BARRES, MAURICE (1862- ), French novelist and politician, was born at

Charmes (Vosges) on the 22nd of September 1862; he was educated at the

_lycee_ of Nancy, and in 1883 went to Paris to continue his legal studies.

He was already a contributor to the monthly periodical, _Jeune France_, and

he now issued a periodical of his own, _Les Taches d'encre_, which survived

for a few months only. After four years of journalism he went to Italy,

where he wrote _Sous l'oeil des barbares_ (1888), the first volume of a

_trilogie du moi_, completed by _Un Homme libre_ (1889), and _Le Jardin de

Berenice_ (1891). He divided the world into _moi_ and the barbarians, the

latter including all those antipathetic to the writer's individuality.

These apologies for individualism were supplemented by _L'Ennemi des lois_

(1892), and an admirable volume of impressions of travel, _Du sang, de la

volupte et de la mort_ (1893). His early books are written in an elaborate

style and are often very obscure. Barres carried his theory of

individualism into politics as an ardent partisan of General Boulanger. He

directed a Boulangist paper at Nancy, and was elected deputy in 1889,

retaining his seat in the legislature until 1893. His play, _Une Journee

parlementaire_, was produced at the Comedie Francaise in 1894. In 1897 he

began his trilogy, _Le Roman de l'energie nationale_, with the publication

of _Les Deracines_. The series is a plea for local patriotism, and for the

preservation of the distinctive qualities of the old French provinces. The

first narrates the adventures of seven young Lorrainers, who set out to

conquer fortune in Paris. Six of them survive in the second novel of the

trilogy, _L'Appel au soldat_ (1900), which gives the history of Boulangism;

the sequel, _Leurs figures_ (1902), deals with the Panama scandals. Later

works are:--_Scenes et doctrines du nationalisme_ (1902); _Les Amities

francaises_ (1903), in which he urges the inculcation of patriotism by the

early study of national history; _Ce que j'ai vu a Rennes_ (1904); _Au

service de l'Allemagne_ (1905), the experiences of an Alsatian conscript in

a German regiment; _Le Voyage de Sparte_ (1906). M. Barres was admitted to

the French Academy in 1906.

See also R. Doumic, _Les Jeunes_ (1896); J. Lionnet, _L'Evolution des

idees_ (1903); Anatole France, _La Vie litteraire_ (4th series, 1892).

BARRETT, LAWRENCE (1838-1891), American actor, was born of Irish parents in

Paterson, New Jersey, on the 4th of April 1838. His family name was

Brannigan. He made his first stage appearance at Detroit as Murad in _The

French Spy_ in 1853. In December 1856 he made his first New York appearance

at the Chambers Street theatre as Sir Thomas Clifford in _The Hunchback_.

In 1858 he was in the stock company at the Boston Museum. He served with

distinction in the Civil War as captain in the 28th Massachusetts infantry

regiment. From 1867 to 1870, with John McCullough, he managed the

California theatre, San Francisco. Among his many and varied parts may be

mentioned Hamlet, Lear, Macbeth, Shylock, Richard III., Wolsey, Benedick,

Richelieu, David Garrick, Hernani, Alfred Evelyn, Lanciotto in George Henry

Boker's (1823-1890) _Francesca da Rimini_, and James Harebell in _The Man

o' Airlie_. He played Othello to Booth's Iago and Cassius to his Brutus. He

acted in London in 1867, 1881, 1883 and 1884, his Richelieu in Bulwer

Lytton's drama being considered his best part. He wrote a life of Edwin

Forrest in the _American Actors Series_ (Boston, 1881), and an admirable

sketch of Edwin Booth in _Edwin Booth and his Contemporaries_ (Boston,

1886). He died on the 20th of March 1891.

BARRETT, LUCAS (1837-1862), English naturalist and geologist, was born in

London on the 14th of November 1837, and educated at University College

school and at Ebersdorf. In 1855 he accompanied R. McAndrew on a dredging

excursion from the Shetlands to Norway and beyond the Arctic Circle; and

subsequently made other cruises to Greenland and to the coast of Spain.

These expeditions laid the foundations of an extensive knowledge of the

distribution of marine life. In 1855 he was engaged by Sedgwick to assist

in the Woodwardian Museum at Cambridge, and during the following three

years he aided the professor by delivering lectures. He discovered bones of

birds in the Cambridge Greensand, and he also prepared a geological map of

Cambridge on the one-inch Ordnance map. In 1859, when twenty-two years of

age, he was appointed director of the Geological Survey of Jamaica. He

there determined the Cretaceous age of certain rocks which contained

Hippurites, the new genus _Barrettia_ being named after him by S. P.

Woodward; he also obtained many fossils from the Miocene and newer strata.

He was drowned at the early age of twenty-five, on the 18th of December

1862, while investigating the sea-bottom off Kingston, Jamaica.

Obituary by S. P. Woodward in _Geologist_ (Feb. 1863), p. 60.

BARRETT, WILSON (1846-1904), English actor, manager and playwright, was

born in Essex on the 18th of February 1846, the [v.03 p.0435] son of a

farmer. He made his first appearance on the stage at Halifax in 1864, and

then played in the provinces alone and with his wife, Caroline Heath, in

_East Lynne_. After managerial experiences at Leeds and elsewhere, in 1879

he took the management of the old Court theatre, where he introduced Madame

Modjeska to London, in an adaptation of Schiller's _Maria Stuart_,

_Adrienne Lecouvreur_, _La Dame aux camelias_ and other plays. It was not

till 1881, however, when he took the Princess's theatre, that he became

well known to the public in the emotional drama, _The Lights o' London_, by

G. R. Sims. The play which made him an established favourite was _The

Silver King_ by Henry Arthur Jones, perhaps the most successful melodrama

ever staged, produced in 1882 with himself as Wilfred Denver, his brother

George (an excellent comedian) in the cast, and E. S. Willard (b. 1853) as

the "Spider,"--this being the part in which Mr Willard, afterwards a

well-known actor both in America and England, first came to the front.

Barrett played this part for three hundred nights without a break, and

repeated his London success in W. G. Wills's _Claudian_ which followed. In

1884 he appeared in _Hamlet_, but soon returned to melodrama, and though he

had occasional seasons in London he acted chiefly in the provinces. In 1886

he made his first visit to America, repeated in later years, and in 1898 he

visited Australia. During these years the London stage was coming under new

influences, and Wilson Barrett's vogue in melodrama had waned. But in 1895

he struck a new vein of success with his drama of religious emotion, _The

Sign of the Cross_, which crowded his theatre with audiences largely

composed of people outside the ordinary circle of playgoers. He attempted

to repeat the success with other plays of a religious type, but not with

equal effect, and several of his later plays were failures. He died on the

22nd of July 1904. Wilson Barrett was a sterling actor of a robust type and

striking physique, not remarkable for intellectual finesse, but excelling

in melodrama, and very successful as the central figure on his own stage.

BARRHEAD, a police burgh of Renfrewshire, Scotland, situated on the Levern,

7-1/2 m. S.W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Pop.

(1901) 9855. Founded in 1773, it has gradually absorbed the villages of

Arthurlie, Dovecothall and Grahamston, and become a thriving town. The

chief industries include bleaching, calico-printing, cotton-spinning,

weaving, iron and brass founding, engineering and the manufacture of

sanitary appliances. Neilston (pop. 2668), about 2 m. S.W., has

bleachfields and print-works, and 2 m. N. by E. lie Hurlet, where are

important manufactures of alum and other chemicals, and Nitshill (pop.

1242) with chemical works, quarries and collieries.

BARRICADE, or BARRICADO (from the Span. _barricada_, from _barrica_, a

cask, casks filled with earth having been early used to form barricades),

an improvised fortification of earth, paving-stones, trees or any materials

ready to hand, thrown up, especially across a street, to hinder the advance

of an enemy; in the old wooden warships a fence or wooden rail, supported

by stanchions and strengthened by various materials, extending across the

quarter-deck as a protection during action.

BARRIE, JAMES MATTHEW (1860- ), British novelist and dramatist, was born at

Kirriemuir, a small village in Forfarshire, on the 9th of May 1860. He was

educated at the Dumfries academy and Edinburgh University. He has told us

in his quasi-autobiographical _Margaret Ogilvy_ that he wrote tales in the

garret before he went to school, and at Edinburgh wrote the greater part of

a three-volume novel, which a publisher presumed was the work of a clever

lady and offered to publish for L100. The offer was not accepted, and it

was through journalism that he found his way to literature. After a short

period of waiting in Edinburgh, he became leader-writer on the _Nottingham

Journal_ in February 1883. To this paper he contributed also special

articles and notes, which provided an opening and training for his personal

talent. He soon began to submit articles to London editors, and on the 17th

of November 1884 Mr Frederick Greenwood printed in the _St James's Gazette_

his article on "An Auld Licht Community." With the encouragement of this

able editor, more Auld Licht "Idylls" followed; and in 1885 Mr Barrie moved

to London. He continued to write for the _St James's Gazette_ and for _Home

Chimes_ (edited by Mr F. W. Robinson). He was soon enlisted by Mr Alexander

Riach for the _Edinburgh Evening Dispatch_, which in turn led to his

writing (over the signature "Gavin Ogilvy ") for Dr Robertson Nicoll's

_British Weekly_. Later he became a contributor to the _Scots_ (afterwards

_National_) _Observer_, edited by W. E. Henley, and also to the _Speaker_,

upon its foundation in 1890. In 1887 he published his first book, _Better

Dead_. It was a mere _jeu d'esprit_, a specimen of his humorous journalism,

elaborated from the _St James's Gazette_. This was followed in 1888 by

_Auld Licht Idylls_, a collection of the Scots village sketches written for

the same paper. They portrayed the life and humours of his native village,

idealized as "Thrums," and were the fruits of early observation and of his

mother's tales. "She told me everything," Mr Barrie has written, "and so my

memories of our little red town were coloured by her memories." Kirriemuir

itself was not wholly satisfied with the portrait, but "Thrums" took its

place securely on the literary map of the world. In the same year he

published _An Edinburgh Eleven_, sketches from the _British Weekly_ of

eminent Edinburgh students; also his first long story, _When a Man's

Single_, a humorous transcription of his experiences as journalist,

particularly in the Nottingham office. The book was introduced by what was

in fact another Thrums "Idyll," on a higher level than the rest of the

book. In 1889 came _A Window in Thrums_. This beautiful book, and the

_Idylls_, gave the full measure of Mr Barrie's gifts of humanity, humour

and pathos, with abundant evidence of the whimsical turn of his wit, and of

his original and vernacular style. In 1891 he made a collection of his

lighter papers from the _St James's Gazette_ and published them as _My Lady

Nicotine_. In 1891 appeared his first long novel, _The Little Minister_,

which had been first published serially in _Good Words_. It introduced, not

with unmixed success, extraneous elements, including the winsome heroine

Babbie, into the familiar life of Thrums, but proved the author's

possession of a considerable gift of romance. In 1894 he published

_Margaret Ogilvy_, based on the life of his mother and his own relations

with her, most tenderly conceived and beautifully written, though too

intimate for the taste of many. The book is full of revelations of great

interest to admirers of Mr Barrie's genius. The following year came

_Sentimental Tommy_, a story tracing curiously the psychological

development of the "artistic temperament" in a Scots lad of the people.

R. L. Stevenson supposed himself to be portrayed in the hero, but it may be

safely assumed that the author derived his material largely from

introspection. The story was completed by a sequel, _Tommy and Grizel_,

published in 1900. The effect of this story was somewhat marred by the

comparative failure of the scenes in society remote from Thrums. In 1902 he

published _The Little White Bird_, a pretty fantasy, wherein he gave full

play to his whimsical invention, and his tenderness for child life, which

is relieved by the genius of sincerity from a suspicion of mawkishness.

