its borders, is here chewed with shell-lime, as practised throughout the
East: wild pine-apples, plantains, and the greatest variety of tropical
fruits, are scattered over mountains exhibiting a verdure of peculiar
richness, and presenting, on the aggregate, one of the richest scenes
imaginable. Not a horse is to be seen on the island; but plenty of
excellent cattle thrive uncommonly on the rich pastures of the vallies;
through most of which streams of the purest water, every where broken by
rocks, or gliding over shallow beds of gravelly sand, pursue their eager
course. It is rather peculiar, that, among other poultry, the Guinea
fowl should abound; thousands may be seen in a wild state, if it may be
so termed, when, by throwing a handful of grain at your feet, all will
instantly approach to participate of the bounty.
Musquitoes are here exceedingly troublesome, and attack the plethoric
mariner with avidity. It is said, that no snakes, or other venomous
reptiles, are to be found at Johanna; but, in exchange for that
blessing, they are plentifully supplied with bugs. The only vehicle
known in the island consists of a machine, termed a palanquin; but which
is, in fact, nothing but a litter made of clumsy net-work on a rough
frame, and borne by four men, who each take an end of the two side-poles
of bamboo on their shoulder. This splendid piece of ingenuity is
appropriated solely to the conveyance of his majesty, and of such
nobles, and European, or Arabian visitors, as may obtain permission to
visit him at Domoni.
Angling is little understood at Johanna, yet large quantities of good
fish are occasionally to be had. These are either taken by night lines,
or are speared by persons standing at the heads of canoes, who, with
wondrous dexterity, strike such fishes as approach the surface. This
practice, common throughout uncivilized countries, is in great
perfection among the Nicobar Islands.
I make no doubt, that, if proper means were used, an excellent supply of
stumps might be obtained. What I have said on this subject, when
describing St. Helena, would, most probably, be found equally
efficacious in many other insulated situations, under warm parallels. On
the shoals which lie within the channel of Mozambique, immense numbers
of cowries, called by us ‘_Blackamoors’ teeth_,’ are dredged up: these
being current as money in most parts of India, are exchanged, together
with live oxen, for arms and ammunition, hatchets, knives, nails, &c.
The oriental practice of dying the hands and feet red, by means of the
_hinna_, which here glows wild in the utmost luxuriance, prevails
throughout the island; especially among the females, who color their
lips and gums black, with a peculiar preparation, similar to the _missy_
of Hindustan, in order to make their teeth _appear to advantage!_
Although the men are extremely jealous, the women of the lower class are
allowed to walk the streets, provided they wear veils. We must not by
that word suppose that any particular part of their dress is so termed,
or separately made for that purpose: the only mode of concealing the
face consists in drawing the cloth, or sheet, which is thrown over the
head, so as to cause its meeting forward, leaving a very narrow opening
to enable the wearer to see her way.
With respect to the mercantile operations of the Johanna people, I
cannot afford a clearer idea than attends the description given by Alwi,
a man of some consequence on the island, to Sir William Jones, who has
recorded it in the following words. He said, ‘His country was poor, and
produced few articles of trade; but if they could get money, they might
easily procure foreign commodities, and exchange them advantageously
with their neighbours in the islands, and on the continent. Thus, with a
little money,’ said he, ‘we purchase muskets, powder, ball, cutlasses,
knives, cloths, raw cotton, and other articles brought from Bombay; and
with these we trade to Madagascar for the natural produce of that
country, or for dollars, with which the French buy cattle, honey,
butter, and so forth, in that island. With gold, which we receive from
your ships, we can procure elephants’ teeth from the natives of
Mozambique; who barter them also for bars of iron, and ammunition; while
the Portuguese in that country give us various kinds of cloths, in
exchange for our commodities. These cloths we dispose of lucratively in
the three neighbouring islands; whence we bring rice, cattle, a kind of
bread-fruit, which grows in Comora, and slaves; which we buy also at
other places where we trade: all this traffic we carry on in our own
vessels.’
