distinction at the court of the Nabob Vizier of Oude, AZOPH UL DOWLAH,
with whom his extreme urbanity, suavity of manners, ingenuity, and
incorruptible integrity, rendered him a great favorite. The courtiers
apprehended, that, through the united intelligence of Colonel Polier,
and of Colonel Claude Martine, whose genius in every mechanical art was
on a par with that of the former in the polite arts, as well as in most
branches of useful science, the several expensive establishments
supported by the Nabob would ultimately be set aside, as useless, and as
devouring a revenue, which might be turned towards purposes in which
they should have no concern; or, at least, no profit. Therefore,
notwithstanding his highness’s positive orders, most of the
indispensables were either withheld, or, when furnished at all, proved
of the worst quality: any man less mild than Polier, would have insisted
on a due attention to his requisitions; but he forbore from
remonstrance, except when so closely pressed as to render representation
inevitable. Whenever, in spite of all direct hostility, and of underhand
resistance, the Colonel fulfilled his wishes, displaying the complete
success of his ingenuity and learning; then, all was cried down as
_j’haddoo_, as witch-craft; and the whole body of Mahomedan
ecclesiastics joined to crush the growth of science.
Being provided with an ample still, and having very extensive
plantations of roses, in which I have often passed a leisure hour,
admiring equally their fragrance, and the amiable qualities of their
planter, the Colonel made a shift to carry on his operations, but not
with invariable success; the native distillers having frequently
influenced his servants, by means of bribes, to mix various ingredients,
which either tainted, or otherwise deteriorated, the produce of his
still. At length, after a great variety of experiments, in which he, of
course, experienced many most mortifying, and equally unaccountable
disappointments, he hit upon the just proportions, and the most
favorable process. His method was as follows. To a maund (_i.e._ 82lb.)
of roses, he put about a maund and a half of water: the roses being
entire, and having their stems cut away close under the chalices. These
being all duly mixed, by hand, in the still, a gentle fire was made
under it; the head not being applied until the water began to throw off
a vapor: after that, it was put on, and carefully luted down. The fire
was, throughout the distillation, kept rather slow than fierce;
especially after about a tenth part of the water had come over into the
receiver: in about five hours, half the water had come over tolerably
clear. The rose-water thus obtained, was again put to another maund of
roses, which were subjected to the same operation, until about half its
quantity had passed into the receiver. As the former was called ‘single
rose-water,’ so was this designated ‘double rose-water;’ but it is
evident that the term ‘quadruple’ would be more appropriate, since
_double the quantity of perfume was brought into half the former space_.
The produce of the last distillation was put into broad pans, either of
earthen ware, or of tinned metal, and left exposed, during the night, to
the cold air.
Here, I should remark, that the roses generally bloom early in the year,
and that, during the month of January, sometimes, also, in February, ice
is produced by pouring hot water into shallow pans of porous crockery;
which, being placed on beds of loose sand, in exposed situations, during
the whole night, generally yield a substantial pellicle, and, in very
favorable instances, sometimes cause the whole of the water to be
congealed. The colonel’s object, in exposing the rose-water, as above
shewn, was to congeal the essential oil, called _attar_, which has the
peculiar property of becoming compact, and flaky, when exposed to a
degree of cold far above freezing point; in this instance, bearing some
affinity to animal oils in general.
Now, it is evident, that such an exposure subjected the _attar_, which
floated on the surface as it became cold, to the access of dust, at
least, if not of other grosser rubbish; therefore the plan was certainly
injudicious: this the colonel soon perceived, for the quantity of, what
he considered to be, _fæces_, proved that there was some mismanagement.
Accordingly, he took a hint, and, while the rose-water was yet lukewarm,
poured it into a large _caraboy_, or glass bottle; so as to fill it
completely. The _caraboy_ was then subjected to a refrigerating process;
by which the _attar_ was condensed on its surface in its neck, whence it
was easily removed into a large-mouthed phial, furnished with a ground
stopper. What little adhered to the neck of the _caraboy_, did not come
away with the rose-water, as it was poured off, but, on the vessel being
reversed, and subjected to a considerable degree of heat, dropped slowly
into a phial placed below it, but protected from the action of the fire.
