Thus far the baron's position was connected with the tenure of land; in

theory the barons were those who held their lands of the king; in practice,

they were those who so held a large amount of land. The great change in

their status was effected when their presence in that council of the realm

which became the House of Lords was determined by the issue of a writ of

summons, dependent not on the tenure of land, but only on the king's will.

Camden's statement that this change was made by Henry III. after "the

Barons' War" was long and widely accepted, but it is now assigned, as by

Stubbs, to Edward I., and the earliest writs accepted as creating

hereditary baronies are those issued in his reign. It must not, however, be

supposed that those who received such summons were as yet distinguished

from commoners by any style or title. The only possible prefix at that time

was _Dominus_ (lord), which was regularly used by simple knights, and writs

of summons were still issued to the lowest order of peers as knights

(_chevaliers_) only. The style of baron was first introduced by Richard II.

in 1387, when he created John de Beauchamp, by patent, Lord de Beauchamp

and baron of Kidderminster, to make him "unum parium et baronum regni

nostri." But it was not till 1433 that the next "baron" was created, Sir

John Cornwall being then made baron of Fanhope. In spite, however, of these

innovations, the former [v.03 p.0422] was only summoned to parliament by

the style of "John Beauchamp of Kidderminster," and the latter by that of

"John Cornwall, knight." Such creations became common under Henry VI., a

transition period in peerage styles, but "Baron" could not evict "Sire,"

"Chevalier" and "Dominus." Patents of creation contained the formula "Lord

A. (and) Baron of B.," but the grantee still styled himself "Lord" only,

and it is an historically interesting fact that to this day a baron is

addressed in correspondence, not by that style, but as "the Lord A.,"

although all peers under the rank of Duke are spoken of as "lords," while

they are addressed in correspondence by their proper styles. To speak of

"Baron A." or "Baron B." is an unhistorical and quite recent practice. When

a barony, however, is vested in a lady it is now the recognized custom to

speak of her as baroness, _e.g._ Baroness Berkeley.

The solemn investiture of barons created by patent was performed by the

king himself, by enrobing the peer in the scarlet "robe of estate" during

the reading of the patent, and this form continued till 13 Jac. I., when

the lawyers declared that the delivery of the letters patent without

ceremony was sufficient. The letters patent express the limits of

inheritance of the barony. The usual limit is to the grantee and heirs male

of his body, occasionally, in default of male issue, to a collateral male

relative (as in the case of Lord Brougham, 1860) or (as in the case of Lord

Basset, 1797, and Lord Burton, 1897) to the heirs-male of a daughter, and

occasionally (as in the case of Lord Nelson, 1801) to the heirs-male of a

sister. Sometimes also (as in the case of the barony of Rayleigh, 1821) the

dignity is bestowed upon a lady with remainder to the heirs-male of her

body. The coronation robes of a baron are the same as those of an earl,

except that he has only two rows of spots on each shoulder; and, in like

manner, his parliamentary robes have but two guards of white fur, with rows

of gold lace; but in other respects they are the same as those of other

peers. King Charles II. granted to the barons a coronet, having six large

pearls set at equal distances on the chaplet. A baron's cap is the same as

a viscount's. His style is "Right Honourable"; and he is addressed by the

king or queen, "Right Trusty and Well-beloved." His children are by

courtesy entitled to the prefix "The Honourable."

_Barons of the Exchequer_ were formerly six judges (a chief baron and five

puisne barons) to whom the administration of justice was committed in

causes betwixt the king and his subjects relative to matters of revenue.

Selden, in his _Titles of Honour_, conjectures that they were originally

chosen from among the barons of the kingdom, and hence their name; but it

would probably be more exact to say that they were officers of a branch of

the king's _Curia_, which was theoretically composed of his "barons." The

title has become obsolete since 1875, when the court of exchequer was

merged in the High Court of Judicature.

_Barons of the Cinque Ports_ (originally Hastings, Dover, Hythe, Romney and

Sandwich) were at first the whole body of their freemen, who were so spoken

of in royal charters. But the style was afterwards restricted to their

mayors, jurats, and (prior to 1831) members of the House of Commons elected

by the Cinque Ports, two for each port. Their right to the title is

recognized in many old statutes, but in 1606 the use of the term in a

message from the Lower House drew forth a protest from the peers, that

"they would never acknowledge any man that sitteth in the Lower House to

the right or title of a baron of parliament" (_Lords' Journals_). It was

the ancient privilege of these "barons" to bear a canopy over the sovereign

at his or her coronation and retain it as their perquisite. They petitioned

as "barons of the Cinque Ports" to attend the coronation of Edward VII.,

and a deputation was allowed to do so.

_Baron and Feme_, in English law, is a phrase used for husband and wife, in

relation to each other, who are accounted as one person. Hence, by the old

law of evidence, the one party was excluded from giving evidence for or

against the other in civil questions, and a relic of this is still

preserved in the criminal law.

_Baron and Feme_, in heraldry, is the term used when the coats-of-arms of a

man and his wife are borne per pale in the same escutcheon, the man's being

always on the dexter side, and the woman's on the sinister. But in this

case the woman is supposed not to be an heiress, for then her coat must be

borne by the husband on an escutcheon of pretence. (See HERALDRY.)