This book contained the episode of "Peter Pan," which afterwards suggested

the play of that name. In the meantime Mr Barrie had been developing his

talent as a dramatist. In 1892 Mr Toole had made a great success at his own

theatre of Barrie's _Walker, London_, a farce founded on a sketch in _When

a Man's Single_. In 1893 Mr Barrie married Miss Ansell (divorced in 1909),

who had acted in _Walker, London_. In this year he wrote, with Sir A. Conan

Doyle, a play called _Jane Annie_. He found more success, however, in _The

Professor's Love-Story_ in 1895; and in 1897 the popularity of his

dramatized version of _The Little Minister_ probably confirmed him in a

predilection for drama, evident already in some of his first sketches in

the _Nottingham Journal_. In 1900 Mr Bourchier produced _The Wedding

Guest_, which was printed as a supplement to the _Fortnightly Review_ in

December of the same year. After the publication of _The Little White

Bird_, Mr Barrie burst upon the town as a popular and prolific playwright.

The struggling journalist of the early 'nineties had now become one of the

most prosperous literary men of the day. In 1903 no fewer than three plays

from his hand held the stage--_Quality Street_, _The Admirable [v.03

p.0436] Crichton_ and _Little Mary_. The year 1904 produced _Peter Pan_, a

kind of poetical pantomime, in which the author found scope for some of his

most characteristic and permanently delightful gifts. In 1905

_Alice-Sit-by-the-Fire_ and in 1908 _What Every Woman Knows_ were added to

the list. As dramatist Mr Barrie brought, to a sphere rather ridden by

convention, a method wholly unconventional and a singularly fresh fancy,

seasoned by a shrewd touch of satirical humour; and in _Peter Pan_ he

proved himself a Hans Andersen of the stage. In literature, the success of

"Thrums" produced a crop of imitations, christened in derision by W. E.

Henley the "Kailyard School," though the imitations were by no means

confined to Scotland. In this school the _Auld Licht Idylls_ and _A Window

in Thrums_ remained unsurpassed and unapproached. The Scots village tale

was no novelty in literature--witness John Gait, the _Chronicles of

Carlingford_ and George MacDonald. Yet Mr Barrie, in spite of a dialect not

easy to the Southron, contrived to touch a more intimate and more

responsive chord. With the simplest materials he achieved an almost

unendurable pathos, which yet is never forced; and the pathos is salted

with humour, while about the moving homeliness of his humanity play the

gleams of a whimsical wit. Stevenson, in a letter to Mr Henry James, in

December 1892, said justly of Barrie that "there was genius in him, but

there was a journalist on his elbow." This genius found its most perfect

and characteristic expression in the humanity of "Thrums" and the bizarre

and tender fantasy of _Peter Pan_.

See also _J. M. Barrie and His Books_, by J. A. Hamerton (Horace Marshall,

1902); and for bibliography up to May 1903, _English Illustrated Magazine_,

vol. xxix. (N.S.), p. 208.

(W. P. J.)

BARRIE, the capital of Simcoe county, Ontario, Canada, 56 m. N. of Toronto,

on Lake Simcoe, an important centre on the Grand Trunk railway. It contains

several breweries, carriage factories, boat-building and railway shops, and

manufactories of woollens, stoves and leather. It is also a summer resort

and the starting-point for the numerous Lake Simcoe steamers. Pop. (1901)

5949.

BARRIERE, THEODORE (1823-1877), French dramatist, was born in Paris in

1823. He belonged to a family of map engravers which had long been

connected with the war department, and spent nine years in that service

himself. The success of a vaudeville he had performed at the Beaumarchais

and which was immediately snapped up for the repertory of the Palais Royal,

showed him his real vocation. During the next thirty years he signed, alone

or in collaboration, over a hundred plays; among the most successful were:

_La Vie de boheme_ (1849), adapted from Henri Murger's book with the

novelist's help; _Manon Lescaut_ (1851); _Les Filles de marbre_ (1853);

_L'Heritage de Monsieur Plumet_ (1858); _Les Faux Bonshommes_ (1856) with

Ernest Capendu; _Malheureux vaincus_ (1865), which was forbidden by the

censor; _Le Gascon_ (1878). Barriere died in Paris on the 16th of October

1877.

See also _Revue des deux mondes_ (March 1859).

BARRIER TREATY, the name given first to the treaty signed on 29th of

October 1709 between Great Britain and the states-general of the United

Netherlands, by which the latter engaged to guarantee the Protestant

succession in England in favour of the house of Hanover; while Great

Britain undertook to procure for the Dutch an adequate _barrier_ on the

side of the Netherlands, consisting of the towns of Furnes, Nieuport,

Ypres, Menin, Lille, Tournai, Conde, Valenciennes, Maubeuge, Charleroi,

Namur, Halle, Damme, Dendermond and the citadel of Ghent. The treaty was

based on the same principle of securing Holland against French aggression

that had inspired that of Ryswick in 1698, by the terms of which the chief

frontier fortresses of the Netherlands were to be garrisoned by Dutch

troops. A second Barrier Treaty was signed between Great Britain and

Holland on 29th of January 1713, by which the strong places designed for

the barrier were reduced to Furnes, the fort of Knocke, Ypres, Menin,

Tournai, Mons, Charleroi and the citadel of Ghent, and certain fortresses

in the neighbourhood of that city and of Bruges; Great Britain undertaking

to obtain the right for the Dutch to garrison them from the future

sovereign of the Spanish Netherlands. Its terms were included in the treaty

of Rastatt, between the emperor and France, signed on the 7th of March

1714. A third Barrier Treaty was signed in November 1715.

See Jean Dumont, _Corps universel diplomatique_, &c. (1726-1731), vol.

viii.

BARRILI, ANTONIO GIULIO (1836- ), Italian novelist, was born at Savona, and

was educated for the legal profession, which he abandoned for journalism in

Genoa. He was a volunteer in the campaign of 1859 and served with Garibaldi

in 1866 and 1867. From 1865 (_Capitan Dodero_) onwards he published a large

number of books of fiction, which had wide popularity, his work being

commonly compared with that of Victor Cherbuliez. Some of the best of the

later ones are _Santa Cecilia_ (1866), _Come un Sogno_ (1875), and _L'Olmo

e l' Edera_ (1877). His _Raggio di Dio_ appeared in 1899. Barrili also

wrote two plays and various volumes of criticism, including _Il

rinnovamento letterario italiano_ (1890). He was elected to the Italian

chamber of deputies in 1876; and in 1889 became professor of Italian

literature at Genoa.

BARRING-OUT, a custom, formerly common in English schools, of barring the

master out of the school premises. A typical example of this practice was

at Bromfield school, Cumberland, where William Hutchinson says "it was the

custom, time out of mind, for the scholars, at Fasting's Even (the

beginning of Lent) to depose and exclude the master from the school for

three days." During this period the school doors were barricaded and the

boys armed with mock weapons. If the master's attempts to re-enter were

successful, extra tasks were inflicted as a penalty, and willingly

performed by the boys. On the third day terms of capitulation, usually in

Latin verse, were signed, and these always conceded the immediate right to

indulge in football and a cockfight. The custom was long retained at Eton

and figures in many school stories.

BARRINGTON, DAINES (1727-1800), English lawyer, antiquary and naturalist,

was born in 1727, fourth son of the first Viscount Barrington. He was

educated for the profession of the law, and after filling various posts,

was appointed a Welsh judge in 1757 and afterwards second justice of

Chester. Though an indifferent judge, his _Observations on the Statutes,

chiefly the more ancient, from Magna Charta to 21st James I., cap. 27, with

an appendix, being a proposal for new-modelling the Statutes_ (1766), had a

high reputation among historians and constitutional antiquaries. In 1773 he

published an edition of Orosius, with Alfred's Saxon version, and an

English translation with original notes. His _Tracts on the Probability of

reaching the North Pole_ (1775) were written in consequence of the northern

voyage of discovery undertaken by Captain C. J. Phipps, afterwards Lord

Mulgrave (1744-1792). Barrington's other writings are chiefly to be found

in the publications of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies, of both of

which he was long a member, and of the latter vice-president. Many of these

were collected by him in a quarto volume entitled _Miscellanies on various

Subjects_ (1781). He contributed to the _Philosophical Transactions_ for

1780 an account of Mozart's visit at eight years of age to London. In his

_Miscellanies_ on varied subjects he included this with accounts of four

other prodigies, namely, Crotch, Charles and Samuel Wesley, and Garrett

Wellesley, Lord Mornington. Among the most curious and ingenious of his

papers are his _Experiments and Observations on the Singing of Birds_, and

his _Essay on the Language of Birds_. He died on the 14th of March 1800 and

was buried in the Temple church.

BARRINGTON, GEORGE (b. 1755), an Irishman with a curious history, was born

at Maynooth on the 14th of May 1755, the son of a working silversmith named

Waldron. In 1771 he robbed his schoolmaster at Dublin and ran away from

school, becoming a member of a touring theatrical company under the assumed

name of Barrington. At Limerick races he joined the manager of the company

in pocket-picking. The manager was detected and sentenced to

transportation, and Barrington fled to London, where he assumed clerical

dress and continued his pocket-picking. At Covent Garden theatre he robbed

the Russian prince Orlov of a snuff-box, said to be worth L30,000. He was

[v.03 p.0437] detected and arrested, but as Prince Orlov declined to

prosecute, was discharged, though subsequently he was sentenced to three

years' hard labour for pocket-picking at Drury Lane theatre. On his release

he was again caught at his old practices and sentenced to five years' hard

labour, but influence secured his release on the condition that he left

England. He accordingly went for a short time to Dublin, and then returned

to London, where he was once more detected pocket-picking, and, in 1790,

sentenced to seven years' transportation. On the voyage out to Botany Bay a

conspiracy was hatched by the convicts on board to seize the ship.

Barrington disclosed the plot to the captain, and the latter, on reaching

New South Wales, reported him favourably to the authorities, with the

result that in 1792 Barrington obtained a warrant of emancipation (the

first issued), becoming subsequently superintendent of convicts and later

high constable of Paramatta. In 1796 a theatre was opened at Sydney, the

principal actors being convicts, and Barrington wrote the prologue to the

first production. This prologue has obtained a wide publicity. It begins:--

"From distant climes, o'er widespread seas, we come,

Though not with much _eclat_ or beat of drum;

True patriots we, for, be it understood,

We left our country for our country's good."

Barrington died at a ripe old age at Paramatta, but the exact date is not

on record. He was the author of _A Voyage to Botany Bay_ (London, 1801);

_The History of New South Wales_ (London, 1802); _The History of New

Holland_ (London, 1808).

BARRINGTON, JOHN SHUTE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1678-1734), English lawyer and

theologian, was the son of Benjamin Shute, merchant, and was born at

Theobalds, in Hertfordshire, in 1678. He received part of his education at

the university of Utrecht; and, after returning to England in 1698, studied

law in the Inner Temple. In 1701 he published several pamphlets in favour

of the civil rights of Protestant dissenters, to which class he belonged.

On the recommendation of Lord Somers he was employed to induce the

Presbyterians in Scotland to favour the union of the two kingdoms, and in

1708 he was rewarded for this service by being appointed to the office of

commissioner of the customs. From this, however, he was removed on the

change of administration in 1711; but his fortune had, in the meantime,

been improved by the bequest of two considerable estates,--one of them left

him by Francis Barrington of Tofts, whose name he assumed by act of

parliament, the other by John Wildman of Becket. Barrington now stood at

the head of the dissenters. On the accession of George I. he was returned

to parliament for Berwick-upon-Tweed; and in 1720 the king raised him to

the Irish peerage, with the title of Viscount Barrington of Ardglass. But

having unfortunately engaged in the Harburg lottery, one of the bubble

speculations of the time, he was expelled from the House of Commons in

1723,--a punishment which was considered much too severe, and was thought

to be due to personal malice of Walpole. In 1725 he published his principal

work, entitled _Miscellanea Sacra or a New Method of considering so much of

the History of the Apostles as is contained in Scripture_, 2 vols.

8vo,--afterwards reprinted with additions and corrections, in 3 vols. 8vo,

1770, by his son Shute. In the same year he published _An Essay on the

Several Dispensations of God to Mankind_. He died on the 14th of December

1734.