The products in _attar_ have been widely different. The natives rarely
obtain more than a drachm and a half from a maund of roses; whereas
Colonel Polier obtained full two drachms from a hundred pounds troy. In
Europe, we find that some continental chymists have extracted half an
ounce: Hamberg succeeded so far as to draw a whole ounce, and Hoffman
was rewarded with no less than two ounces. All these persons, however,
rejected the chalices; using only the petals; which necessarily made a
great difference, the perfume being, principally, if not wholly,
confined to them.
The rose-water, even after the _attar_ has been completely separated, is
rich in fragrance, but is far more so, when the _attar_ is suffered to
remain united with it, as may be effected by the addition of various
_menstrua_, which keep it suspended in the fluid. The general price of
such rose-water as is ordinarily sold under the designation of ‘double,’
and, of course, passes for the very best, may be from twenty, to forty,
rupees per maund, according as the season may have been productive, or
as the purchase may be made from the distiller himself, or through a
second or a third hand.
Colonel Polier states that the quantity of _attar_ obtained from nearly
fifty-five maunds of roses, which grew upon about eleven acres of good
soil, highly manured, amounted to sixteen _tolahs_, or about half a
pound avoirdupoise. This gives us some insight into the value of the
_attar_; for, if we allow the land to have been worth a guinea per acre,
and that the cultivation, together with the expences of distillation,
should amount to as much more, the following would be the state of the
concern.
£. _s._ _d._ £. _s._ _d._
Rent of 11 acres, (or 33 _bigahs_,) 11 11 0 23 2 0
Expences of cultivation, &c. 11 11 0
‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒
Against which we have
Sixteen _tolahs_ of _attar_, say at two
guineas, 33 12 0
About thirteen and a half maunds of
rose-water, say at only 20 rupees, or
£2. 10s. per maund 33 10 0
‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒
Giving a total of receipts equal to 67 2 0
‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒
And a nett produce on 11 acres, of 44 0 0
‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒
Equal per acre, to the yearly sum of 4 0 0
‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒
In the above, I have taken the _attar_ at far less than the price it at
present bears, and the rose-water at the rate usually charged at
Juanpore, Lucknow, &c. for a maund of the best rose-water, at the time
Colonel Polier’s experiment, above detailed, was dated, namely, in 1787.
If my information is correct, the best _attar_ now sells at Calcutta for
near six guineas the ounce; and the best rose-water at Juanpore, where a
large quantity is distilled, for thirty-five and forty rupees per maund.
The expence of the cultivation is taken at about seven rupees monthly,
on an average; there being no work of consequence performed, except
hoeing, for full eight months in the year. The rent of the land is rated
at the ordinary medium at which I compute soils suited to the growth of
tobacco, cotton, sugar, opium, &c. to be of late, that is, at about 2½
rupees, or eight shillings per _bigah_.
In Doctor Willich’s Encyclopædia, I observe it is stated, that genuine
_attar_ sells, even in the East Indies, at twenty guineas the ounce; but
I apprehend this to be a great error; at least, it is far beyond what
the experience of more than twenty years allows me to credit. If,
indeed, the Doctor means that which the _gundies_ retail, by mixing only
_one drop_ of genuine _attar_ among pint of oil of sandal-wood, as is
often practised, he is far short of the mark; for, in such case, the
ounce may be said to sell for nearer fifty, than twenty guineas.
The color of _attar_, is remarked by Colonel Polier, ‘to be no criterion
of its goodness, its quality, or its country.’ That gentleman states,
that he had, in the same year, and from the same rose-bushes, _attar_ of
a fine emerald green, of a bright yellow, and of a reddish hue, all
obtained by the same process, only that the roses were collected on
different days.
Here I am disposed to suspect, that the old trick, so peremptorily
detected by Doctor and Professor Gilchrist, of mixing a solution of
verdigris, or other coloring matter, in the still, or in the receiver,
must have been practised by some of the Colonel’s attendants. It has
been sufficiently proved, that, when no such adulteration takes place,
_attar_ very nearly limpid: but, though a color may be thus imparted, it
does not appear that the perfume is debased; its fragrance being
unimpaired: on the other hand, the admixture of any other oil is readily
discovered, by its causing the disposition to liquescence, even when
exposed to severe cold, which distinguishes every other known perfume
from genuine _attar_.