The foreign title of baron is occasionally borne by English subjects, but

confers no precedence in the United Kingdom. It may be Russian, _e.g._

Baron Dimsdale (1762); German, _e.g._ Baron Stockmar, Baron Halkett

(Hanoverian); Austrian, _e.g._ Baron Rothschild (1822), Baron de Worms;

Italian, _e.g._ Baron Heath; French, _e.g._ Baron de Teissier;

French-Canadian, _e.g._ Baron de Longueil (1700); Dutch, _e.g._ Baron

Mackay (Lord Reay).

(J. H. R.)

_The Foreign Title._--On the continent of Europe the title baron, though

the same in its origin, has come, owing to a variety of causes, to imply a

rank and status very different from its connotation in the United Kingdom,

and again varies considerably in different countries. Originally _baro_

meant no more than "man," and is so used in the Salic and other "barbarian"

laws; _e.g._ _Si quis mortaudit barum vel feminam_, &c. (_Lex Aleman._ tit.

76). In this way, too, it was long preserved in the sense of "husband," as

in the Assize of Jerusalem (MSS. cap. 98): _Si l'on appelle aucune chose

femme qui aura baron, et il la veut deffendre, il la peut deffendre de son

cors_, &c. Gradually the word seems to have come to mean a "strong or

powerful man," and thus generally "a magnate." Finally, in France in the

12th century the general expression _barones_ was introduced in a

restricted sense, as applied properly to all lords possessing an important

fief, subject to the rule of primogeniture and thus not liable to be

divided up, and held of one overlord alone. Sometimes it included

ecclesiastical lordships of the first rank. In the 13th century the

Register of King Philip Augustus places the _barones regis Francie_ next to

the dukes and counts holding in chief, the title being limited to vassals

of the second rank. Towards the end of the century the title had come to

mean that its bearer held his principal fief direct from the crown, and was

therefore more important than that of count, since many counts were only

mediate vassals. Thus the kings in granting a duchy or countship as an

apanage to their brothers or sons used the phrase _in comitatum et

baroniam_. From this period, however, the title tends to sink in

comparative importance. When, in the 14th century, the feudal hierarchy was

completed and stereotyped, the barons are ranked not only below counts, but

below viscounts, though in power and possessions many barons were superior

to many counts. In any case, until the 17th century, the title of baron

could only be borne by the holder of a territorial barony; and it was Louis

XIV. who first cheapened the title in France by creating numerous barons by

royal letters. This entire dissociation of the title from the idea of

feudal rights and obligations was completed by Napoleon's decree of March

1, 1808, reviving the ancient titles. By this instrument the title of baron

was to be borne _ex officio_ by a number of high officials, _e.g._

ministers, senators, councillors of state, archbishops and bishops. It was

given to the 37 mayors who attended the coronation, and could be claimed by

any mayor who had served to the emperor's satisfaction for ten years, and

by any member of an electoral college who had attended three sessions. The

title was made to descend in order of primogeniture to legitimate or

adopted sons and to the nephews of bishops, the sole condition being that

proof must be presented of an actual income of 15,000 fr., of which

one-third should descend with the title. The creation of barons was

continued by Louis XVIII., Charles X. and Louis Philippe, and, suspended at

the revolution of 1848, was revived again on a generous scale by Napoleon

III. The tolerant attitude of the Third Republic towards titles, which it

does not officially recognize, has increased the confusion by facilitating

the assumption of the title on very slender grounds of right. The result

has been that in France the title of Baron, unless borne by the recognized

representative of a historic name, not only involves no political status,

but confers also but very slight social distinction.

The same is true, _mutatis mutandis_, of most other European countries, and

notably of Italy. In Austria and Germany the [v.03 p.0423] case is somewhat

different. Though in Latin documents of the middle ages the term _barones_

for _liberi domini_ was used, it was not until the 17th century that the

word _Baron_, perhaps under the influence of the court of Versailles, began

to be used as the equivalent of the old German _Freiherr_, or free lord of

the Empire. The style _Freiherr_ (_liber dominus_) implied originally a

dynastic status, and many _Freiherren_ held countships without taking the

title of count. When the more important of them styled themselves counts,

the _Freiherren_ sank into an inferior class of nobility. The practice of

conferring the title _Freiherr_ by imperial letters was begun in the 16th

century by Charles V., was assumed on the ground of special imperial

concessions by many of the princes of the Empire, and is now exercised by

all the German sovereigns. Though the practice of all the children taking

the title of their father has tended to make that of Baron comparatively

very common, and has dissociated it from all idea of territorial

possession, it still implies considerable social status and privilege in

countries where a sharp line is drawn between the caste of "nobles" and the

common herd, whom no wealth or intellectual eminence can place on the same

social level with the poorest _Adeliger_. In Japan the title baron (_Dan_)

is the lowest of the five titles of nobility introduced in 1885, on the

European model. It was given to the least important class of territorial

nobles, but is also bestowed as a title of honour without reference to

territorial possession.

See du Cange, _Glossarium_, s. "Baro" (ed. Niort, 1883); John Selden,

_Titles of Honor_, p. 353 (ed. 1672); Achille Luchaire, _Manuel des

institutions francaises_ (Paris, 1892); Maurice Prou, art. "Baron" in _La

Grande Encyclopedie_.

(W. A. P.)