BARRINGTON, SAMUEL (1720-1800), British admiral, was the fourth son of the

1st Viscount Barrington. He entered the navy at an early age and in 1747

had worked his way to a post-captaincy. He was in continuous employment

during the peace of 1748-1756, and on the outbreak of the Seven Years' War

served with Hawke in the Basque roads in command of the "Achilles" (60). In

1759 the "Achilles" captured a powerful French privateer, after two hours'

fighting. In the Havre-de-Grace expedition of the same year Barrington's

ship carried the flag of Rear-Admiral Rodney, and in 1760 sailed with John

Byron to destroy the Louisburg fortifications. At the peace in 1763

Barrington had been almost continuously afloat for twenty-two years. He was

next appointed in 1768 to the frigate "Venus" as governor to the duke of

Cumberland, who remained with him in all ranks from midshipman to

rear-admiral. In 1778 the duke's flag-captain became rear-admiral and went

to the West Indies, while in conjunction with the army he took the island

of Santa Lucia from the French, and repulsed the attempt of the Comte

d'Estaing to retake it. Superseded after a time by Byron, he remained as

that officer's second-in-command and was present at Grenada and St. Kitts

(6th and 22nd of July 1779). On his return home, he was offered, but

refused, the command of the Channel fleet. His last active service was the

relief of Gibraltar in October 1782. As admiral he flew his flag for a

short time in 1790, but was not employed in the French revolutionary wars.

He died in 1800.

See Ralfe, _Naval Biographies_, i. 120; Charnock, _Biographia Navalis_, vi.

10.

BARRINGTON, SHUTE (1734-1826), youngest son of the 1st Viscount Barrington,

was educated at Eton and Oxford, and after holding some minor dignities was

made bishop of Llandaff in 1769. In 1782 he was translated to Salisbury and

in 1791 to Durham. He was a vigorous Protestant, though willing to grant

Roman Catholics "every degree of toleration short of political power and

establishment." He published several volumes of sermons and tracts, and

wrote the political life of his brother, Viscount Barrington.

BARRINGTON, WILLIAM WILDMAN SHUTE, 2ND VISCOUNT (1717-1793), eldest son of

the 1st Viscount Barrington, was born on the 15th of January 1717.

Succeeding to the title in 1734, he spent some time in travel, and in March

1740 was returned to parliament as member for Berwick-upon-Tweed. Having

taken his seat in the Irish House of Lords in 1745, he was appointed one of

the lords commissioners of the admiralty in 1746, and was one of the

"managers" of the impeachment of Simon, Lord Lovat. In 1754 he became

member of parliament for Plymouth, in 1755 was made a privy councillor and

secretary at war, and in 1761 was transferred to the office of chancellor

of the exchequer. In 1762 he became treasurer of the navy, and in 1765

returned to his former position of secretary at war. He retained this

office until December 1778, and during four months in 1782 was joint

postmaster-general. He married in 1740 Mary, daughter of Mr Henry Lovell,

but left no children. He died at Becket on the 1st of February 1793, and

was buried in Shrivenham church.

See Shute Barrington, _Political Life of William Wildman, Viscount

Barrington_ (London, 1814).

BARRISTER, in England and Ireland the term applied to the highest class of

lawyers who have exclusive audience in all the superior courts, the word

being derived from the "bar" (_q.v._) in the law courts. Every barrister in

England must be a member of one of the four ancient societies called Inns

of Court, viz. Lincoln's Inn, the Inner and Middle Temples, and Gray's Inn,

and in Ireland, of the King's Inns. The existence of the English societies

as schools can be traced back to the 13th century, and their rise is

attributed to the clause in Magna Carta, by which the Common Pleas were

fixed at Westminster instead of following the king's court, and the

professors of law were consequently brought together in London.

Associations of lawyers acquired houses of their own in which students were

educated in the common law, and the degrees of barrister (corresponding to

apprentice or bachelor) and sergeant (corresponding to doctor) were

conferred. These schools of law are now represented by the Inns of Court

(_q.v._).

Students are admitted as members of the Inns of Court, on paying certain

fees and on passing a general (elementary) examination or (alternatively)

producing evidence of having passed a public examination at a university;

their subsequent call to the bar depends on their keeping twelve terms (of

which there are four in each year), and passing certain further

examinations (see ENGLISH LAW _ad fin._). A term is "kept" by dining six

times (three for a student whose name is on the books of a university) in

hall. This is a relic of the older system in which examinations were not

included, the only requisite being a certificate from a barrister that the

student had read for twelve months in his chambers. Dining in hall then

applied a certain social test, which has now become unmeaning. The

profession of barrister is open to almost every one; but no person

connected [v.03 p.0438] with the law in any inferior capacity or who is a

chartered or professional accountant, can enter an Inn of Court as a

student until he has entirely and bona fide ceased to act or practise in

such capacity. Some of the Inns also make a restriction that their members

shall not be engaged in trade. A form of admission has to be filled up,

containing a declaration to this effect, and mentioning _inter alia_ the

age, nationality, condition in life and occupation of the applicant.

Previous to the student's call this declaration must be repeated, and he

must further declare that he is not in holy orders, has not held any

clerical preferment and has not performed any clerical functions during the

year preceding. Subject to the above, practising solicitors of not less

than five years' standing may be called to the bar without keeping any

terms, upon passing the necessary examinations, and, _per contra_, a

barrister of the same standing may, without any period of apprenticeship,

become a solicitor upon passing the final examination for solicitors. Irish

barristers of three years' standing may be called to the English bar

without passing any examination upon keeping three terms, and so also may

barristers of those colonies where the professions of barrister and

solicitor are still kept distinct. No one can become a barrister till he is

twenty-one years old.

The benchers of the different Inns of Court have the right of rejecting any

applicant for membership with or without cause assigned; and for sufficient

reasons, subject to an appeal to the common-law judges as visitors of the

Inns, they may refuse to call a student to the bar, or may expel from their

society or from the profession ("dis-bar" or "dis-bench") even barristers

or benchers. The benchers appear to take cognizance of any kind of

misconduct, whether professional or not, which they may deem unworthy of

the rank of barrister. The grade of barrister comprehends the

attorney-general and solicitor-general (appointed by and holding office

solely at the will of the government of the day), who rank as the heads of

the profession, king's counsel and ordinary practitioners, sometimes

technically known as "utter barristers."

The peculiar business of barristers is the advocacy of causes in open

court, but in England a great deal of other business falls into their

hands. They are the chief conveyancers, and the _pleadings_ (_i.e._ the

counter statements of parties previous to joining issue) are in all but the

simplest cases drafted by them. There was formerly, indeed, a separate

class of conveyancers and special pleaders, being persons who kept the

necessary number of terms qualifying for a call but who, instead of being

called, took out licences, granted for one year only, but renewable, to

practise under the bar, but now conveyancing and special pleading form part

of the ordinary work of a junior barrister. The higher rank among

barristers is that of king's or queen's counsel. They lead in court, and

give opinions on cases submitted to them, but they do not accept

conveyancing or pleading, nor do they admit pupils to their chambers.

Precedence among king's counsel, as well as among outer barristers, is

determined by seniority.[1] The old order of serjeants-at-law (_q.v._) who

ranked after king's counsel, is now extinct. Although every barrister has a

right to practise in any court in England, each special class of business

has its own practitioners, so that the bar may almost be said to be divided

into several professions. The most marked distinction is that between

barristers practising in chancery and barristers practising in the courts

of common law. The fusion of law and equity brought about by the Judicature

Acts 1873 and 1875 was expected in course of time to break down this

distinction; but to a large extent the separation between these two great

branches of the profession remains. There are also subordinate distinctions

in each branch. Counsel at common law attach themselves to one or other of

the circuits into which England is divided, and may not practise elsewhere

unless under special conditions. In chancery the king's counsel for the

most part restrict themselves to one or other of the courts of the chancery

division. Business before the court of probate, divorce and admiralty, the

privy council and parliamentary committees, exhibits, though in a less

degree, the same tendency to specialization. In some of the larger

provincial towns there are also local bars of considerable strength. The

bar of Ireland exhibits in its general arrangements the same features as

the bar of England. For the Scottish bar, see under ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF.

There is no connexion whatever between the Scottish and English bars. A

distinctive dress is worn by barristers when attending the courts,

consisting of a stuff gown, exchanged for one of silk (whence the

expression "to take silk") when the wearer has attained the rank of king's

counsel, both classes also having wigs dating in pattern and material from

the 18th century.

Counsel is not answerable for anything spoken by him relative to the cause

in hand and suggested in the client's instructions, even though it should

reflect on the character of another and prove absolutely groundless, but if

he mention an untruth of his own invention, or even upon instructions if it

be impertinent to the matter in hand, he is then liable to an action from

the party injured. Counsel may also be punished by the summary power of the

court or judge as for a contempt, and by the benchers of the inn to which

he may belong on cause shown.

The rank of barrister is a necessary qualification for nearly all offices

of a judicial character, and a very usual qualification for other important

appointments. Not only the judgeships in the superior courts of law and

equity in England and in her colonies, but nearly all the magistracies of

minor rank--recorderships, county court judgeships, &c.--are restricted to

the bar. The result is a unique feature in the English system of justice,

viz. the perfect harmony of opinion and interest between the bar as a

profession and all degrees of the judicial bench. Barristers have the rank

of esquires, and are privileged from arrest whilst in attendance on the

superior courts and on circuit, and also from serving on juries whilst in

active practice.

_Revising Barristers_ are counsel of not less than seven years' standing

appointed to revise the lists of parliamentary voters.

Barristers cannot maintain an action for their fees, which are regarded as

gratuities, nor can they, by the usage of the profession, undertake a case

without the intervention of a solicitor, except in criminal cases, where a

barrister may be engaged directly, by having a fee given him in open court,

nor is it competent for them to enter into any contract for payment by

their clients with respect to litigation.

See J. R. V. Marchant, _Barrister-at-law: an Essay on the legal position of

Counsel in England_ (1905).

[1] A king's counsel is appointed by letters patent to be "one of His

Majesty's counsel learned in the law." The appointment rests with the lord

chancellor, to whom the barrister desiring a silk gown makes application.

There is no definite time required to elapse between "call" and application

for a seat within the bar, but it is generally understood that a barrister

must be of at least ten years' standing before he is appointed a king's

counsel. The first king's counsel was Sir Francis Bacon, who was appointed

by Queen Elizabeth "queen's counsel extraordinary," and received a payment,

by way of "pledge and fee," of L40 a year, payable half-yearly. Succeeding

king's counsel received a similar payment, until its abolition in 1831.

There was not another appointment of a king's counsel until 1668, when Lord

Chancellor Francis North was so honoured. From 1775 king's counsel may be

said to have become a regular order. Their number was very small so late as

the middle of the 19th century (20 in 1789; 30 in 1810; 28 in 1850), but at

the beginning of the 20 century there were over 250. A king's counsel may

not, unless by special licence, take a brief against the crown, but such a

licence is never refused unless the crown desires his services in the case.

BARROIS, CHARLES (1851- ), French geologist, was born at Lille on the 21st

of April 1851, and educated at the college in that town, where he studied

geology under Prof. Jules Gosselet and qualified as D. es Sc. To this

master he dedicated his first comprehensive work, _Recherches sur le

terrain cretace superieur de l'Angleterre et de l'Irlande_, published in

the _Memoires de la societe geologique du Nord_ in 1876. In this essay the

palaeontological zones in the Chalk and Upper Greensand of Britain were for

the first time marked out in detail, and the results of Dr Barrois's

original researches have formed the basis of subsequent work, and have in

all leading features been confirmed. In 1876 Dr Barrois was appointed a

collaborateur to the French Geological Survey, and in 1877 professor of

geology in the university [v.03 p.0439] of Lille. In other memoirs, among

which may be mentioned those on the Cretaceous rocks of the Ardennes and of

the Basin of Oviedo, Spain; on the (Devonian) Calcaire d'Erbray; on the

Palaeozoic rocks of Brittany and of northern Spain; and on the granitic and

metamorphic rocks of Brittany, Dr Barrois has proved himself an

accomplished petrologist as well as palaeontologist and field-geologist. In

1881 he was awarded the Bigsby medal, and in 1901 the Wollaston medal by

the Geological Society of London. He was chosen member of the Institute

(Academy of Sciences) in 1904.

