unknown to the ancients, they employed the
utmost care to procure horses with strong hoofs[1398], and for the
same reason they tried every method possible to harden the hoofs and
to render them more durable. Precepts for this purpose may be found in
Xenophon[1399], Vegetius[1400], and other authors. It indeed appears
wonderful to us, that the use of iron shoes should have remained so
long unknown; but it was certainly a bold attempt to nail a piece of
iron, for the first time, under the foot of a horse; and I firmly
believe that there are many persons at present, who, had they never
seen such a thing, would doubt the possibility of it if they heard
it mentioned. Horse-shoes, however, are not absolutely necessary;
horses in many countries are scarce, and in some they are not shod
even at present. This is still the case in Ethiopia, in Japan, and in
Tartary[1401]. In Japan, shoes, such as those of the ancients, are
used. Iron shoes are less necessary in places where the ground is soft
and free from stones; and it appears to me very probable, that the
practice of shoeing became more common as the paving of streets was
increased. There were paved highways indeed at a very early period,
but they were a long time scarce, and were to be found only in opulent
countries. But when roads covered with gravel were almost everywhere
constructed, the hoofs of the horses would have soon been destroyed
without iron shoes, and the preservatives before employed would have
been of very little service.
However strong I consider these proofs, which show that the ancients
did not give their horses shoes such as ours, I think it my duty to
mention and examine those grounds from which men of learning and
ingenuity have affirmed the contrary. Vossius lays great stress, in
particular, upon a passage of Xenophon, who, as he thinks, recommends
the preservation of the hoofs by means of iron. Gesner, however,
has explained the words used by that author so clearly as to leave
no doubt that Vossius judged too rashly. Xenophon[1402] only gives
directions to harden the hoofs of a horse, and to make them stronger
and more durable; which is to be done, he says, by causing him to walk
and to stamp with his feet in a place covered with stones. He describes
the stones proper for this purpose; and that they may be retained in
their position, he advises that they should be bound down with cramps
of iron. The word which Vossius refers to the hoofs, alludes without
doubt to the stones which were to be kept together by the above means.
Xenophon, in another work, repeats the same advice[1403], and says that
experience will soon show how much the hoofs will be strengthened by
this operation.
Vossius considers also as an argument in his favour the expressions
used by Homer and other poets when they speak of iron-footed and
brazen-footed horses, loud-sounding hoofs, &c., and is of opinion that
such epithets could be applied only to horses that had iron shoes. But
if we recollect that hard and strong hoofs were among the properties
of a good horse, we shall find that these expressions are perfectly
intelligible without calling in the assistance of modern horse-shoes.
Xenophon employs the like comparisons free from poetical ornament,
and explains them in a manner sufficiently clear. The hoofs, says he,
must be so hard, that when the horse strikes the ground, they may
resound like a cymbal. Eustathius, the scholiast of Aristophanes, and
Hesychius, have also explained these expressions as alluding to the
hardness and solidity of the hoofs. Of the same kind is the _equus
sonipes_ of the Roman poet[1404]; and the stags and oxen with metal
feet[1405], mentioned in fabulous history, which undoubtedly were not
shod. Epithets of the like nature were applied by the poets to persons
who had a strong voice[1406].
Le Beau quotes a passage of Tryphiodorus, which on the first view seems
to allude to a real horse-shoe. This author, where he speaks of the
construction of the Trojan horse, says that the artist did not forget
the metal or iron on the hoofs[1407]. But supposing it true that the
author here meant real shoes, this would be no proof of their being
known at the time of the Trojan war, and we could only be authorised
to allow them the same antiquity as the period when the poet wrote.
That however is not known. According to the most probable conjectures,
it was between the reign of Severus and that of Anastasius, or between
the beginning of the third and the sixth century. Besides, the whole
account may be understood as alluding to the ancient shoes. At any
rate, it ought to be explained in this manner till it be proved by
undisputed authorities that shoes, such as those of the moderns, were
used in the time of the above poet.
Vossius asserts that he had in his possession a Greek manuscript on
the veterinary art, in which there were some figures, where the nails
under the feet of the horses could be plainly distinguished. But we are
ignorant whether the manuscript or the figures still exist, nor is the
antiquity of either of them known. It is probable that shoes were given
to the horses by a modern transcriber, in the same manner as another
put a pen into the hand of Aristotle.