BARONET. Although the origin of this title has been the subject of learned

speculation, it is not known for certain why it was selected as that of "a

new Dignitie between Barons and Knights" created by James I. The object of

its institution was to raise money for the crown, as was also done by the

sale of peerage dignities under this sovereign. But the money was

professedly devoted to the support of troops in Ulster, that is, each

grantee was to be liable for the pay of thirty men, at 8d. a day for three

years. This amounted to L1095, which was the sum paid for the honour. When

it was instituted, in May 1611, the king, to keep the baronetage select,

covenanted that he would not create more than two hundred, and that only

those who had L1000 a year in landed estate and whose paternal grandfathers

had borne arms should receive the honour. But these qualifications were

before long abandoned. As an inducement to apply for it, it was made to

confer the prefix of "Sir" and "Lady" (or "Dame"), and was assigned

precedence above knights, though below the younger sons of barons. Eight

years later (30th of September 1619), the baronetage of Ireland was

instituted, the king pledging himself not to create more than a hundred

baronets. Meanwhile, questions had arisen as to the exact precedence of the

baronets, and James by royal decree (28th of May 1612) had announced that

it was his intention to rank them below the younger sons of barons. As this

had the effect of stopping applications for the honour, James issued a

fresh commission (18th of November 1614) to encourage them, and finally, as

"the Kinges wants might be much relieved out of the vanities and ambition

of the gentrie" (in Chamberlain's words), he granted, in 1616, the further

privilege that the heirs apparent of baronets should be knighted on coming

of age.

The baronetage of Nova Scotia was devised in 1624 as a means of promoting

the "plantation" of that province, and James announced his intention of

creating a hundred baronets, each of whom was to support six colonists for

two years (or pay 2000 marks in lieu thereof) and also to pay 1000 marks to

Sir William Alexander (afterwards earl of Stirling), to whom the province

had been granted by charter in 1621. For this he was to receive a "free

barony" of 16,000 acres in Nova Scotia, and to become a baronet of "his

Hienes Kingdom of Scotland." James dying at this point, Charles I. carried

out the scheme, creating the first Scottish baronet on the 28th of May

1625, covenanting in the creation charter that the baronets "of Scotland or

of Nova Scotia" should never exceed a hundred and fifty in number, that

their heirs apparent should be knighted on coming of age, and that no one

should receive the honour who had not fulfilled the conditions, viz. paid

3000 marks (L166, 13s. 4d.) towards the plantation of the colony. Four

years later (17th of November 1629) the king wrote to "the contractors for

baronets," recognizing that they had advanced large sums to Sir William

Alexander for the plantation on the security of the payments to be made by

future baronets, and empowering them to offer a further inducement to

applicants; and on the same day he granted to all Nova Scotia baronets the

right to wear about their necks, suspended by an orange tawny ribbon, a

badge bearing an azure saltire with a crowned inescutcheon of the arms of

Scotland and the motto "Fax mentis honestae gloria." As the required

number, however, could not be completed, Charles announced in 1633 that

English and Irish gentlemen might receive the honour, and in 1634 they

began to do so. Yet even so, he was only able to create a few more than a

hundred and twenty in all. In 1638 the creation ceased to carry with it the

grant of lands in Nova Scotia, and on the union with England (1707) the

Scottish creations ceased, English and Scotsmen alike receiving thenceforth

baronetcies of Great Britain.

It is a matter of dispute whether James I. had kept faith with the baronets

of England as to limiting their number; but his son soon rejected the

restriction freely. Creations became one of his devices for raising money;

blank patents were hawked about, and in 1641 Nicholas wrote that

baronetcies were to be had for L400 or even for L350; a patent was offered

about this time to Mr Wrottesley of Wrottesley for L300. On the other hand,

the honour appears to have been bestowed for nothing on some ardent

royalists when the great struggle began.

Cromwell created a few baronets, but at the Restoration the honour was

bestowed so lavishly that a letter to Sir Richard Leveson (3rd of June

1660) describes it as "too common," and offers to procure it for any one in

return for L300 or L400. Sir William Wiseman, however, is said to have

given L500.

The history of the baronetage was uneventful till 1783, when in consequence

of the wrongful assumption of baronetcies, an old and then increasing evil,

a royal warrant was issued (6th of December) directing that no one should

be recognized as a baronet in official documents till he had proved his

right to the dignity, and also that those created in future must register

their arms and pedigree at the Heralds' College. In consequence of the

opposition of the baronets themselves, the first of these two regulations

was rescinded and the evil remained unabated. Since the union with Ireland

(1800) baronets have been created, not as of Great Britain or of Ireland,

but as of the United Kingdom.

In 1834 a movement was initiated by Mr Richard Broun (whose father had

assumed a Nova Scotia baronetcy some years before), to obtain certain

privileges for the order, but on the advice of the Heralds' College, the

request was refused. A further petition, for permission to all baronets to

wear a badge, as did those of Nova Scotia, met with the same fate in 1836.

Meanwhile George IV. had revoked (19th of December 1827), as to all future

creations the right of baronets' eldest sons to claim knighthood. Mr Broun

claimed it as an heir apparent in 1836, and on finally meeting with

refusal, publicly assumed the honour in 1842, a foolish and futile act. In

1854 Sir J. Kingston James was knighted as a baronet's son, and Sir Ludlow

Cotter similarly in 1874, on his coming of age; but when Sir Claude de

Crespigny's son applied for the honour (17th of May 1895), his application

was refused, on the ground that the lord chancellor did not consider the

clause in the patent (1805) valid. The reason for this decision appears to

be unknown.