BARROS, JOAO DE (1496-1570), called the Portuguese Livy, may be said to

have been the first great historian of his country. Educated in the palace

of King Manoel, he early conceived the idea of writing history, and, to

prove his powers, composed, at the age of twenty, a romance of chivalry,

the _Chronicle of the Emperor Clarimundo_, in which he is said to have had

the assistance of Prince John, afterwards King John III. The latter, on

ascending the throne, gave Barros the captaincy of the fortress of St

George of Elmina, whither he proceeded in 1522, and he obtained in 1525 the

post of treasurer of the India House, which he held until 1528. The pest of

1530 drove him from Lisbon to his country house near Pombal, and there he

finished a moral dialogue, _Rhopica Pneuma_, which met with the applause of

the learned Juan Luis Vives. On his return to Lisbon in 1532 the king

appointed Barros factor of the India and Mina House--positions of great

responsibility and importance at a time when Lisbon was the European

emporium for the trade of the East. Barros proved a good administrator,

displaying great industry and a disinterestedness rare in that age, with

the result that he made but little money where his predecessors had amassed

fortunes. At this time, John III., wishful to attract settlers to Brazil,

divided it up into captaincies and gave that of Maranhao to Barros, who,

associating two partners in the enterprise with himself, prepared an armada

of ten vessels, carrying nine hundred men, which set sail in 1539. Owing to

the ignorance of the pilots, the whole fleet suffered shipwreck, which

entailed serious financial loss on Barros, yet not content with meeting his

own obligations, he paid the debts of those who had perished in the

expedition. During all these busy years he had continued his studies in his

leisure hours, and shortly after the Brazilian disaster he offered to write

a history of the Portuguese in India, which the king accepted. He began

work forthwith, but, before printing the first part, he again proved his

pen by publishing a Portuguese grammar (1540) and some more moral

Dialogues. The first of the Decades of his _Asia_ appeared in 1552, and its

reception was such that the king straightway charged Barros to write a

chronicle of King Manoel. His many occupations, however, prevented him from

undertaking this book, which was finally composed by Damiao de Goes

(_q.v._). The Second Decade came out in 1553 and the Third in 1563, but the

Fourth and final one was not published until 1615, long after the author's

death. In January 1568 Barros retired from his remunerative appointment at

the India House, receiving the rank of _fidalgo_ together with a pension

and other pecuniary emoluments from King Sebastian, and died on the 20th of

October 1570. A man of lofty character, he preferred leaving his children

an example of good morals and learning to bequeathing them a large

pecuniary inheritance, and, though he received many royal benefactions,

they were volunteered, never asked for. As an historian and a stylist

Barros deserves the high fame he has always enjoyed. His Decades contain

the early history of the Portuguese in Asia and reveal careful study of

Eastern historians and geographers, as well as of the records of his own

country. They are distinguished by clearness of exposition and orderly

arrangement. His style has all the simplicity and grandeur of the masters

of historical writing, and the purity of his diction is incontestable.

Though, on the whole, impartial, Barros is the narrator and apologist of

the great deeds of his countrymen, and lacks the critical spirit and

intellectual acumen of Damiao de Goes. Diogo do Couto continued the

Decades, adding nine more, and a modern edition of the whole appeared in

Lisbon in 14 vols. in 1778-1788. The title of Barros's work is _Da Asia de

Joao de Barros, dos feitos que os Portuguezes fizeram no descubrimento e

conquista dos mares e terras do Oriente_, and the edition is accompanied by

a volume containing a life of Barros by the historian Manoel Severim de

Faria and a copious index of all the Decades. An Italian version in 2 vols.

appeared in Venice in 1561-1562 and a German in 5 vols. in 1821.

_Clarimundo_ has gone through the following editions: 1522, 1555, 1601,

1742, 1791 and 1843, all published in Lisbon. It influenced Francisco de

Moraes (_q.v._); cf. Purser, _Palmerin of England_, Dublin, 1904, pp. 440

et seq.

The minor works of Barros are described by Innocencio da Silva:

_Diccionario Bibliographico Portuguez_, vol. iii. pp. 320-323 and vol. x.

pp. 187-189, and in Severim de Faria's _Life_, cited above. A compilation

of Barros's _Varia_ was published by the visconde de Azevedo (Porto, 1869).

(E. PR.)

BARROT, CAMILLE HYACINTHE ODILON (1791-1873), French politician, was born

at Villefort (Lozere) on the 19th of September 1791. He belonged to a legal

family, his father, an advocate of Toulouse, having been a member of the

Convention who had voted against the death of Louis XVI. Odilon Barrot's

earliest recollections were of the October insurrection of 1795. He was

sent to the military school of Saint-Cyr, but presently removed to the

Lycee Napoleon to study law and was called to the Parisian bar in 1811. He

was placed in the office of the _conventionel_ Jean Mailhe, who was

advocate before the council of state and the court of cassation and was

proscribed at the second restoration. Barrot eventually succeeded him in

both positions. His dissatisfaction with the government of the restoration

was shown in his conduct of some political trials. For his opposition in

1820 to a law by which any person might be arrested and detained on a

warrant signed by three ministers, he was summoned before a court of

assize, but acquitted. Although intimate with Lafayette and others, he took

no actual share in their schemes for the overthrow of the government, but

in 1827 he joined the association known as _Aide-toi, le ciel t'aidera_. He

presided over the banquet given by the society to the 221 deputies who had

signed the address of March 1830 to Charles X., and threatened to reply to

force by force. After the ordinances of the 26th of July 1830, he joined

the National Guard and took an active part in the revolution. As secretary

of the municipal commission, which sat at the hotel-de-ville and formed

itself into a provisional government, he was charged to convey to the

chamber of deputies a protest embodying the terms which the advanced

Liberals wished to impose on the king to be elected. He supported the idea

of a constitutional monarchy against the extreme Republicans, and he was

appointed one of the three commissioners chosen to escort Charles X. out of

France. On his return he was nominated prefect of the department of the

Seine. His concessions to the Parisian mob and his extreme gentleness

towards those who demanded the prosecution of the ministers of Charles X.

led to an unflattering comparison with Jerome Petion under similar

circumstances. Louis Philippe's government was far from satisfying his

desires for reform, and he persistently urged the "broadening of the bases

of the monarchy," while he protested his loyalty to the dynasty. He was

returned to the chamber of deputies for the department of Eure in 1831. The

day after the demonstration of June 1832 on the occasion of the funeral of

General Lamarque, he made himself indirectly the mouthpiece of the

Democrats in an interview with Louis Philippe, which is given at length in

his _Memoires_. Subsequently, in pleading before the court of cassation on

behalf of one of the rioters, he secured the annulling of the judgments

given by the council of war. The death of the duke of Orleans in 1842 was a

blow to Barrot's party, which sought to substitute the regency of the

duchess of Orleans for that of the duke of Nemours in the event of the

succession of the count of Paris. In 1846 Barrot made a tour in the Near

East, returning in time to take part a second time in the preliminaries of

revolution. He organized banquets of the disaffected in the various cities

of France, and demanded electoral reform to avoid revolution. He did not

foresee the strength of the outbreak for which his eloquence had prepared

the way, and clung to the programme of 1830. He tried to support the

regency of the duchess in the chamber on the 24th of February, only to find

that the time was past for [v.03 p.0440] half-measures. He acquiesced in

the republic and gave his adhesion to General Cavaignac. He became the

chief of Louis Napoleon's first ministry in the hope of extracting Liberal

measures, but was dismissed in 1849 as soon as he had served the

president's purpose of avoiding open conflict. After the _coup d'etat_ of

December 1851 he was one of those who sought to accuse Napoleon of high

treason. He was imprisoned for a short time and retired from active

politics for some ten years. He was drawn once more into affairs by the

hopes of reform held out by Emile Ollivier, accepting in 1869 the

presidency of an extra-parliamentary committee on decentralization. After

the fall of the empire he was nominated by Thiers, whom he had supported

under Louis Philippe, president of the council of state. But his powers

were now failing, and he had only filled his new office for about a year

when he died at Bougival on the 6th of August 1873. He had been

sufficiently an optimist to believe in the triumph of the liberal but

non-republican institutions dear to him under the restoration, under Louis

Philippe and Louis Napoleon successively. He was unable to foresee and

unwilling to accept the consequences of his political agitation in 1830 and

1848, and in spite of his talents and acknowledged influence he thus failed

to secure the honours won by more uncompromising politicians. He was

described by Thureau-Dangin as "le plus solennel des indecis, le plus

meditatif des irreflechis, le plus heureux des ambitieux, le plus austere

des courtisans de la foule."

His personal relations with Louis Philippe and Napoleon, with his views on

the events in which he was concerned, are described in the four volumes of

his _Memoires_, edited by Duvergier de Hauranne in 1875-1876. See also

Thureau-Dangin, _Hist. de la monarchie de juillet_.

BARROW, ISAAC (1630-1677), English mathematician and divine, was the son of

Thomas Barrow, a linen-draper in London, belonging to an old Suffolk and

Cambridgeshire family. His uncle was Bishop Isaac Barrow of St Asaph

(1614-1680). He was at first placed for two or three years at the

Charterhouse school. There, however, his conduct gave but little hopes of

his ever succeeding as a scholar. But after his removal from this

establishment to Felsted school in Essex, where Martin Holbeach was master,

his disposition took a happier turn; and having soon made considerable

progress in learning, he was in 1643 entered at St Peter's College, and

afterwards at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he applied himself to the

study of literature and science, especially of natural philosophy. He at

first intended to adopt the medical profession, and made some progress in

anatomy, botany and chemistry, after which he studied chronology, geometry

and astronomy. He then travelled in France and Italy, and in a voyage from

Leghorn to Smyrna gave proofs of great personal bravery during an attack

made by an Algerine pirate. At Smyrna he met with a kind reception from the

English consul, Mr Bretton, upon whose death he afterwards wrote a Latin

elegy. From this place he proceeded to Constantinople, where he received

similar civilities from Sir Thomas Bendish, the English ambassador, and Sir

Jonathan Dawes, with whom he afterwards contracted an intimate friendship.

While at Constantinople he read and studied the works of St Chrysostom,

whom he preferred to all the other Fathers. He resided in Turkey somewhat

more than a year, after which he proceeded to Venice, and thence returned

home through Germany and Holland in 1659.

Immediately on his reaching England he received ordination from Bishop

Brownrig, and in 1660 he was appointed to the Greek professorship at

Cambridge. When he entered upon this office he intended to have prelected

upon the tragedies of Sophocles; but he altered his intention and made

choice of Aristotle's rhetoric. His lectures on this subject, having been

lent to a friend who never returned them, are irrecoverably lost. In July

1662 he was elected professor of geometry in Gresham College, on the

recommendation of Dr John Wilkins, master of Trinity College and afterwards

bishop of Chester; and in May 1663 he was chosen a fellow of the Royal

Society, at the first election made by the council after obtaining their

charter. The same year the executors of Henry Lucas, who, according to the

terms of his will, had founded a mathematical chair at Cambridge, fixed

upon Barrow as the first professor; and although his two professorships

were not inconsistent with each other, he chose to resign that of Gresham

College, which he did on the 20th of May 1664. In 1669 he resigned his

mathematical chair to his pupil, Isaac Newton, having now determined to

renounce the study of mathematics for that of divinity. Upon quitting his

professorship Barrow was only a fellow of Trinity College; but his uncle

gave him a small sinecure in Wales, and Dr Seth Ward, bishop of Salisbury,

conferred upon him a prebend in that church. In the year 1670 he was

created doctor in divinity by mandate; and, upon the promotion of Dr

Pearson to the see of Chester, he was appointed to succeed him as master of

Trinity College by the king's patent, bearing the date of the 13th of

February 1672. In 1675 Dr Barrow was chosen vice-chancellor of the

university. He died on the 4th of May 1677, and was interred in Westminster

Abbey, where a monument, surmounted by his bust, was soon after erected by

the contributions of his friends.