The foregoing should evince, that, under an effective government, for
the present may be deemed a mere toleration of royalty, the island of
Johanna might become important among its neighbours; and, so long as
European vessels should continue to touch there for refreshments, might,
carry on a brisk trade. Yet the total want of any thing like a harbour,
must inevitably prove a great drawback on its prosperity. While there,
our ship was driven by a sudden squall, issuing from between two immense
mountains, from her anchorage, though she had two anchors out, and rode
within a short half mile of the beach; and this, too, in remarkably
clear weather.
The mode of killing whales in the Mozambique Channel, and by the
Africans all along their south-east coast, is extremely simple; it shews
how much may be effected by perseverance; and affords, indeed, an
admirable moral, together with no insignificant satire upon the great
expence to which Europeans, engaged in that pursuit, put themselves,
without becoming more certain of success.
When a whale is seen within a moderate distance of the shore, basking,
as they often do for hours together, with little intermission, during
the heat of the day, the fishermen put off in their canoes, which are
excavated from large trees, and equipped with out-riggers on each side.
Generally, each canoe carries from four to six persons; but those which
are intended to approach the whale, give over their crew, with the
exception of one spearsman, and one paddler, to the other canoes.
The paddler urges his canoe very gently, until within about eight or ten
yards of the whale; sidling up with extreme caution so as to be parallel
with its shoulders; this is done to avoid that lash of the tail which
the fish invariably gives, as he plunges downwards, on feeling the spear
enter his flesh. The weapons used on this occasion are about five feet
long, extremely elastic, and loaded at each end with iron or lead;
whereby not only the impetus is encreased, but the vibration, occasioned
by the opposite weights, causes the point, which is of iron, very acute
and barbed, to wriggle deeper into the flesh. Previous to striking, the
head of the canoe is turned towards the whale, and a slight retrocessive
motion is given; so that, at the very moment when the spear is
delivered, the paddler may, by a sudden exertion, pull further away, and
avoid the danger. It sometimes happens, that the spearsman is thrown
from his station into the water, by the sudden motion of the boat
opposed to his own action; being invariably expert swimmers, such an
accident is not in the least regarded. After sinking to a great depth,
the whale rises again to the surface, perhaps a mile off, where other
boats are waiting to repeat the attack; by a succession of which he is,
ordinarily in the space of an hour, so completely worn out, as to float
without the power of resistance, when a long spear, pushed through
between his ribs, speedily terminates the struggle.
The whale being dead, all the canoes join their efforts to tow the
carcase towards the shore; where, upon some sandy part, a division is
made of the spoil; each of the crews cutting away with hatchets and
cutlasses, as much of the blubber as they can expend. The residue is
sold, or exchanged for other articles of consumption, dress, &c. to the
inhabitants of the neighbouring towns: the whale-bone is reserved for
sale to European traders; the ribs serve for the couples of houses, or
rather cabins; and the joints of the vertebræ, after being neatly
trimmed at the sides, and at one end, make very comfortable stools; of
which, however, the strong, rank scent, retained for many months, would
prove highly offensive to any but persons who consider the blubber,
after the oil has been fried, and pressed out, to be a delicate morceau!
The operation of cutting away the adipose parts; which come off in
immense lumps, of from eight inches to a foot, or fifteen inches in
depth, is rather laborious; it is likewise attended with the danger of
attacks from an immense number of sharks, that instinctively follow the
carcase; and, so soon as it is hewn open, seize whatever falls from it
with the most ferocious avidity. Hence, the fishermen are obliged to be
extremely careful not to expose their limbs, by allowing them to dangle
in the water: such of the crews as fall overboard, are usually snapped
up by their greedy competitors; which, it is said, are known in these
parts to grow to the enormous length of thirty feet!