Mr Broun's subsequent connexion with a scheme for reviving the territorial

claims of the Nova Scotia baronets as part of a colonizing scheme need not

be discussed here. A fresh agitation was aroused in 1897 by an order giving

the sons of life peers precedence over baronets, some of whom formed

themselves, in 1898, into "the Honourable Society of the Baronetage" for

the maintenance of its privileges. But a royal warrant was issued on the

15th of August 1898, confirming the precedence complained of as an

infringement of their rights. The above body, however, [v.03 p.0424] has

continued in existence as the "Standing Council of the Baronetage," and

succeeded in obtaining invitations for some representatives of the order to

the coronation of King Edward VII. It has been sought to obtain badges or

other distinctions for baronets and also to purge the order of wrongful

assumptions, an evil to which the baronetage of Nova Scotia is peculiarly

exposed, owing to the dignity being descendible to collateral heirs male of

the grantee as well as to those of his body. A departmental committee at

the home office was appointed in 1906 to consider the question of such

assumptions and the best means of stopping them.

All baronets are entitled to display in their coat of arms, either on a

canton or on an inescutcheon, the red hand of Ulster, save those of Nova

Scotia, who display, instead of it, the saltire of that province. The

precedency of baronets of Nova Scotia and of Ireland in relation to those

of England was left undetermined by the Acts of Union, and appears to be

still a moot point with heralds. The premier baronet of England is Sir

Hickman Bacon, whose ancestor was the first to receive the honour in 1611.

See Pixley's _History of the Baronetage_; Playfair's "Baronetage" (in

_British Family Antiquity_, vols. vi.-ix.); Foster's _Baronetage_; G. E.

Cokayne's _Complete Baronetage_; Nichols, "The Dignity of Baronet" (in

_Herald and Genealogist_, vol. iii.)

(J. H. R.)

BARONIUS, CAESAR (1538-1607), Italian cardinal and ecclesiastical

historian, was born at Sora, and was educated at Veroli and Naples. At Rome

he joined the Oratory in 1557 under St Philip Neri (_q.v._) and succeeded

him as superior in 1593. Clement VIII., whose confessor he was, made him

cardinal in 1596 and librarian of the Vatican. At subsequent conclaves he

was twice nearly elected pope, but on each occasion was opposed by Spain on

account of his work _On the Monarchy of Sicily_, in which he supported the

papal claims against those of the Spanish government. Baronius is best

known by his _Annales Ecclesiastici_, undertaken by the order of St Philip

as an answer to the _Magdeburg Centuries_. After nearly thirty years of

lecturing on the history of the Church at the Vallicella and being trained

by St Philip as a great man for a great work, he began to write, and

produced twelve folios (1588-1607). In the _Annales_ he treats history in

strict chronological order and keeps theology in the background. In spite

of many errors, especially in Greek history, in which he had to depend upon

secondhand information, the work of Baronius stands as an honest attempt to

write history, marked with a sincere love of truth. Sarpi, in urging

Casaubon to write against Baronius, warns him never to charge or suspect

him of bad faith, for no one who knew him could accuse him of disloyalty to

truth. Baronius makes use of the words of St Augustine: "I shall love with

a special love the man who most rigidly and severely corrects my errors."

He also undertook a new edition to the Roman martyrology (1586), which he

purified of many inaccuracies.

His _Annales_, which end in 1198, were continued by Rinaldi (9 vols.,

1676-1677); by Laderchi (3 vols., 1728-1737); and by Theiner (3 vols.,

1856). The most useful edition is that of Mansi (38 vols., Lucca,

1738-1759), giving Pagi's corrections at the foot of each page.

(E. TN.)

BARONY, the domain of a baron (_q.v._). In Ireland counties are divided

into "baronies," which are equivalent to the "hundreds" (_q.v._) in

England, and seem to have been formed out of the territories of the Irish

chiefs, as each submitted to English rule (General Report of the Census of

England, iv. 181, 1873). In Scotland the term is applied to any large

freehold estate even when held by a commoner. Barony also denotes the rank

or dignity of a baron, and the feudal tenure "by barony."

BAROQUE, a technical term, chiefly applicable to architecture, furniture

and household decoration. Apparently of Spanish origin--a _barrueco_ is a

large, irregularly-shaped pearl--the word was for a time confined to the

craft of the jeweller. It indicates the more extravagant fashions of design

that were common in the first half of the 18th century, chiefly in Italy

and France, in which everything is fantastic, grotesque, florid or

incongruous--irregular shapes, meaningless forms, an utter lack of

restraint and simplicity. The word suggests much the same order of ideas as

rococo.