By his English contemporaries Barrow was considered a mathematician second

only to Newton. Continental writers do not place him so high, and their

judgment is probably the more correct one. He was undoubtedly a

clear-sighted and able mathematician, who handled admirably the severe

geometrical method, and who in his _Method of Tangents_ approximated to the

course of reasoning by which Newton was afterwards led to the doctrine of

ultimate ratios; but his substantial contributions to the science are of no

great importance, and his lectures upon elementary principles do not throw

much light on the difficulties surrounding the border-land between

mathematics and philosophy. (See INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS.) His _Sermons_

have long enjoyed a high reputation; they are weighty pieces of reasoning,

elaborate in construction and ponderous in style.

His scientific works are very numerous. The most important are:--_Euclid's

Elements; Euclid's Data; Optical Lectures_, read in the public school of

Cambridge; _Thirteen Geometrical Lectures; The Works of Archimedes, the

Four Books of Apollonius's Conic Sections, and Theodosius's Spherics,

explained in a New Method_; A _Lecture_, in which Archimedes' Theorems of

the Sphere and Cylinder are investigated and briefly demonstrated;

_Mathematical Lectures_, read in the public schools of the university of

Cambridge. The above were all written in Latin. His English works have been

collected and published in four volumes folio.

See Ward, _Lives of the Gresham Professors_, and Whewell's biography

prefixed to the 9th volume of Napier's edition of Barrow's _Sermons_.

BARROW, SIR JOHN (1764-1848), English statesman, was born in the village of

Dragley Beck in the parish of Ulverston in Lancashire, on the 19th of June

1764. He started in life as superintending clerk of an iron foundry at

Liverpool and afterwards taught mathematics at a school in Greenwich.

Through the interest of Sir George Staunton, to whose son he taught

mathematics, he was attached on the first British embassy to China as

comptroller of the household to Lord Macartney. He soon acquired a good

knowledge of the Chinese language, on which he subsequently contributed

interesting articles to the _Quarterly Review_; and the account of the

embassy published by Sir George Staunton records many of Barrow's valuable

contributions to literature and science connected with China.

Although Barrow ceased to be officially connected with Chinese affairs

after the return of the embassy in 1794, he always took much interest in

them, and on critical occasions was frequently consulted by the British

government. In 1797 he accompanied Lord Macartney, as private secretary, in

his important and delicate mission to settle the government of the newly

acquired colony of the Cape of Good Hope. Barrow was entrusted with the

task of reconciling the Boers and Kaffirs and of reporting on the country

in the interior. On his return from his journey, in the course of which he

visited all parts of the colony, he was appointed auditor-general of public

accounts. He now decided to settle in South Africa, married Anne Maria

Trueter, and in 1800 bought a house in Cape Town. But the surrender of the

colony at the peace of Amiens (1802) upset this plan. He returned to

England in 1804, was appointed by Lord Melville second secretary to the

admiralty, a post which he held for [v.03 p.0441] forty years. He enjoyed

the esteem and confidence of all the eleven chief lords who successively

presided at the admiralty board during that period, and more especially of

King William IV. while lord high admiral, who honoured him with tokens of

his personal regard. Barrow was a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1821

received the degree of LL.D. from Edinburgh University. A baronetcy was

conferred on him by Sir Robert Peel in 1835. He retired from public life in

1845 and devoted himself to writing a history of the modern Arctic voyages

of discovery (1846), of which he was a great promoter, as well as his

autobiography, published in 1847. He died suddenly on the 23rd of November

1848.

Besides the numerous articles in the _Quarterly Review_ already mentioned,

Barrow published among other works, _Travels in China_ (1804); _Travels

into the Interior of South Africa_ (1806); and lives of Lord Macartney

(1807), Lord Anson (1839), Lord Howe (1838). He was also the author of

several valuable contributions to the seventh edition of the _Encyclopaedia

Britannica_.

See _Memoir_ of John Barlow, by G. F. Staunton (1852).

BARROW, a river of south-eastern Ireland. It rises in the Slieve Bloom

mountains, and flows at first easterly and then almost due south, until, on

joining the Suir, it forms the estuary of the south coast known as

Waterford Harbour. Including the 12 m. of the estuary, the length of its

valley is rather more than 100 m., without counting the lesser windings of

the river. The total area of drainage to Waterford Harbour (including the

basin of the Suir) is 3500 sq. m., and covers the whole of the county

Kilkenny, with parts of Waterford, Cork and Limerick, Tipperary, Carlow,

King's and Queen's counties. The chief towns on the banks of the Barrow are

Athy (where it becomes navigable and has a junction with the Grand Canal),

Carlow, Bagenalstown and New Ross. The chief affluent is the Nore, which it

receives from the north-west a little above New Ross. The scenery on its

banks is in parts very beautiful.

BARROW (from A.S. _beorh_, a mount or hillock), a word found occasionally

among place-names in England applied to natural eminences, but generally

restricted in its modern application to denote an ancient grave-mound. The

custom of constructing barrows or mounds of stone or earth over the remains

of the dead was a characteristic feature of the sepulchral systems of

primitive times. Originating in the common sentiment of humanity, which

desires by some visible memorial to honour and perpetuate the memory of the

dead, it was practised alike by peoples of high and of low development, and

continued through all the stages of culture that preceded the introduction

of Christianity. The primary idea of sepulture appears to have been the

provision of a habitation for the dead; and thus, in its perfect form, the

barrow included a chamber or chambers where the tenant was surrounded with

the prized possessions of his previous life. A common feature of the

earlier barrows is the enclosing fence, which marked off the site from the

surrounding ground. When the barrow was of earth, this was effected by an

encircling trench or a low _vallum_. When the barrow was a stone structure,

the enclosure was usually a circle of standing stones. Sometimes, instead

of a chamber formed above ground, the barrow covered a pit excavated for

the interment under the original surface. In later times the mound itself

was frequently dispensed with, and the interments made within the enclosure

of a trench, a _vallum_ or a circle of standing stones. Usually the great

barrows occupy conspicuous sites; but in general the external form is no

index to the internal construction and gives no definite indication of the

nature of the sepulchral usages. Thus, while the long barrow is

characteristic of the Stone Age, it is impossible to tell without direct

examination whether it may be chambered or unchambered, or whether the

burials within it may be those of burnt or of unburnt bodies.

In England the long barrow usually contains a single chamber, entering by a

passage underneath the higher and wider end of the mound. In Denmark the

chambers are at irregular intervals along the body of the mound, and have

no passages leading into them. The long barrows of Great Britain are often

from 200 to 400 ft. in length by 60 to 80 ft. wide. Their chambers are

rudely but strongly built, with dome-shaped roofs, formed by overlapping

the successive courses of the upper part of the side walls. In Scandinavia,

on the other hand, such dome-roofed chambers are unknown, and the

construction of the chambers as a rule is megalithic, five or six monoliths

supporting one or more capstones of enormous size. Such chambers, denuded

of the covering mound, or over which no covering mound has been raised, are

popularly known in England as "cromlechs" and in France as "dolmens" (see

STONE MONUMENTS). The prevailing mode of sepulture in all the different

varieties of these structures is by the deposit of the body in a contracted

position, accompanied by weapons and implements of stone, occasionally by

ornaments of gold, jet or amber. Vessels of clay, more or less ornate in

character, which occur with these early interments of unburnt bodies, have

been regarded as food-vessels and drinking-cups, differing in character and

purpose from the cinerary urns of larger size in which the ashes of the

dead were deposited after cremation.

The custom of burning the body commenced in the Stone Age, before the long

barrow or the dolmen had passed out of use. While cremation is rare in the

long barrows of the south of England, it is the rule in those of Yorkshire

and the north of Scotland. In Ireland, where the long barrow form is all

but unknown, the round barrow or chambered cairn prevailed from the

earliest Pagan period till the introduction of Christianity. The Irish

barrows occur in groups in certain localities, some of which seem to have

been the royal cemeteries of the tribal confederacies, whereof eight are

enumerated in an ancient Irish manuscript, the _Leabhar na h-Uidhri_,

compiled c. A.D. 1100. The best-known of these is situated on the banks of

the Boyne above Drogheda, and consists of a group of the largest cairns in

Ireland. One, at New Grange, is a huge mound of stones and earth, over 300

ft. in diameter and 70 ft. in height. Around its base are the remains of a

circle of large standing stones. The chamber, which is 20 ft. high in the

centre, is reached by a passage about 70 ft. in length. In the Loughcrew

Hills, Co. Meath, there is a group of about thirty stone barrows or cairns,

mostly chambered, their bases measuring from 5 or 6 to 60 yds. in diameter.

They are unusually interesting from the fact that many of the exposed slabs

in the walls of the chambers are ornamented with spirals and other devices,

rudely incised. As in the case of the long barrows, the traditional form of

the circular, chambered barrow was retained through various changes in the

sepulchral customs of the people. It was the natural result of the practice

of cremation, however, that it should induce a modification of the barrow

structure. The chamber, no longer regarded as a habitation to be tenanted

by the deceased, became simply a cist for the reception of the urn which

held his ashes. The degradation of the chamber naturally produced a

corresponding degradation of the mound which covered it, and the barrows of

the Bronze Age, in which cremation was common, are smaller and less

imposing than those of the Stone Age, but often surprisingly rich in the

relics of the life and of the art workmanship of the time. In addition to

the varied and beautiful forms of implements and weapons--frequently

ornamented with a high degree of artistic taste--armlets and other personal

ornaments in gold, amber, jet and bronze are not uncommon. The barrows of

the bronze period, like some of those of the Stone Age, appear to have been

used as tribal or family cemeteries. In Denmark as many as seventy deposits

of burnt interments have been observed in a single mound, indicating its

use as a burying-place throughout a long succession of years.

In the Iron Age there was less uniformity in the burial customs. In some of

the barrows in central France, and in the wolds of Yorkshire, the

interments include the arms and accoutrements of a charioteer, with his

chariot, harness and horses. In Scandinavia a custom, alluded to in the

sagas, of burying the viking in his ship, drawn up on land, and raising a

barrow over it, is exemplified by the ship-burials discovered in Norway.

The ship found in the Gokstad mound was 78 ft. long, and had a mast and

sixteen pairs of oars. In a chamber abaft the mast the viking had been

laid, with his weapons, and together with him were [v.03 p.0442] buried

twelve horses, six dogs and a peacock. An interesting example of the great

timber-chambered barrow is that at Jelling in Jutland, known as the barrow

of Thyre Danebod, queen of King Gorm the Old, who died about the middle of

the 10th century. It is a mound about 200 ft. in diameter, and over 50 ft.

in height, containing a chamber 23 ft. long, 8 ft. wide and 5 ft. high,

formed of massive slabs of oak. Though it had been entered and plundered in

the middle ages, a few relics were found when it was reopened, among which

were a silver cup, ornamented with the interlacing work characteristic of

the time and some personal ornaments. It is highly illustrative of the

tenacity with which the ancient sepulchral usages were retained even after

the introduction of Christianity that King Harold, son and successor of

Gorm the Old, who is said to have christianized all Denmark and Norway,

followed the pagan custom of erecting a chambered tumulus over the remains

of his father, on the summit of which was placed a rude pillar-stone,

bearing on one side the memorial inscription in runes, and on the other a

representation of the Saviour of mankind distinguished by the crossed

nimbus surrounding the head. The so-called Kings' Hows at Upsala in Sweden

rival those of Jelling in size and height. In the chamber of one, opened in

1829, there was found an urn full of calcined bones; and along with it were

ornaments of gold showing the characteristic workmanship of the 5th and 6th

centuries of the Christian era. Along with the calcined human bones were

bones of animals, among which those of the horse and the dog were

distinguished.

Comparing the results of the researches in European barrows with such

notices of barrow-burial as may be gleaned from early writings, we find

them mutually illustrative.