Some ladies anoint their bodies with scented oils, but, for the most
part, a predilection exists in favor of that extracted from the
_sesamum_, or mustard seed; which is likewise in very general use
throughout every branch of culinary preparation, among the natives of
every sect. When the oil is applied to the body, (over every part of
which it is smeared, the gratified individual generally exposing himself
to the influence of the sun while the unction is performing,) it is in
its raw state; but when intended for sauce, it is, on account of the
peculiar rankness of its flavor, subjected to the following simple
operation, whereby it is very considerably sweetened; though not
divested of a certain flavor by which its presence may always be
detected. The oil is put into a deep vessel, either earthen or of metal,
having some kind of lid, such as a flat pan, &c. to retain the heat
while the oil is preparing: when it boils, and crackles, one side of the
lid is lifted, and a small quantity of cold water thrown in, the lid
being shut down as quickly as possible, lest the oil, which flies
immediately when touched by the water, should scald the operator. This
is repeated three or four times, at short intervals, and the oil is thus
nearly divested of its unpleasant and acrimonious flavor. Both sexes
anoint their bodies with the oil of _sesamum_, commonly called by
Europeans ‘_mosaul_ oil,’ from its being invariably used by the
_mosaulchies_ to feed the flames of their links, or _mosauls_: by the
natives it is designated _kurwah-tale_, or ‘bitter oil.’ In some
instances, we see turmeric mixed with it, for the purpose of excitement
to perspiration! this absurd practice is not very general, but one would
suppose the fallacy of such an opinion must long ago have been
discovered, and that the turmeric would have been found rather to add to
that obstruction, inevitably created by the oil, than to promote
diaphoresis. The only intention that seems truly to be answered by the
unction, is that of _stopping_ the pores: hence, we see all the poor
people, throughout India, avail themselves, whenever the means offer, of
a handful or two of _kurwah-tale_, to rub over their skins, during the
winter season especially; thereby to resist the cold air: many, who can
afford but a light kind of cloathing, and are not competent to purchase
quilted jackets, would be almost frozen, were it not for this device.
This practice, so extremely common, I might say, universal, throughout
India, seems to be at variance with the opinions of our physicians, who
consider it highly dangerous to close too many of the pores at one time.
That it is done with impunity in India, is too well known to require any
evidence being here adduced: nay, more, such unctions are recommended in
high fevers, by the native doctors, (generally Bramins,) who likewise
prescribe a thick plaistering of pounded herbs to be in such cases
applied all over the body. This, which rarely fails to produce relief,
is evidently the basis of that refrigerant course adopted, of late
years, by some of our most celebrated medical characters.
As a perfume, the more delicate ladies of India rub themselves with
various drugs, not very gratifying to the olfactory nerves of our
Europeans; the same is also used for the hair. A few use a kind of
pomade, made extemporaneously of orange peels, ground fine upon a stone,
and mixed with flour, made from peas, called _basin_. This is really
fragrant, as well as cleansing; but I cannot so much admire the sandal
some substitute for the _citric aroma_; it being of a peculiarly sickly
scent, which does not easily wash out of linen.
With respect to religious ablutions, the natures of every sect, but
especially the Bramins, are very particular; even fastidiously so: all
bathe at least once daily before their dinner hour, whatever may be the
state of the weather, repairing either to some neighbouring river, or to
a pond, (or _tank_,) for that purpose. There they walk up to their
waists in the water; and, placing their thumbs in their ears, and their
fore-fingers pressing their nostrils, immerse themselves, by squatting
suddenly upon their haunches, several times in succession; generally
repeating various prayers on these occasions. All take this opportunity
to wash their _doties_, and other parts of their apparel; having in
readiness dry cloaths to put on, but which are, of course, left upon the
shore. It is curious to see, as may often be done at some _ghauts_, or
wharfs, hundreds of persons bathing in this manner at the same time; the
water is often thronged for the whole day; especially at Benares,
Allahabad, Betoor, and other sacred cities, to which pilgrims resort
from immense distances for that purpose. At particular times, it is
supposed that nearly a million of persons assemble to bathe in the
Ganges; whence it must appear extremely curious to the European reader,
that scarce an instance is known of any person losing his cloaths while
bathing: perhaps it may be in some measure owing to that astonishing
concourse of barbers, who officíate previous to each person entering the
sacred stream; and who usually take charge of, or at least have an eye
to, the vestments left for his use on returning from the water.