BAROSS, GABOR (1848-1892), Hungarian statesman, was born at Trencsen on the

6th of July 1848, and educated at Esztergom. He was for a time one of the

professors there under Cardinal Kolos Vaszary. After acquiring considerable

local reputation as chief notary of his county, he entered parliament in

1875. He at once attached himself to Kalman Tisza and remained faithful to

his chief even after the Bosnian occupation had alienated so many of the

supporters of the prime minister. It was he who drew up the reply to the

malcontents on this occasion, for the first time demonstrating his

many-sided ability and his genius for sustained hard work. But it was in

the field of economics that he principally achieved his fame. In 1883 he

was appointed secretary to the ministry of ways and communications. Baross,

who had prepared himself for quite another career, and had only become

acquainted with the civilized West at the time of the Composition of 1867,

mastered, in an incredibly short time, the details of this difficult

department. His zeal, conscientiousness and energy were so universally

recognized, that on the retirement of Gabor Kemeny, in 1886, he was

appointed minister of ways and communications. He devoted himself

especially to the development of the national railways, and the gigantic

network of the Austro-Hungarian railway system and its unification is

mainly his work. But his most original creation in this respect was the

zone system, which immensely facilitated and cheapened the circulation of

all wares and produce, and brought the remotest districts into direct

communication with the central point at Budapest. The amalgamation of the

ministry of commerce with the ministry of ways in 1889 further enabled

Baross to realize his great idea of making the trade of Hungary independent

of foreign influences, of increasing the commercial productiveness of the

kingdom and of gaining every possible advantage for her export trade by a

revision of tolls. This patriotic policy provoked loud protests both from

Austria and Germany at the conference of Vienna in 1890, and Baross was

obliged somewhat to modify his system. This was by no means the only

instance in which his commercial policy was attacked and even hampered by

foreign courts. But wherever he was allowed a free hand he introduced

epoch-making reforms in all the branches of his department, including

posts, telegraphs, &c. A man of such strength of character was not to be

turned from his course by any amount of opposition, and he rather enjoyed

to be alluded to as "the iron-handed minister." The crowning point of his

railway policy was the regulation of the Danube at the hitherto impassable

Iron-Gates Rapids by the construction of canals, which opened up the

eastern trade to Hungary and was an event of international importance. It

was while inspecting his work there in March 1892 that he caught a chill,

from which he died on the 8th of May. The day of his burial was a day of

national mourning, and rightly so, for Baross had dedicated his whole time

and genius to the promotion of his country's prosperity.

See Laszlo Petrovics, _Biography of Gabriel Baross_ (Hung. Eperies, 1892).

(R. N. B.)

BAROTAC NUEVO, a town of the province of Iloilo, Panay, Philippine Islands,

near the Jalaur river, above its mouth on the S.E. coast, and about 15 m.

N.E. of Iloilo, the capital. Pop. (1903) 9904; in 1903 after the census had

been taken the neighbouring town of Dumangas (pop. 12,428) was annexed to

Barotac Nuevo. The town lies in a fertile plain and deals in rice, trepang

and pina. Here, in what was formerly Dumangas, are a fine church and

convent, built of iron, pressed brick and marble. Dumangas was destroyed by

fire in June 1900, during a fight with insurgents, but its rebuilding was

begun in May 1901.

BAROTSE, BAROTSELAND, a people and country of South Central Africa. The

greater part of the country is a British protectorate, forming part of

Rhodesia. The Barotse are the paramount tribe in the region of the Upper

Zambezi basin, but by popular usage the name is also applied to contiguous

subject tribes, Barotseland being the country over which the Barotse

paramount chief exercises authority. The present article treats (1) of the

people, (2) of the country, (3) of the establishment of the British

protectorate and of subsequent developments.

1. _The Barotse._--These people, originally known as Aalui, have [v.03

p.0425] occupied the extensive plain through which the Zambezi passes from

14deg 35' S. to 16deg 25' S. throughout the reigns of twenty-two successive

paramount chiefs and therefore approximately since the commencement of the

17th century. Previously, for an indefinite period, they dwelt on the

Kabompo river, 200 m. to the N.E. of their present country, and here the

descendants of a section of the tribe which did not migrate still remain,

under the name Balokwakwa (men of the ambuscade), formerly known as

Aalukolui. That the Barotse at a still more remote period emigrated from

the far north-east is indicated by vague tradition as well as by a certain

similarity in type and language to some tribes living in that direction,

though the fact that natives from Mashonaland can understand those at

Lialui (the Barotse capital) has led to the assumption by some writers that

the Barotse are an offshoot of the Mashona. The variety in type among the

Mashona and the homogeneity of the Barotse would rather point to an

opposite conclusion.

Early in the 19th century a section of the Basuto tribe known as Makololo

trekked from the south of what is now the Orange River Colony and fought

their way through Bechuanaland and the Kalahari to the land of the Barotse,

whom they ultimately subdued. Their chief, Sebituane, who as an

administrator and general was far in advance of his compeers, established

the rule of his house for some forty years, until about 1865 an organized

rebellion of the Barotse led to the almost complete extinction of this

Makololo oligarchy and the reinstatement of the original dynasty. It was

the Makololo who gave the Barotse their present name (Rotse,

plain--_Bu_rotse, _country_ of the plain--_Mu_rotse, _man_ of the

plain--_Ma_rotse, _people_ of the plain, the latter being inaccurately

rendered _Ba_rotse, _Ba_ being the equivalent of _Ma_ in certain other

languages).