It has often occurred to me, that, in lieu of casting loose the remains
of whales, after cutting away the blubber, as our fishermen usually do,
an immense quantity of ammonia might be extracted, were the skeletons to
be towed to the shore, and there to be applied to that purpose. Fuel is
rarely wanting, and there being invariably sufficient crews on board our
whale-ships, which cannot be always employed, it should seem that much
advantage might thus arise, with little or no expence: the price of
ammonia is very high, but if it could be lowered, immense quantities
would be consumed. It is to be remarked, that this valuable alkali has
not hitherto been put under that course of experiments to which it
certainly would be subjected, did the price not stand in the way of its
use on a large scale: the following qualities, as stated in the
invaluable Dispensary given to the public by Dr. Andrew Duncan, may
plead in apology for my digressing so far on a subject, not apparently
connected with my prospectus; but which, considered philosophically, is,
by no means, irrelevant thereto.
Dr. Duncan states, that, ‘_ammonia_ does not dissolve animal substances;
it extinguishes flame; colors vegetable-blues green; is decomposed by
being transmitted through a red hot tube, and, by the electric spark,
into its constituent gases, and by oxygen, and atmosphoric air at a red
heat; by oxy-muriatic acid, it is converted into water and hydrogen-gas.
It is absorbed, without change, by porous bodies; it dissolves sulphur
and phosphorus; and combines readily with water, in all its states.
_Ammonia_ combines with the acids, forming neutral salts. It is formed
during the putrefactive fermentation; and is commonly classed among the
alkalies.’ My readers will see, at once, how wide a field is open for
speculation!
After quitting Johanna, which is the only island, in that cluster,
whither European vessels ever intentionally resort, such as may be bound
to Bombay usually make the great peninsula somewhere about Anjengo,
pursuing their course up the western, or Malabar side; while those
proceeding to Coast and Bay, (_i.e._ Madras and Bengal,) endeavor to get
a sight of Dondra-Head, which determines both their latitude, and their
longitude; thence they pass round the eastern side of the island of
Ceylon, of which the shore is sufficiently bold to allow their keeping
within two or three miles of the land with perfect safety, in regard to
reefs or shoals; but this quarter being extremely subject to violent
gales, that come on rather suddenly, or, at least, without much notice,
and are known by the name of ‘white squalls,’ it is generally considered
most prudent to keep a good offing. These white squalls invariably take
place when the sky is free from clouds; but may sometimes be
distinguished, as they approach, by the white spray raised from the
water by the violence of the wind: so soon as that is discovered, all
the small sails should be taken in, and the ship rendered as compact
above as time may admit. The warning spray is too frequently unnoticed;
and, even when perceived, is, for the most part, too close at hand to
admit of much preparation. This insidious danger extends, more or less,
from the south end of Madagascar up to the latitude of Tranquebar, being
most prevalent to the southward of the Line, where the south-west trade
wind prevails at all times.
The island of Ceylon has been adopted as a royal possession, in the
government of which the Company have no share whatever. The whole of the
civil establishment are appointed by the king; and the military receive
their commissions from the secretary at war, independent of the
Company’s chartered establishment. It generally happens, however, that
some of the Madras battalions are on duty in the island; which has
always been in a most perturbed state, especially since it came under
our dominion. It is rather unusual for the Company’s ships to touch
here, except when sent to Columbo with stores, or calling there on their
way home for cargoes and passengers. None but very small vessels can
pass between Ceylon and the Main, notwithstanding the great width of the
channel, on account of that immense reef, intermixed with shoals,
stretching across its northern part. This reef, called ‘Adam’s Bridge,’
is supposed to be formed by the summits of mountains, that, by some
dreadful convulsion, were sunk below those waters, between which they
originally formed a stupendous isthmus, like that of Darien, connecting
Ceylon with the continent.
Notwithstanding what has been said by many authors on the subject of
‘spicy gales,’ the expectation of meeting with perfumed breezes in this
quarter should not be too much encouraged. After coasting the whole
length, from Dondra-Head to Point Pedro, not one puff, conveying the
idea of proximate ambrosia, ever reached my nose. It must, at the same
time, be understood, that a certain terraceous scent, something like
that resulting from rain in dusty weather, generally prevails within a
certain distance of a windward shore; particularly where the country is
well wooded.