At all the bathing-places the sexes intermix promiscuously; each being
in their usual cloathing: this does not, however, relate to women of a
superior class, who are not suffered to go abroad except in close
vehicles, and who, were they voluntarily to shew their faces to any
male, except their husbands, would be in danger of losing their heads:
such never bathe in the river but under ample precautions. A spot is
selected, where the water shoals gradually, and where the bather cannot
be overlooked from any height, &c. There, an area is enclosed, by means
of _kanauts_, supported to the height of perhaps eight feet, or more, by
means of bamboo poles, kept in their places by ropes fastened to stakes,
or to poles driven into the sand. The lady is carried to an overlap, or
opening, in the _kanauts_, mostly in a covered carriage, of which the
driver retires, taking with him the oxen, and leaving the machine
enclosed within the area, where it serves the purpose of a
dressing-room. The female servants attend the interior, while the
exterior is guarded by centinels, or perhaps by eunuchs, on the land
side; and, towards any navigable channel a boat is stationed, to prevent
the approach of strangers. But few Mahomedan women bathe in this manner;
they, as well as their husbands, generally content themselves with
having five or six large pots of water thrown over their heads; the
generality of Europeans ordinarily bathe in this way daily during the
hot season; and, on some occasions, even the pious Hindu resorts to the
same domestic ablution; though it is held far inferior to immersion in
the Ganges, or in such stream as should, by being within a reasonable
distance, preclude all pleas of inconvenience. Bigots will often travel
several miles to be laved by the holy fluid; while others will scarcely
go as many yards to enjoy that reputed blessing. All, however, must
conform, to a certain extent, to the law; and it is but justice to say,
that, whether owing to habit, or to veneration, the number of trespasses
is very, very limitted. We may suppose, that, in so hot a climate,
bathing must be a luxury; this should be taken _cum grano salis_; for,
at some seasons, the waters are by no means inviting: I have often gone
into a bath in December and January, when the sensations were truly
painful.
Mahomedans, in opulent circumstances, and especially those of rank,
generally have baths lined with marble, or with masonry, in some private
apartments, to which their families can have immediate access. These
baths are sometimes furnished with the means of having water heated to
any temperature; as is invariably the case with all the public baths to
be seen at Calcutta, and the several great cities throughout the East.
These baths, which are called _hummums_, (whence we have derived the
term,) are extremely convenient; and, if properly used, no less
conducive to health. It is necessary, after quitting them, to be
extremely cautious in allowing access to the atmospheric temperature, on
account of the perfect cleansing given to the skin, by the attendants,
who by means of _hautties_, (a kind of glove, made of hair, or very
coarse wool,) bring off such a quantity of scurf as astonishes those who
consider themselves to be very cleanly in their persons. These men cause
every joint in the bather’s whole frame to crack; thereby giving,
sometimes, no inconsiderable pain: to this, however, the natives are so
fully accustomed, as to consider it absolutely a luxury. Although the
_hummums_ are much frequented by Mahomedans, yet, I believe, they are
chiefly supported by the resort of Armenians, Greeks, Portugueze, and
English gentlemen.
The waters throughout the East are infested by alligators of an enormous
size; of which, some are most sanguinary depredators. It often happens
that a bather is carried off daily from a _ghaut_, perhaps for a
fortnight in succession; when the evil is put a stop to by some lucky
shot, which either kills the alligator, or causes him to quit the
vicinity. Such is the faith entertained by all the natives, whether
Mussulmans or Hindus, regarding predestination, that, although, on such
occasions, they proceed to the _ghaut_ with obvious apprehension, they
allow no intermission to take place in the ablutionary duties, on
account of those depredations they may have daily witnessed for some
time before. This species of absurdity may be discovered, in a thousand
shapes, in the conduct of predestinarians, who affect to believe in that
previous arrangement which renders all human precaution unavailing.
These persons, at the same time, shew great anxiety to have the
alligator killed; consequently, may be fairly considered as aiming to
subvert the ordinations of fate!