The Barotse proper are comparatively few in number, but as is inferred from

the fact that for many generations they have held in sway a country two and

a half times the size of Great Britain, they are the intellectual and

physical superiors of the vast majority of the negro races of Africa. Very

black, tall in stature, deep in chest and comparatively speaking refined in

feature, a Barotse is readily distinguishable amidst a mixed group of

natives. Being numerically small they form an oligarchy in which, with few

exceptions, each man holds rank in a chieftainship of which there are three

grades. Next to the chiefs rank their descendants who have not themselves

acquired chief's rank and hold an intermediate position as freeborn; all

others, whether members of the subject-tribes or prisoners of war, being,

up to 1906, mere slaves. This class was also graded. Slaves might own

slaves who in their turn might own slaves, the highest grade always being

directly responsible to some Barotse chief. As a reward of gallantry or

ability the paramount chief occasionally conferred chief's rank on

individuals not of Barotse birth, and these _ipso facto_ assumed the name

and privileges of the Barotse. It was a counterpart of the feudal system of

Europe in which every grade from king to serf found a place. In 1906 the

paramount chief, by proclamation, abolished the state of slavery, an act

which, however, left untouched the predominant position of the Barotse and

their rights to chieftainship. The paramount chief shares with a queen

(_Mokwai_) his authority and prerogatives. The Mokwai is not the wife but

the eldest sister of the ruling chief. With his death her privileges lapse.

Theoretically, these co-rulers are equal, neither may promulgate a national

decree without the assent of the other, but each has a capital town,

councillors and absolute authority in a province, the two having joint

authority over all other provinces. In their code of laws the Barotse show

an advance on the standard of probably any other African negro state. By

right, an accused chief is tried by his peers, each of whom in rotation

from junior to senior gives his verdict, after which the president reports

the finding of the court to the paramount chief, who passes sentence. As to

their religious beliefs the Barotse imagine the sun to be the embodiment of

a great god whose sole care is for the amelioration of man. Him they

worship, though more pains are taken to appease evil spirits, in whose

existence they also believe, to whom every evil to which man is heir is

attributed. The spirits of ancestors--especially of deceased chiefs--are

also objects of worship. Christianity, of a Protestant evangelical type,

was first introduced into the country in 1884 by Francois Coillard and has

made some progress among the people, among the converts being Letia, eldest

son and heir of Lewanika, the paramount chief.

2. _Barotseland._--This term includes, in the sense of the country in which

the authority of the paramount Barotse chief is acknowledged, not only the

lands of the Barotse proper, but the territory of fifteen contiguous and

subject tribes. This vast territory extends approximately from the Kwito

river in the west to the Kafue river in the east, and from the

Congo-Zambezi watershed in the north to the Linyante or Kwando river and

Zambezi in the south, and may be divided into three groups:--

(a) Central provinces directly administered by the paramount chief from the

capital Lialui (a town on the Zambezi), by the Mokwai from Nalolo, and by

two chiefs of the blood from Sesheke;

(b) Outlying provinces over which, in the absence of a central local system

of government, Barotse chiefs administer districts under the direction of

the paramount chief; and

(c) Tribes over which the local chiefs are permitted to retain their

position subject to the payment of annual tribute and to their doing homage

in person at Lialui when called upon to do so.

With the publication of the king of Italy's award in 1905 in the

Anglo-Portuguese Barotse Boundary dispute (see below), the term Barotseland

may be said to have acquired a second meaning. By this award the western

and part of the northern section of Barotseland as described above were

declared to be outside the dominion of the paramount chief and therefore

not in the British sphere of influence, while tribal boundaries were

complicated by the introduction of a longitudinal and latitudinal frontier.

Though this award altered the political boundaries, ethnologically

Barotseland remains much as above described. The area of the country under

British protection is about 182,000 sq. m.

Excluding the ridge of high ground running east and west which, culminating

at a height of 5000 ft., forms the Congo-Zambezi water-parting, the extreme

east (Batoka) and the district in the immediate vicinity of the Victoria

Falls (_q.v._) throughout which, with local variations, a red laterite clay

predominates, the main physical features of Barotseland may be described as

a series of heavy white sand undulations covered with subtropical forest

vegetation. These are intersected by alluvium-charged valleys through which

streams and rivers flow inwards towards the central basin of the Upper

Zambezi. There is evidence that this has at one time been the site of a

large lake. These valleys, which towards the close of the wet season become

inundated, afford rich cattle pasture, the succulence of which prevents

cattle losing condition towards the end of the dry season, as is the case

in many parts of Africa. There seems to be little or no indication of

mineral wealth in the white sand area, but in the north and east there is

not only every prospect of a great agricultural and pastoral future but

also of considerable mining development. Though basalt predominates in the

neighbourhood of the Victoria Falls and large fields of granite crop up on

the Batoka plateau and elsewhere, there is every indication of the

existence of useful minerals in these districts. Gold, copper, tin, lead,

zinc and iron have been discovered.

Much of the area of Barotseland is within the healthy zone, the healthiest

districts being the Batoka and Mashikolumbwe plateaus in the east with

extreme altitudes of 4400 and 4150 ft. respectively, and the line of the

Congo-Zambezi watershed which rises to 5000 ft. in many places. The Zambezi

valley from the Victoria Falls (3000 ft.) to the Kabompo confluence (3500

ft.), though involving little or no risk to health to the traveller, cannot

be considered suitable for white settlement. Taking into consideration the

relative value of altitude to latitude, the plateauland of Barotseland

compares very favourably with existing conditions elsewhere, being several

degrees more temperate than would be expected. Approximately the mean [v.03

p.0426] maximum and minimum temperatures stand at 80deg and 55deg F.

respectively, with an extreme range of 100deg to 35deg and a mean annual

temperature of 68deg to 70deg. The rainfall varies according to district

from 22 to 32 in. a year and has shown extraordinary stability. Since 1884,

the first year in which a record was taken by Francois Coillard,

Barotseland has known no droughts, though South Africa has suffered

periodically in this respect.