After passing to the northward of Ceylon, the navigation becomes more
difficult; there being immense shoals stretching, in various directions,
all the way from Tranquebar up to the mouths of the Ganges. It is
generally opposite some short interval between these dangerous shallows,
that our principal settlements are situated. Thus, Tranquebar,
Pondicherry, Cuddalore, Negapatam, and some others, to the southward of
Madras, enjoy a partial benefit in that instance; but, to the northward,
our principal sea-ports are under very considerable disadvantages,
arising from the great distance at which all vessels, with the exception
of very small coasters, are obliged to lay out in an open road, subject
to the fury of storms, and to the depredations of privateers, which
seldom fail to take advantage of these localities, whenever the season
may allow them to visit our shores.
The shallows may easily be distinguished at a considerable distance:
being composed of light, shifting sand, and acted upon by a strong
current, the water above them appears discolored; assuming a dun, or
yellow hue, sufficiently contrasted with the deeper parts, to enable the
eye at once to trace their respective limits.
Madras Roads being exempt from shoals, for some miles on either side,
are entered without a pilot; ships in general anchoring off the fort, in
from six to ten fathoms; the bottom a firm sand. The surf is here, at
all times, rather high; but when a south-west, or westerly wind,
prevails, becomes so tremendous as to debar all communication with the
shipping. From the beginning of October to the middle of January, the
flag-staff is struck, as a signal to vessels that no insurance is
payable on account of such losses as may happen during that period,
which is held to be replete with danger. So great is the apprehension
entertained of the perils attendant upon a continuance on the Coromandel
coast during that monsoon, that even our ships of war retire from the
protection of such trade as may be carried on by adventurous
individuals, and seek an asylum in some well-sheltered port, such as
Trincomalee.
Before we obtained possession of that admirable harbour, our fleets were
under the necessity of going round annually to Bombay; there they
employed their crews in putting the respective ships into complete
order, against the ensuing season; whatever vessels required substantial
repairs, being taken into dock. In the mean while, the enemy’s fleet
went to the Mauritius, which could be easily reached at any season; and
whence they could return full a month before our’s could get back from
the Malabar coast. The serious losses occasioned, both to the Company,
and to private traders, by such management, (which then appeared to be
inevitable, though not so in reality, since Bengal could have received
and repaired them,) rendered it a desideratum to obtain some port, not
far removed from our principal settlements. The fortune of war once put
us in possession of Trincomalee; but, somehow or other, it was re-taken:
as we have now command over the whole of Ceylon, it is to be hoped we
shall have the wit to keep it.
The construction of keeled boats being, in many respects, unsuitable to
intercourse between the shipping and the shore, recourse is always had
to the common country boats, called ‘masoolahs;’ which, however rude
their formation may appear, are perfectly adequate to every purpose, and
convey both goods and passengers with general safety.
These masoolah-boats may carry from forty to sixty tons; they are made
of plank, about two inches in thickness above, and three below, fastened
together by means of coir; that is, the fibres of cocoa-nut rinds,
passed through small holes pierced along the edges of the several
planks, all around each: these planks appear as though sewed together
with twine of the above description, and are fastened to battens and
sleepers, answering for ribs and floor timbers. At the bottom, planks
are laid in the opposite direction of these, which form the vessel, and
near the gun-whales, several thwarts are secured across; they passing
through the sides, and being firmly pinned in. There is no deck, and the
rudder consists of a large kind of oar, rigged out at the stern.
At a little distance, the masoolah-boats look like rude imitations of
our coal-barges: they row from ten to sixteen oars, and when unladen
make more speed than persons accustomed to wherries, or to ships’
pinnaces, would expect; getting through the surf, both coming and going,
with amazing facility: though sometimes, owing to letting them swing
round, instead of steering head-on, they fill, or overset: but this very
rarely happens; and the mere act of ‘swamping’, unless in the first, or
outward surf, is not attended with any imminent danger; the next wave
generally impelling the boat, and all that it contains, high (but not
_dry_,) upon the beach, where it is soon run up out of the water’s way.