In my opinion we must expect to meet with the first certain information
respecting horse-shoes in much later writers than those in which it
has been hitherto sought for, and supposed to have been discovered.
Were it properly ascertained that the piece of iron found in the grave
of Childeric was really a part of a horse-shoe, I should consider it
as affording the first information on this subject, and should place
the use of modern horse-shoes in the eighth century. But I do not
think that the certainty of its being so is established in a manner
so complete as has hitherto been believed. Those who affirm that this
piece of iron had exactly the shape of a modern horse-shoe, judged
only from an engraving, and did not perceive that the figure was
enlarged[1408]. The piece of iron itself, which seemed to have four
holes on each side, was so consumed with rust, that it broke while
an attempt was made to clear them; and undoubtedly it could not be so
perfect as the engraving.
The account given by Pancirollus induced me to hope that I should
find in Nicetas undoubted evidence of horse-shoes being used about
the beginning of the thirteenth century; but that writer has deceived
both himself and his readers, by confining himself to the translation.
After the death of Henry Baldwin, the Latins threw down a beautiful
equestrian statue of brass, which some believed to be that of Joshua.
When the feet of the horse were carried away, an image was found under
one of them which represented a Bulgarian, and not a Latin as had
been before supposed. Such is the account of Nicetas; but Pancirollus
misrepresents it entirely; for he says that the image was found under
a piece of iron torn off from one of the feet of the horse, and which
he considers therefore as a horse-shoe. The image, however, appears
to have represented a vanquished enemy, and to have been placed in an
abject posture under the feet of the statue (a piece of flattery which
artists still employ), and to have been so situated that it could not
be distinctly seen till the whole statue was broken to pieces. Hence
perhaps arose the vengeance of the Latins against the statue, because
that small figure was by some supposed to represent one of their
nation[1409].
As it appeared to me that the words used by ancient authors to express
shoes[1410] occurred less frequently in the writers of later periods,
I conjectured that modern horse-shoes, in order that they should be
distinguished from the ancient shoes, might have received a particular
new name, under which I had never found them mentioned. In the course
of my researches, therefore, I thought of the Greek word _selinaia_,
the meaning of which I had before attempted to explain; and I am now
fully convinced that it signifies horse-shoes, such as those used at
present, as has been already remarked by others. As far as I know,
that word occurs, for the first time, in the ninth century, in the
works of the Emperor Leo[1411]: and this antiquity of horse-shoes is
in some measure confirmed by their being mentioned in the writings of
Italian, English, and French authors of the same century. When Boniface
marquis of Tuscany, one of the richest princes of his time, went to
meet Beatrix, his bride, mother of the well-known Matilda, about the
year 1038, his whole train was so magnificently decorated, that his
horses were not shod with iron but with silver. The nails even were of
the same metal; and when any of them dropped out they belonged to those
who found them. The marquis appears to have imitated Nero; but this
anecdote may be only a fiction. It is related by a contemporary writer;
but, unfortunately, his account is in verse; and the author, perhaps
sensible of his inability to make his subject sufficiently interesting
by poetical ornaments, availed himself of the license claimed by poets
to relate something singular and uncommon[1412]. However this may be,
it is certain that the shoes of the horses must have been fastened on
with nails, otherwise the author could not have mentioned them.
Daniel, the historian, seems to give us to understand that in the ninth
century horses were not shod always, but only in the time of frost, and
on other particular occasions[1413]. The practice of shoeing appears
to have been introduced into England by William the Conqueror. We are
informed that this sovereign gave the city of Northampton as a fief to
a certain person, in consideration of his paying a stated sum yearly
for the shoeing of horses[1414]; and it is believed that Henry de
Ferres or de Ferrers, who came over with William, and whose descendants
still bear in their arms six horse-shoes, received that surname
because he was entrusted with the inspection of the farriers[1415].
I shall here observe, that horse-shoes have been found, with other
riding-furniture, in the graves of some of the old Germans and Vandals
in the northern countries; but the antiquity of them cannot be
ascertained[1416].