The Zambezi, as would be expected, forms a definite boundary line in the

distribution of many species of fauna and flora. In these respects, as well

as from an ethnological standpoint, Barotseland essentially belongs not to

South but to Central Africa. The great river has also served to prevent the

spread from South Africa into Barotseland of such disastrous cattle

diseases as tick fever and lung sickness.

3. _The Establishment of British Suzerainty._--By the charter granted to

the British South Africa Company in October 1889, the company was allowed

to establish its rule in the regions north of the Middle Zambezi not

included in the Portuguese dominions, and by a treaty of the 11th of June

1891 between Great Britain and Portugal it was declared that the Barotse

kingdom was within the British sphere of influence. The dispute between the

contracting powers as to what were the western limits of Barotseland was

eventually referred to the arbitration of the king of Italy, who by his

award of the 30th of May 1905, fixed the frontier at the Kwando river as

far north as 22deg E., then that meridian up to the 13deg S., which

parallel it follows as far east as 24deg E., and then that meridian to the

Belgian Congo frontier. In the meantime the British South Africa Company

had entered into friendly relations with Lewanika (_q.v._), the paramount

chief of the Barotse, and an administrator was appointed on behalf of the

company to reside in the country. A native police force under the command

of a British officer was raised and magistrates and district commissioners

appointed. In the internal affairs of the Barotse the company did not

interfere, and the relations between the British and Barotse have been

uniformly friendly. The pioneers of Western civilization were not, however,

the agents of the Chartered Company, but missionaries. F. S. Arnot, an

Englishman, spent two years in the country (1882-1884) and in 1884 a

mission, fruitful of good results, was established by the Societe des

Missions Evangeliques de Paris. Its first agent was Francois Coillard

(1834-1904), who had previously been engaged in mission work in Basutoland

and who devoted the rest of his life to the Barotse. Though always an

admirer of British institutions and anxious that the country should

ultimately fall under British jurisdiction, Coillard in the interests of

his mission was in the first instance anxious to delay the advent of white

men into the country. It was contrary to his advice that Lewanika

petitioned the "Great White Queen" to assume a protectorate over his

dominions, but from the moment Great Britain assumed responsibility and the

advance of European civilization became inevitable, all the influence

acquired by Coillard's exceptional personal magnetism and singleness of

purpose was used to prepare the way for the extension of British rule. Only

those few pioneers who knew the Barotse under the old conditions can fully

realise what civilization and England owe to the co-operation of this

high-minded Frenchman.

Under the Chartered Company's rule considerable progress has been made in

the development of the resources of the country, especially in opening up

the mining districts in the north. The seat of the administration, Kalomo,

is on the "Cape to Cairo" railway, about midway between the Zambezi and

Kafue rivers. The railway reached the Broken Hill copper mines, 110 m. N.

of the Kafue in 1906, and the Belgian Congo frontier in 1910. From Lobito

Bay in Portuguese West Africa a railway was being built in 1909 which would

connect with the main line near the Congo frontier. This would not only

supply Barotseland with a route to the sea alternative to the Beira and

Cape Town lines, but while reducing the land route by many hundred miles

would also supply a seaport outlet 1700 m. nearer England than Cape Town

and thus create a new and more rapid mail route to southern Rhodesia and

the Transvaal. The Zambezi also, with Kebrabasa as its one bar to

navigation between Barotseland and the sea, will supply a cheap line of

communication. (See RHODESIA.)

See David Livingstone, _Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa_

(London, 1857); Major Serpa Pinto, _How I crossed Africa_ (London, 1881);

F. Coillard, _On the Threshold of Central Africa_ (London, 1897); Major A.

St H. Gibbons, _Exploration and Hunting in Central Africa_ (London, 1898),

_Africa South to North through Marotseland_ (London, 1904); "Journeys in

Marotseland," _Geographical Journal_, 1897; "Travels in the Upper Zambezi

Basin," _Geographical Journal_, 1901; A. Bertrand, _Aux pays des Barotse,

haut Zambeze_ (Paris, 1898); Col. Colin Harding, _In Remotest Barotseland_,

(London, 1905); C. W. Mackintosh, _Coillard of the Zambesi_ (London, 1907),

with a bibliography; L. Decle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_ (London,

1898). Consult also the annual reports of the British South Africa Company,

published in London.

(A. ST H. G.)

BAROUCHE (Ger. _barutsche_, Span. _barrocho_, Ital. _baroccio_; from Lat.

_bi-rotus_, double-wheeled), the name of a sort of carriage, with four

wheels and a hood, arranged for two couples to sit inside facing one

another.