The Homeric account of the building of the barrow of Hector (_Il._ xxiv.)

brings vividly before us the scene so often suggested by the examination of

the tumuli of prehistoric times. During nine days wood was collected and

brought, in carts drawn by oxen, to the site of the funeral pyre. Then the

pyre was built and the body laid upon it. After burning for twenty-four

hours the smouldering embers were extinguished with libations of wine. The

white and calcined bones were then picked out of the ashes by the friends

and placed in a metallic urn, which was deposited in a hollow grave or cist

and covered over with large well-fitting stones. Finally, a barrow of great

magnitude was heaped over the remains and the funeral feast was celebrated.

The obsequies of Achilles, as described in the _Odyssey_, were also

celebrated with details which are strikingly similar to those observed in

tumuli both of the Bronze and Iron Ages. The body was brought to the pile

in an embroidered robe and jars of unguents and honey were placed beside

it. Sheep and oxen were slaughtered at the pile. The incinerated bones were

collected from the ashes and placed in a golden urn along with those of

Patroclus, Achilles's dearest friend. Over the remains a great and shapely

mound was raised on the high headland, so that it might be seen from afar

by future generations of men.

Herodotus, describing the funeral customs of the Scythians, states that, on

the death of a chief, the body was placed upon a couch in a chamber sunk in

the earth and covered with timber, in which were deposited all things

needful for the comfort of the deceased in the other world. One of his

wives was strangled and laid beside him, his cup-bearer and other

attendants, his charioteer and his horses were killed and placed in the

tomb, which was then filled up with earth and an enormous mound raised high

over all. The barrows which cover the plains of ancient Scythia attest the

truth of this description. A Siberian barrow, described by Demidov,

contained three contiguous chambers of unhewn stone. In the central chamber

lay the skeleton of the ancient chief, with his sword, his spear, his bow

and a quiver full of arrows. The skeleton reclined upon a sheet of pure

gold, extending the whole length of the body, which had been wrapped in a

mantle broidered with gold and studded with precious stones. Over it was

extended another sheet of pure gold. In a smaller chamber at the chief's

head lay the skeleton of a female, richly attired, extended upon a sheet of

pure gold and similarly covered with a sheet of the same metal. A golden

chain adorned her neck and her arms were encircled with bracelets of pure

gold. In a third chamber, at the chief's feet, lay the skeleton of his

favourite horse with saddle, bridle and stirrups.

So curiously alike in their general features were the sepulchral usages

connected with barrow-burial over the whole of Europe, that we find the

Anglo-Saxon Saga of Beowulf describing the chambered tumulus with its

gigantic masonry "held fast on props, with vaults of stone," and the

passage under the mound haunted by a dragon, the guardian of the treasures

of heathen gold which it contained. Beowulf's own burial is minutely

described in terms which have a strong resemblance to the parallel passages

in the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_. There is first the preparation of the pile,

which is hung round with helmets, shields and coats of mail. Then the

corpse is brought and laid in the midst; the pile is kindled and the

roaring flame rises, mingled with weeping, till all is consumed. Then, for

ten long days, the warriors labour at the rearing of his mighty mound on

the headland, high and broad, to be seen afar by the passers-by on land and

sea.

The pyramids of Egypt, the mausolea of the Lydian kings, the circular,

chambered sepulchres of Mycenae, and the Etruscan tombs at Caere and Volci,

are lineally descended from the chambered barrows of prehistoric times,

modified in construction according to the advancement of architectural art

at the period of their erection. There is no country in Europe destitute of

more or less abundant proofs of the almost universal prevalence of

barrow-burial in early times. It can also be traced on both sides of the

basin of the Mediterranean, and from Asia Minor across the continent to

India, China and Japan.

In the new world as well as in the old, similar customs prevailed from a

very remote period. In the great plains of North America the dead were

buried in barrows of enormous magnitude, which occasionally present a

remarkable similarity to the barrows of Great Britain. In these mounds

cremation appears more frequently than inhumation; and both are accompanied

by implements, weapons and ornaments of stone and bone. The pottery

accompanying the remains is often elaborately ornamented, and the mound

builders were evidently possessed of a higher development of taste and

skill than is evinced by any of the modern aboriginal races, by whom the

mounds and their contents are regarded as utterly mysterious.

It is not to be wondered at that customs so widely spread and so deeply

rooted as those connected with barrow-burial should have been difficult to

eradicate. In fact, compliance with the Christian practice of inhumation in

the cemeteries sanctioned by the church, was only enforced in Europe by

capitularies denouncing the punishment of death on those who persisted in

burying their dead after the pagan fashion or in the pagan mounds. Yet even

in the middle ages kings of Christian countries were buried with their

swords and spears, and queens with their spindles and ornaments; the bishop

was laid in his grave with his crozier and comb; the priest with his

chalice and vestments; and clay vessels filled with charcoal (answering to

the urns of heathen times) are found in the churches of France and Denmark.

AUTHORITIES.--Canon W. Greenwell, _British Barrows_ (London, 1877); Dr J.

Thurnam, "On Ancient British Barrows," in _Archaeologia_, vols. 42, 43

(1869); J. R. Mortimer, _Forty Years' Researches in Burial Mounds of East

Yorkshire_ (London, 1905); J. Anderson, _Scotland in Pagan Times_

(Edinburgh, 1886); Dr T. H. Bryce, "Records of Explorations among the

Cairns of Arran and Bute," in _Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of

Scotland_, vols. 36, 37, 38 (1901-1903); W. C. Borlase, _The Dolmens of

Ireland_ (London, 1897); _Dictionnaire archeologique de la Gaule_ (Paris,

1875); A. P. Madsen, _Gravhoie og Gravfund fra Stenalderen i Danmark_

(Copenhagen, 1900); S. Mueller, _Nordische Altertumskunde aus Daenemark und

Schleswig_ (Strassburg, 1897); O. Montelius, _The Civilization of Sweden in

Heathen Times_ (London, 1888), and _Der Orient und Europa_ (Stockholm,

1899); E. Cartailhac, _Les Ages prehistoriques de l'Espagne et du Portugal_

(Paris, 1886); W. Gowland, "The Dolmens and Burial Mounds in Japan," in

_Archaeologia_, vol. 55 (1897); C. Thomas, "Report on the Mound

Explorations of the Bureau of Ethnology" (_Twelfth Annual Report_ for

1890-1891, Washington, 1894.)

(J. AN.)

BARROWE, HENRY (?1550-1593), English Puritan and Separatist, was born about

1550, at Shipdam, Norfolk, of a family related by marriage to the lord

keeper Bacon, and [v.03 p.0443] probably to Aylmer, bishop of London. He

matriculated at Clare Hall, Cambridge, in November 1566, and graduated B.A.

in 1569-1570. Afterwards he "followed the court" for some time, leading a

frivolous if not licentious life. He was a member of Gray's Inn for a few

years from 1576, but was never called to the bar. About 1580 or 1581 he was

deeply impressed by a sermon, whereupon he retired to the country, and was

led by study and meditation to the strictest form of Puritanism.

Subsequently, in what manner is not known, he came into intimate relations

with John Greenwood, the Separatist leader, whose views (probably due, in

part at least, to Browne's influence) he adopted without reserve. Though

not strictly resident in London at this time, he was associated with "the

brethren of the Separation" there, in whose secret meetings his natural

earnestness and eloquence made him conspicuous. Greenwood having been

imprisoned in the Clink, Barrowe came from the country to visit him, and on

the 19th of November 1586 was detained by the gaoler and brought before

Archbishop Whitgift. He insisted on the illegality of this arrest, refused

either to take the _ex officio_ oath or to give bail for future appearance,

and was committed to the Gatehouse. After nearly six months' detention and

several irregular examinations before the high commissioners, he and

Greenwood were formally indicted (May 1587) for recusancy under an act

originally directed against Papists. They were ordered to find heavy bail

for comformity, and to remain in the Fleet Prison until it was forthcoming.

Barrowe continued a prisoner for the remainder of his life, nearly six

years, sometimes in close confinement, sometimes having "the liberty of the

prison." He was subjected to several more examinations, once before the

privy council at Whitehall on the 18th of March 1588, as a result of

petition to the queen. On these occasions he vigorously maintained the

principle of separatism, denouncing the prescribed ritual of the Church as

"a false worship," and the bishops as oppressors and persecutors. During

his imprisonments he was engaged in written controversy with Robert Browne

(down to 1588), who had yielded a partial submission to the established

order, and whom he therefore accounted a renegade. He also wrote several

vigorous treatises in defence of separatism and congregational

independency, the most important being:--_A True Description of the Visible

Congregation of the Saints, &c._ (1589); _A Plain Refutation of Mr

Gifford's Booke, intituled A Short Treatise Gainst the Donatistes of

England_ (1590-1591), and _A Brief Discovery of the False Church_ (1591).

Others were written in conjunction with his fellow-prisoner, Greenwood.

These writings were taken charge of by friends and mostly printed in

Holland. By 1590 the bishops thought it advisable to try other means of

convincing or silencing these indomitable controversialists, and sent

several conforming Puritan ministers to confer with them, but without

effect. At length it was resolved to proceed on a capital charge of

"devising and circulating seditious books," for which, as the law then

stood, it was easy to secure a conviction. They were tried and sentenced to

death on the 23rd of March 1593. What followed is, happily, unique in the

history of English misrule. The day after sentence they were brought out as

if for execution and respited. On the 31st of March they were taken to the

gallows, and after the ropes had been placed about their necks were again

respited. Finally they were hanged early on the morning of the 6th of

April. The motive of all this is obscure, but there is some evidence that

the lord treasurer Burghley endeavoured to save their lives, and was

frustrated by Whitgift and other bishops.

The opinions of Browne and Barrowe had much in common, but were not

identical. Both maintained the right and duty of the Church to carry out

necessary reforms without awaiting the permission of the civil power; and

both advocated congregational independency. But the ideal of Browne was a

spiritual democracy, towards which separation was only a means. Barrowe, on

the other hand, regarded the whole established church order as polluted by

the relics of Roman Catholicism, and insisted on separation as essential to

pure worship and discipline (see further CONGREGATIONALISM). Barrowe has

been credited by H. M. Dexter and others with being the author of the

"Marprelate Tracts"; but this is improbable.

AUTHORITIES.--H. M. Dexter, _The Congregationalism of the Last Three

Hundred Years_; F. J. Powicke, _Henry Barrowe and the Exiled Church_. See

also B. Brook, _Lives of the Puritans_; and Cooper, _Athenae

Cantabrigienses_ (1861), vol. ii.

BARROW-IN-FURNESS, a seaport and municipal, county and parliamentary

borough of Lancashire, England, 264-1/2 m. N.W. by N. from London, on the

Furness railway. Pop. (1891) 51,712; (1901) 57,586. It lies on the seaward

side of the hammer-shaped peninsula forming part of the district of

Furness, between the estuary of the Duddon and Morecambe Bay, where a

narrow channel intervenes between the mainland and the long low island of

Walney, on which the erection of a strong fort was undertaken by the War

Office in 1904. In 1905 the connexion of Walney with the mainland by a

bridge was undertaken. In the channel is Barrow Island (among others) which

is connected with the mainland, reclamation having been carried on until

only a narrow channel was left, which was utilized as docks. Barrow is of

modern and remarkably rapid growth. Its rise was dependent primarily on the

existence and working of the veins of pure haematite iron ore in the

district of Furness (_q.v._). At the outset Barrow merely exported the ore

to the furnaces of South Wales and the midlands. At the beginning of the

19th century this export amounted at most to a few thousand tons, and

though by the middle of the century it had reached some 50,000 in 1847 the

population of Barrow was only 325. In 1846 the first section of the Furness

railway was opened, connecting Barrow with the mines near Dalton; in the

ensuing years a great increase in trade justified the opening of further

communications, and in 1859 the iron works of Messrs Schneider & Hannay

were instituted. The Barrow Haematite Steel Company (1866) absorbed this

company, and a great output of steel produced by the Bessemer process was

begun. Other industries followed. Of these the shipbuilding works have

surpassed the steel works in importance, the celebrated firm of Vickers,

Sons & Maxim having a yard where they construct numerous vessels of war as

well as others. There are also a petroleum storage establishment, a

paper-pulp factory, jute works, and engineering and wagon works.