Though the native women retained by European gentlemen very rarely
proceed to the rivers to bathe, but content themselves with either the
use of a small bath of masonry, or with pots of water, they are,
nevertheless, extremely fond of going abroad in a _palanquin_, or a
_r’hut_, attended by their _dhyes_, and with the _guttah-tope_, or
cover, of the vehicle, brought down close on all sides. It certainly
would be uncharitable to annex a bad motive, as inseparable from _all_
such excursions, yet it may probably be considered as a general rule,
that such ladies either take the air with the intention of meeting some
established gallant, or that they ultimately give way to the flattery
and whisperings of their menials, who are rarely proof against a very
moderate bribe, and are frequently known to throw an admirer, as though
accidentally, in the way of Madam’s notice.
However recluse we may suppose the Hindostanee ladies to be, some
allowance must be made for certain amusements peculiar to India, in
which they indulge. The acceptance and transmission of compliments and
civilities, afford no small gratification; the arrival, or despatch, of
a complimentary _pawn_, (beetle,) or of an _elauҫhee_, (cardamom,) being
matters of considerable importance, among a race whose whole time may be
said to be devoted to whatever is childish or insignificant. When visits
are paid, much ceremony is used, and every endeavor is exerted, on
either part, to appear well-bred and affable; on such occasions, a
profusion of compliments are exchanged, while each narrowly observes the
dress, the equipage, and the conduct of the other, but reserves her
observations until a free vent may be given to envy and jealousy; not
forgetting a little scandal.
Some ladies affect to possess a musical ear, and exercise not only their
own lungs, but those of their attendants also, in vociferating various
common-place songs, accompanying their captivating strains with
tremendous thumps on a large long drum, called a _dhole_; or perhaps
shewing the agility of their fingers in playing upon a very small kind
of tambourine, called a _coonjerry_. Woe be to that kind-keeper who
should dissent from the fair one’s opinion, regarding either the
excellence of her performance, or the pleasing tones of the instruments!
Where this infatuation exists, the whole neighbourhood is compelled to
submit to the nuisance. There would be no use in remonstrating with the
lady, through the medium of her servants: and as to parleying with the
gentleman on such a subject, that would give great offence; or, at all
events, would be unavailing. The man who submits to such an uproar, ‘for
the sake of a _quiet_ life’, may be considered a living illustration of
Shakespeare’s ludicrous, but most wholesome lesson,—‘The ewe that will
not hear its lamb when it bleats, will never attend to a calf when it
baes.’ In truth, some of these ladies ride upon very high horses, and
keep the whip-hand most manfully! a circumstance we should by no means
expect, after hearing, perhaps, that their respective names were
‘_Chembayly_’, (jasmine,) ‘_Golaub_’, (rose-water,) ‘_Miscery_’,
(sugar,) ‘_Gool-beegum_’, (queen of roses,) ‘_Meevah-Jehan_’, (the fruit
of life:) though, perhaps, those known by the name of ‘_Soorooj_’,
(_i.e._ the sun,) might lay claim to some authority, without acting so
grossly in opposition to their nomenclature.
When we consider the very severe privation experienced by females in
general, (for our country-women often affect to adopt the recluse
severities of the _haram_;) it cannot appear surprizing, that young
girls so immured, in such a climate, so indulged occasionally, and so
beset with bawds, should allow themselves to be led astray from what I
must, perhaps erroneously, call ‘the ways of chastity.’ I am aware, that
the term may offend many, who consider the female as being already in a
state of prostitution; but due allowance must be made for the usages of
the country. In India, a woman ‘_under the protection_’ of an European
gentleman, is accounted, not only among the natives, but even by his
countrymen, to be equally sacred, as though she were married to him; and
the woman herself, values her reputation, exactly in proportion as she
may have refrained from indulging in variety: some are said to have
passed twenty years, or more, without the possibility for scandal to
attach to their conduct. We might further take into consideration, that,
even according to the Mahomedan law, there are various degrees of
connubial attachment, from the strictest, and most formal, union, down
to what we should call a very loose kind of left-handed marriage. These
are, however, sanctioned by that law, if performed according to enjoined
ceremonies.