In order to encourage the boatmen to exert themselves towards saving any
Europeans who may be in danger, owing to a masoolah-boat’s upsetting in
the surf, the Company allow premiums, generally medals, to such as may
prove their title thereto. Several of the Company’s servants, and
others, owe their lives to the activity of these people, a few of whom
have been enabled to retire upon a very comfortable subsistence allowed
to them by those gentlemen they had rescued. It is much to be lamented,
that the Company have never been able to adopt the only efficient means
of breaking the surf for a few hundreds of yards; namely, by conical
caissons, forming an angle in front of the landing place. Nature has
done this for the Portugueze at Pernambuco, forming a bar of coral, at
the end of which is a battery: the sea at all times breaks with
tremendous violence upon the Bar, and sometimes, though very rarely,
dashes over the guns. The supposed objection will be, that, owing to the
great expanse of the coast of Coromandel, nothing could be made to
resist the force of the water. But, in answer to this, I must observe,
that Pernambuco is much more exposed than Madras, it being subject to
the force of the trade winds, blowing all the year round from the
south-west, across that immense, uninterrupted ocean lying between the
two continents of Africa and America, while a very strong current at the
same time sweeps round, and causes the surf to rise with full as much
violence as in any part of the East. At Pernambuco, vessels lie within
the bar, where the water is perfectly still, and deep enough for those
of four hundred tons to ride clear of the sandy bottom. At Madras, we
could scarcely expect to see so extensive a desideratum obtained, as
should afford shelter to the numerous ships of great burthen which
frequent its Roads; the expence would be enormous; otherwise, we should
be as well able to form such a barrier there, as the French were at
Cherburg. It may be said, that the inconvenience attached to the works
at the latter place, namely, a vast accumulation of sand, would follow:
that would by no means be likely to take place in so very strong a tide,
with deep water at hand; and if it should, might perhaps rather tend to
facilitate the measure, and to augment the strength of the defences.
It is indispensably necessary, when going ashore at Madras, or in any
part where the surf runs high, to be well covered with a boat-cloak, or
some ample exterior clothing; for, even under the best management, and
during the most favorable weather, the spray will rise around the boat,
completely wetting whatever finery may be exposed to its action. Nor
must it be considered any way extraordinary, if a large portion of that
surf which propels the boat, should pour over her stern or quarters, so
as to drench the whole party!
The masoolah-boats are, with great propriety, under the sole management
of the master-attendant, or the beach-master. None can put off without
licence; and no person can be admitted to serve on board who is not an
expert and bold swimmer. I believe, that instances of individuals of any
description being lost are extremely rare: such as are enumerated, took
place chiefly at the outer surf, (there being usually three following
waves to pass, or to accompany,) where the water is very deep, and where
immense numbers of ground-sharks are ever on the watch for what accident
may throw in their way. It may readily be supposed the shore is
tolerably bold, when it is explained, that our Indiamen, deeply laden,
have been several times necessitated to warp to the very edge of the
outer surf, in consequence of an enemy’s fleet having entered the Roads,
with the view to cut them out.
So soon as a vessel is seen standing into the Roads, signals are
hoisted, which it is expected she should, if a man of war, or a
Company’s ship, be able to answer. On her approach to the anchorage, a
boat puts off, with a deputation from the beach-master, to enquire
whence she comes, as well as to take the purser, &c. ashore with the
despatches. In this first boat, a number of debashes are sure to arrive,
bringing with them various articles of provision, fruits, &c. as
presents to the captain and officers; whose favor each of them courts,
under the hope of being employed as the agent for the ship, or for the
supply of necessaries, and for providing lodgings for individuals.
These debashes are generally men of property, and of some consequence
among the natives, owing to their having at times so many purchases to
make for those who arrive at Madras; but especially where the supplies
necessary for a whole ship, or sometimes for a whole fleet, are in
question. They all speak broken English, understanding far beyond what
they can express in our language; they are servile to an extreme, and
most completely trained in every money-making device.