The docks in the strait between Barrow Island and the mainland were

constructed in 1867, and named the Devonshire and Buccleuch docks. The

Ramsden docks are a subsequent extension. These are 24 ft. in depth. There

are also a graving dock 500 ft. long, a depositing dock accommodating

vessels of 16 ft. draught, and two electric cranes each able to lift 150

tons. The Furness railway company is the dock authority. Passenger steamers

run on weekdays to Belfast.

The town is laid out in rectangular form, and contains several handsome

churches, municipal buildings, exchange and other public buildings. An

electric tramway service connects the outskirts and the centre. There are

statues of Lord Frederick Cavendish (assassinated at Dublin, 1882), in

front of the town-hall, and of Sir James Ramsden (d. 1896), managing

director of the Furness railway and first mayor of Barrow, to whom,

together with the dukes of Devonshire and Buccleuch, the town owed much of

its rise in the middle of the 19th century. The cottage inhabited by George

Romney the painter from 1742 to 1755 has been preserved from demolition and

retained as a memorial. Educational institutions include a school of

science and art, a girls' high school and a technical school. Barrow is a

suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Carlisle. The parliamentary borough

(1885), falling within the North Lonsdale division of the county, returns

one member. The town was incorporated in 1867, and became a county borough

in 1888. The corporation consists of a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24

councillors. Area, 11,023 acres.

BARRY, SIR CHARLES (1795-1860), English architect, was born in London on

the 23rd of May 1795, the son of a stationer. He was articled to a firm of

architects, with whom he remained till 1817, when he set out on a three

years' tour in Greece and Italy, Egypt and Palestine for the purpose of

studying [v.03 p.0444] architecture. On his return to England in 1820 he

settled in London. One of the first works by which his abilities as an

architect became generally known was the church of St Peter at Brighton,

completed in 1826. He built many other churches; but the marked preference

for Italian architecture, which he acquired during his travels, showed

itself in various important undertakings of his earlier years. In 1831 he

completed the Travellers' Club in Pall Mall, a splendid work in the Italian

style and the first of its kind built in London. In the same style and on a

grander scale he built in 1837 the Reform Club. He was also engaged on

numerous private mansions in London, the finest being Bridgewater House

(1847). Birmingham possesses one of his best works in King Edward's grammar

school, built in the Tudor style between 1833 and 1836. For Manchester be

designed the Royal Institution of Fine Arts (1824) and the Athenaeum

(1836); and for Halifax the town-hall. He was engaged for some years in

reconstructing the Treasury buildings, Whitehall. But his masterpiece,

notwithstanding all unfavourable criticism, is the Houses of Parliament at

Westminster (1840-1860). Barry was elected A.R.A. in 1840 and R.A. in the

following year. His genius and achievements were recognized by the

representative artistic bodies of the principal European nations; and his

name was enrolled as a member of the academies of art at Rome, Berlin, St

Petersburg, Brussels and Stockholm. He was chosen F.R.S. in 1849 and was

knighted by Queen Victoria in 1852. He died suddenly at Clapham near London

on the 12th of May 1860, and his remains were interred in Westminster

Abbey. As a landscape gardener he was no less brilliant than as an

architect, and in connexion with the building of the Houses of Parliament

he formed schools of modelling, stone and wood carving, cabinet-making,

metal-working, glass and decorative painting, and of encaustic tile-making.

In 1867 appeared a life of him by his son Bishop Alfred Barry. A claim was

thereupon set up on behalf of Pugin, the famous architect, who was dead and

who had been Barry's assistant, to a much larger share in the work of

designing the Houses of Parliament than was admitted in Dr Barry's

narrative. The controversy raged for a time, but without substantiating

Pugin's claim.

His second son, ALFRED BARRY (1826- ), was educated at King's College,

London, and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was 4th wrangler and

gained a first-class in the classical tripos in 1848. He was successively

sub-warden of Trinity College, Glenalmond (1849-1854), head-master of Leeds

grammar school (1854-1862), principal of Cheltenham College (1862-1868),

and principal of King's College, London (1868-1883). He was canon of

Worcester from 1871 to 1881, and of Westminster from 1881 to 1884. From

1884 to 1889 he served as bishop of Sydney and primate of Australia, and on

his return to England he was assistant bishop in the diocese of Rochester

from 1889 to 1891, and rector of St James's, Piccadilly, from 1895 to 1900.

He was appointed canon of Windsor in 1891 and assistant bishop in West

London in 1897. Besides the life of his father mentioned above, he

published numerous theological works.

Another son, EDWARD MIDDLETON BARRY (1830-1880), was also an architect. He

acted as assistant to his father during the latter years of Sir Charles's

life. On the death of his father, the duty of completing the latter's

unfinished work devolved upon him. Amongst other buildings thus completed

were the Houses of Parliament at Westminster (see ARCHITECTURE, fig. 91,

and Plate X. fig. 118), and Halifax town-hall (_Id_. fig. 90). In 1861 he

was elected an associate of the Royal Academy; and in 1869 a full

academician. From 1873 till his death he held the Academy's professorship

of architecture. Among other buildings designed by him were Covent Garden

theatre, Charing Cross and Cannon Street hotels, the Birmingham and Midland

Institute, new galleries for the National Gallery and new chambers for the

Inner Temple. He died on the 27th of January, 1880.

The youngest son, SIR JOHN WOLFE WOLFE-BARRY (1836- ), the eminent

engineer, who assumed the additional name of Wolfe in 1898, was educated at

Glenalmond, and was articled as engineering pupil to Sir John Hawkshaw,

with whom he was associated in the building of the railway bridges across

the Thames at Charing Cross and Cannon Street. In 1867 he began to practise

on his own account, and soon gained an extensive connexion with railway

companies, both in Great Britain and in other countries. Among the works on

which he was engaged were extensions of the Metropolitan District railway,

the St Paul's station and bridge of the London, Chatham & Dover railway,

the Barry Docks of the Barry railway company near Cardiff, and the Tower

and new Kew bridges over the Thames. On the completion of the Tower Bridge

in 1894, he was made a C.B., becoming K.C.B. three years later. He served

on several royal commissions, including those on Irish Public Works

(1886-1890), Highlands and Islands of Scotland (1889-1890), Accidents to

Railway Servants (1899-1900), Port of London (1900-1902), and London

Traffic (1903-1905). He was elected president of the Institution of Civil

Engineers in 1896, and published books on _Railway Appliances_ (1874), and,

with Sir F. J. Bramwell, on _Railways and Locomotives_ (1882).

BARRY, ELIZABETH (1658-1713), English actress, of whose early life the

details are meagre. At first she was so unsuccessful on the stage as to be

more than once dismissed; but she was coached by her lover the earl of

Rochester, who had laid a wager that in a short time he would make a

first-rate actress of her, and the results confirmed his judgment. Mrs

Barry's performance as Isabella, queen of Hungary, in the earl of Orrery's

_Mustapha_, was said to have caused Charles II. and the duke and duchess of

York so much delight that the duchess took lessons in English from her, and

when she became queen she gave Mrs Barry her coronation robes in which to

appear as Elizabeth in Banks's _Earl of Essex_. Mrs Barry is said to have

created over 100 parts, and she was particularly successful in the plays of

Thomas Otway. Betterton says that her acting gave "success to plays that

would disgust the most patient reader." Dryden pronounced her "always

excellent." Cibber is authority for the statement that it was on her behalf

that benefits, which up to that time were reserved for authors, were first

established for actors by command of James II. Mrs Barry had a child by

Lord Rochester and a second by Sir George Etheredge, both of whom were

provided for by their fathers. In 1709 she retired from the stage and died

on the 7th of November 1713.

BARRY, JAMES (1741-1806), English painter, was born at Cork on the 11th of

October 1741. His father had been a builder, and, at one time of his life,

a coasting trader between the two countries of England and Ireland. To this

business of trader James was destined, and he actually made when a boy

several voyages; but he manifested such an aversion to the life and habits

of a sailor as to induce his father to suffer him to pursue his own

inclinations, which led strongly towards drawing and study. At the schools

in Cork to which he was sent he was regarded as a prodigy. About the age of

seventeen he first attempted oil-painting, and between that and the age of

twenty-two, when he first went to Dublin, he produced several large

pictures, which decorated his father's house, such as "Aeneas escaping with

his Family from the Flames of Troy," "Susanna and the Elders," "Daniel in

the Lions' Den," &c. At this period he also produced the painting which

first brought him into public notice, and gained him the acquaintance and

patronage of Edmund Burke. The picture was founded on an old tradition of

the landing of St Patrick on the sea-coast of Cashel, and of the conversion

and baptism of the king of that district by the patron saint of Ireland. It

was exhibited in London in 1762 or 1763.

By the liberality of Burke and his other friends, Barry in the latter part

of 1765 was enabled to go abroad. He went first to Paris, then to Rome,

where he remained upwards of three years, from Rome to Florence and

Bologna, and thence home through Venice. His letters to the Burkes, giving

an account of Raphael, Michelangelo, Titian and Leonardo da Vinci, show

remarkable insight. Barry painted two pictures while abroad, an Adam and

Eve, and a Philoctetes, neither of them of any merit. Soon after his return

to England in 1771 he produced his picture of Venus, which was compared,

though with little justice, to the Galatea of Raphael, the Venus of Titian

and the Venus de Medici. In 1773 he exhibited his "Jupiter and Juno on

Mount Ida." His [v.03 p.0445] "Death of General Wolfe," in which the

British and French soldiers are represented in very primitive costumes, was

considered as a falling-off from his great style of art. His fondness for

Greek costume was assigned by his admirers as the cause of his reluctance

to paint portraits. His failure to go on with a portrait of Burke which he

had begun caused a misunderstanding with his early patron. The difference

between them is said to have been widened by Burke's growing intimacy with

Sir Joshua Reynolds, and by Barry's feeling some little jealousy of the

fame and fortune of his rival "in a humbler walk of the art." About the

same time he painted a pair of classical subjects, Mercury inventing the

lyre, and Narcissus looking at himself in the water, the last suggested to

him by Burke. He also painted a historical picture of Chiron and Achilles,

and another of the story of Stratonice, for which last the duke of Richmond

gave him a hundred guineas. In 1773 it was proposed to decorate the

interior of St Paul's with historical and sacred subjects; but the plan

fell to the ground, from not meeting with the concurrence of the bishop of

London and the archbishop of Canterbury. Barry was much mortified at the

failure, for he had in anticipation fixed upon the subject he intended to

paint--the rejection of Christ by the Jews when Pilate proposes his

release. In 1773 he published _An Inquiry into the real and imaginary

Obstructions to the Acquisition of the Arts in England_, vindicating the

capacity of the English for the fine arts and tracing their slow progress

hitherto to the Reformation, to political and civil dissensions, and lastly

to the general direction of the public mind to mechanics, manufactures and

commerce. In 1774 a proposal was made through Valentine Green to Reynolds,

West, Cipriani, Barry, and other artists to ornament the great room of the

Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce in the

Adelphi with historical and allegorical paintings. This proposal was at the

time rejected by the artists themselves; but in 1777 Barry made an offer to

paint the whole on condition of being allowed the choice of his subjects,

and being paid by the society the expenses of canvas, paints and models.

His offer was accepted, and he finished the series of pictures at the end

of seven years to the entire satisfaction of the members of the society,

who granted him two exhibitions, and at different periods voted him 50

guineas, their gold medal and 200 guineas. Of the six paintings making up

the series, only one, that of the Olympic Games, shows any artistic power.

Soon after his return from the continent Barry had been chosen a member of

the Royal Academy; and in 1782 he was appointed professor of painting in

the room of Mr Penny with a salary of L30 a year. Among other things, he

insisted on the necessity of purchasing a collection of pictures by the

best masters as models for the students, and proposed several of those in

the Orleans collection. This recommendation was not relished, and in 1799

Barry was expelled from the academy, soon after the appearance of his

_Letter to the Dilettanti Society_, a very amusing but eccentric

publication, full of enthusiasm for his art and at the same time of

contempt for the living professors of it. After the loss of his salary, a

subscription was set on foot by the earl of Buchan to relieve him from his

difficulties, and to settle him in a larger house to finish his picture of

Pandora. The subscription amounted to L1000, with which an annuity was

bought, but on the 6th of February 1806 he was seized with illness and died

on the 22nd of the same month. On the 14th of March his remains were

interred in St Paul's.

As an artist, Barry was more distinguished for the strength of his

conceptions, and for his resolute and persistent determination to apply

himself only to great subjects, than for his skill in designing or for

beauty in his colouring. His drawing is rarely good, his colouring

frequently wretched. He was extremely impulsive and unequal; sometimes

morose, sometimes sociable and urbane; jealous of his contemporaries, and

yet capable of pronouncing a splendid eulogy on Reynolds.

BARRY, SIR REDMOND (1813-1880), British colonial judge, son of

Major-General H. G. Barry, of Ballyclough, Co. Cork, was educated at a

military school in Kent, and at Trinity College, Dublin, and was called to

the Irish bar in 1838. He emigrated to Australia, and after a short stay at

Sydney went to Melbourne, with which city he was ever afterwards closely

identified. After practising his profession for some years, he became

commissioner of the court of requests, and after the creation in 1851 of

the colony of Victoria, out of the Port Phillip district of New South

Wales, was the first solicitor-general with a seat in the legislative and

executive councils. Subsequently he held the offices of judge of the

Supreme Court, acting chief-justice and administrator of the government. He

represented Victoria at the London International Exhibition of 1862 and at

the Philadelphia Exhibition of 1876. He was knighted in 1860 and was

created K.C.M.G. in 1877. Sir Redmond Barry was the first person in

Victoria to take an interest in higher education, and induced the local

government to expend large sums of money upon that object. He was the

founder of the university of Melbourne (1853), of which he was the first

chancellor, was president of the Melbourne public library (1854), national

gallery and museum, and was one of the first to foster the volunteer

movement in Australia. To his exertions is due the prosperity of the two

institutions with which his memory is identified.

BARRY, SPRANGER (1719-1777), British actor, was born in Dublin on the 23rd

of November 1719, the son of a silversmith, to whose business he was

brought up. His first appearance on the stage was at the Smock Alley

theatre on the 5th of February 1744, and his engagement at once increased

its prosperity. His first London appearance was made in 1746 as Othello at

Drury Lane. Here his talents were speedily recognized, and in _Hamlet_ and

_Macbeth_ he alternated with Garrick, arousing the latter's jealousy by his

success as Romeo. This resulted in his leaving Drury Lane for Covent Garden

in 1750, accompanied by Mrs Cibber, his Juliet. Both houses now at once put

on _Romeo and Juliet_ for a series of rival performances, and Barry's

impersonation was preferred by the critics to Garrick's. In 1758 Barry

built the Crow Street theatre, Dublin, and later a new theatre in Cork, but

he was not successful as a manager and returned to London to play at the

Haymarket, then under the management of Foote. As his second wife, he

married in 1768 the actress Mrs Dancer (1734-1801), and he and Mrs Barry

played under Garrick's management, Barry appearing in 1767, after ten

years' absence from the stage, in Othello, his greatest part. In 1774 they

both moved to Covent Garden, where Barry remained until his death on the

10th of January 1777. He was a singularly handsome man, with the advantage

of height which Garrick lacked.

His second wife, ANN STREET BARRY, was born in Bath in 1734, the daughter

of an apothecary. Early in life she married an actor of the name of Dancer,

and it was as Mrs Dancer that she made her first recorded appearance in

1758 as Cordelia to Spranger Barry's Lear at the Crow Street theatre.

During the next nine years she played all the leading tragic parts, but

without any great success, and it was not until she came to Drury Lane with

Barry that her reputation advanced to the high point at which it afterwards

stood. After his death, she remained at Covent Garden and married a man

much younger than herself, named Crawford, being first billed as Mrs

Crawford in 1778. Her last appearance is said to have been as Lady Randolph

in _Douglas_ at Covent Garden in 1798. This part, and that of Desdemona,

were among her great impersonations; in both she was considered by some

critics superior to Mrs Siddons, who expressed her fear of her in one of

her letters. She died on the 29th of November 1801 and was buried in

Westminster Abbey.

BARRY, an urban district and seaport of Glamorganshire, Wales, on the

Bristol Channel, 153 m. by rail from London and 8 m. S.W. from Cardiff. Its

station is a terminus on the Barry railway, which starts at Hafod in the

Rhondda Valley, where it joins the Taff Vale railway, having also junctions

with the same line for Aberdare and Merthyr at Treforest, and for Cardiff

and Penarth at Cogan, and with the Great Western main line at Peterstone

and St Fagans. A branch from the main line at Tyn-y-caeau connects with the

Rhymney railway, the London & North-Western railway, and the Brecon &

Merthyr railway. The Vale of Glamorgan railway (which is worked by [v.03

p.0446] the Barry company and has a junction with the Great Western railway

at Bridgend) affords a direct route to Barry from the Llynvi, Ogmore and

Garw coalfields. The urban district of Barry, with a population in 1901 of

27,030, comprises the ecclesiastical parishes of Barry, Cadoxton,

Merthyr-Dovan, and a portion of Sully in which is included Barry Island

(194 acres), now, however, joined to the mainland. The total population of

this area in 1881 was only about 500, that of Barry village alone being

only 85. A small brook named Barri runs here into the sea, whence the place

was formerly known in Welsh as Aber-Barri, but the name of both the river

and the island is supposed to be derived from Baruch, a Welsh saint of the

7th century, who had a cell on the island. His chapel (which still existed

in Leland's time) was a place of pilgrimage in the middle ages. According

to Giraldus, his own family derived its name de Barri from the island which

they once owned. One of the followers of Fitzhamon settled at Barry about

the end of the 11th century, building there a castle of which only a

gateway remains. Besides the small old parish churches of Merthyr-Dovan and

Cadoxton, and the rebuilt parish church of Barry, there are four modern

churches (in one of which Welsh services are held). There are about thirty

nonconformist chapels, in nearly a third of which the services are Welsh.

There are also a Roman Catholic church, and one for German and Scandinavian

seamen. The other public buildings are a county intermediate school for 250

boys and girls, built in 1896, a free library (opened in 1892) with four

branch reading-rooms, a seamen's institute, the Barry market, built in 1890

at a cost of L3500 (but now used as a concert-hall), and Romilly hall for

public meetings.

Barry owes its seaport to the determination of a number of colliery owners

to secure an alternative port to Cardiff, with an independent railway to it

from the coalfields. After failing in 1883, they obtained parliamentary

powers for this purpose in 1884, and the first sod of the new dock at Barry

was cut in November of that year. The docks are 114 acres in extent, and

have accommodation for the largest vessels afloat. Dock No. 1, opened on

the 18th of July 1889, is 73 acres (with a basin of 7 acres) and occupies

the eastern side of the old channel between the island and the mainland,

having a well-sheltered deep-sea entrance. There is good anchorage between

Barry and Sully islands. Dock No. 2 (34 acres) was opened on the 10th of

October 1898. There are 41 acres of timber-ponds and three large

graving-docks. For loading the coal there are thirty fixed and seven

movable coal-hoists. The total tonnage of the exports in 1906 was 9,757,380

(all of which, except 26,491 tons, was coal), and of the imports 506,103

tons.

BAR-[S.]AL[=I]B[=I], JACOB or DIONYSIUS,[1] the best-known and most

voluminous writer in the Syrian Jacobite church of the 12th century, was,

like Bar-Hebraeus, a native of Malatia on the Upper Euphrates. In 1154 he

was created bishop of Mar'ash by the patriarch Athanasius VIII.; a year

later the diocese of Mabb[=o]g was added to his charge. In 1166 Michael I.,

the successor of Athanasius, transferred him to the metropolitan see of

[=A]mid in Mesopotamia, and there he remained till his death in 1171. A

long account of his writings, with copious extracts from some of them, has

been given by Assemani (_Bibl. Orient._ ii. pp. 156-211); and W. Wright

(_Syriac Literature_, pp. 246-250) has added further particulars as to the

MSS. in which they are contained. Probably the most important are his

exhaustive commentaries on the text of the Old and New Testaments, in which

he has skilfully interwoven and summarized the interpretations of previous

writers such as Ephrem, Chrysostom, Cyril, Moses Bar-K[=e]ph[=a] and John

of D[=a]r[=a], whom he mentions together in the preface to his commentary

on St Matthew. Among his other main works are a treatise against heretics,

containing _inter alia_ a polemic against the Jews and the Mahommedans;

liturgical treatises, epistles and homilies. His commentaries on the

Gospels were to some extent used by Dudley Loftus in the 17th century. But

the systematic editing of his works was only begun in 1903 with H.

Labourt's edition and translation of his _Exposition of the Liturgy_

(Paris). His commentaries on the Gospels have been edited and translated by

J. Sedla[vc]ek and J. B. Chabot (Fasc. I., Paris, 1906), and the Syriac

text of the treatise against the Jews has been edited by J. de Zwaan

(Leiden, 1906). Bar-[S.]al[=i]b[=i] was undoubtedly an able theologian; his

vigour combined with terseness in argument is well seen, for instance, in

the introductory sections of his commentary on St Matthew. Of his

originality it is hard to judge, as he does not usually indicate in detail

the sources of his arguments and interpretations. He does not, however,

claim for himself to be more than a compiler, at least in his commentaries.

His Syriac style is good, considering the lateness of the period at which

he wrote.

(N. M.)

[1] Jacob was his baptismal name; Dionysius he assumed when consecrated to

the bishopric.

BARSI, a town of British India, in the Sholapur district of Bombay, lying

within a tract entirely surrounded by the Nizam's dominions. Pop. (1901)

24,242. Barsi is a flourishing centre of trade, exporting to Bombay large

quantities of cotton and oil-seeds. It has several factories for ginning

and pressing cotton--some on a large scale. It is connected with the main

line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway by a light railway.

BAR-SUR-AUBE, a town of north-eastern France, capital of an arrondissement

in the department of Aube, 34 m. E. by S. of Troyes on the main line of the

Eastern railway between that town and Belfort. Pop. (1906) 4276.

Bar-sur-Aube lies at the foot of hills on the right bank of the Aube at its

confluence with the Bresse. A circle of boulevards occupies the site of the

old ramparts, fragments of which still remain. Of the ecclesiastical

buildings, the most noteworthy are St Pierre and St Maclou, both dating

mainly from the end of the 12th century. St Pierre has wooden exterior

galleries and two fine Gothic porches. The sacristy of St Maclou is

conjectured to have formed the chapel of the castle of the counts of Bar,

of which the square tower flanking the north side of the church formed the

entrance. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect, and the public

institutions include a tribunal of first instance and a communal college.

Flour-milling, tanning, and the manufacture of brandy, hosiery and

agricultural implements are carried on. The wine of the district is much

esteemed.

Traces of a Roman settlement have been found on hills to the south of the

town. Under the domination of the counts of Champagne, it became the scene

of important fairs which did not cease till 1648. In 1814 several actions

between the French and the army of the allies took place at Bar-sur-Aube

(see NAPOLEONIC WARS).

BAR-SUR-SEINE, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in

the department of Aube, on the left bank of the Seine, 20 m. S.E. of Troyes

by the Eastern railway. Pop. (1906) 2812. The town lies at the foot of a

wooded hill on which stand the ruins of the castle of the counts of Bar,

and is composed chiefly of one long street, bordered in places by houses of

the 16th century. Its principal building is the church of St Etienne, of

the 16th and 17th centuries, which contains some fine stained glass.

Bar-sur-Seine has a sub-prefecture and a tribunal of first instance.

Tanning, dyeing, flour-milling, brandy-distilling and the manufacture of

glass are among the industries. The Canal de la Haute-Seine begins at this

point. The town was devastated in 1359 by the English, when, according to

Froissart, no fewer than 900 mansions were burnt. Afterwards it suffered

greatly in the religious wars of the 16th century.