BARQUISIMETO, a city of western Venezuela, capital of the state of Lara, on

the Barquisimeto river, 101 m. by rail S.W. of Tucacas, its port on the

Caribbean coast. Pop. (est. 1899) 40,000. It is built in a small, fertile

valley of the Merida Cordilleras, 1985 ft. above sea-level, has a

temperate, healthy climate with a mean annual temperature of 78deg F., and

is surrounded by a highly productive country from which are exported

coffee, sugar, cacao and rum. It is also an important distributing centre

for neighbouring districts. The city is the seat of a bishopric, is

regularly laid out and well built, and is well provided with educational

and charitable institutions. Barquisimeto was founded in 1522 by Juan de

Villegas, who was exploring the neighbourhood for gold, and it was first

called Nueva Segovia after his native city. In 1807 its population had

risen to 15,000, principally through its commercial importance, but on the

26th of March 1812 it was totally destroyed by an earthquake, and with it

1500 lives, including a part of the revolutionary forces occupying the

town. It was soon rebuilt and is one of the few cities of Venezuela which

have recovered from the ravages of the war of independence and subsequent

disorders.

BARR, a town of Germany, in the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, on

the Kirneck, 13 m. N. from Schlettstadt by rail. It has an Evangelical and

a Roman Catholic church and considerable tanneries. There is an active

trade in wine and timber. Pop. (1900) 5243.

BARRA, or BARRAY (Scand. _Baraey_, isle of the ocean), an island of the

outer Hebrides, Inverness-shire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 2362. It lies about

5 m. S.W. of South Uist, is 8 m. in length and from 2 to 4 m. in breadth,

save at the sandy isthmus 2 m. below Scurrival Point, where it is only a

few hundred yards broad. The rock formation is gneiss. The highest hill is

Heaval (1260 ft.) and there are several small lochs. The chief village is

Castlebay, at which the Glasgow steamer calls once a week. This place

derives its name from the castle of Kishmul standing on a rock in the bay,

which was once the stronghold of the McNeills of Barra, one of the oldest

of Highland clans. There are remains of ancient chapels, Danish duns and

Druidical circles on the island. There is communication by ferry with South

Uist. The parish comprises a number of smaller islands and islets--among

them Frida, Gighay, Hellisay, Flodda to the N.E., and Vatersay, Pabbay,

Mingalay (pop. 135) and Berneray to the S.E.--and contains 4000 acres of

arable land and 18,000 acres of meadow and hill pasture. The cod, ling and

herring fisheries are important, and the coasts abound with shell-fish,

especially cockles, for which it has always been famous. On Barra Head, the

highest point of Berneray, and also the most southerly point of the outer

Hebrides chain, is a lighthouse 680 ft. above high water.

BARRACKPUR, a town and magisterial subdivision of British India, in the

district of Twenty-four Parganas, Bengal. The town is the largest

cantonment in Lower Bengal, having accommodation for two batteries of

artillery, the wing of a European regiment and two native battalions. Its

name is said to be derived from the fact of troops having been stationed

here since 1772. It is a station on the Eastern Bengal railway. Job [v.03

p.0427] Charnock, the founder of Calcutta, erected a bungalow and

established a small bazaar here in 1689. The cantonment is situated on the

left bank of the Hugli; it has also a large bazaar and several large tanks,

and also a parade ground. To the south of the cantonment is situated the

park, created by the taste and public spirit of Lord Wellesley. Within the

park is situated the Government House, a noble building begun by Lord

Minto, and enlarged into its present state by the marquess of Hastings. The

park is beautifully laid out, and contains a small menagerie. Its most

interesting feature is now Lady Canning's tomb. Barrackpur played an

important part in the two Sepoy mutinies of 1824 and 1857, but the details

of these belong to the general history of British rule in India. North

Barrackpur had a population in 1901 of 12,600 and south Barrackpur of

19,307.

Barrackpur subdivision was formed in 1904. It contains an area of 190 sq.

m., which, at the census of 1901, had a population of 206,311, a large

proportion being workers in the mills on the left bank of the Hugli.

BARRACKS (derived through the French from the Late Lat. _barra_, a bar),

the buildings used for the accommodation of military or naval forces,

including the quarters for officers, warrant officers, non-commissioned

officers and men, with their messes and recreation establishments,

regimental offices, shops, stores, stables, vehicle sheds and other

accessory buildings for military or domestic purposes. The term is usually

applied to permanent structures of brick or stone used for the peace

occupation of troops; but many hut barracks of corrugated iron lined with

wood have been built, generally in connexion with a training ground for

troops, and in these the accommodation given is somewhat less than in

permanent barracks, and conditions more nearly approach those of a military

encampment.

_British System_.--The accommodation to be given in British military

barracks is scheduled in the _Barrack Synopsis_, which contains "statements

of particulars, based upon decisions which have, from time to time, been

laid down by authority, as regards the military buildings authorized for

various units, and the accommodation and fittings to be provided in

connexion therewith." Each item of ordinary accommodation is described in

the synopsis, and the areas and cubic contents of rooms therein laid down

form the basis of the designs for any new barrack buildings. Supplementary

to the synopsis is a series of "Standard Plans," which illustrate how the

accommodation may be conveniently arranged; the object of the issue of

these plans is to put in convenient form the best points of previous

designs, and to avoid the necessity of making an entirely fresh design for

each building that is to be erected, by using the standard type modified to

suit local conditions. External appearance is considered with regard to the

materials to be used, and the position the buildings are to occupy;

convenience of plan and sound sanitary construction being the principal

objects rather than external effect, designs are usually simple, and depend

for architectural effect more on the grouping and balance of the parts than

on ornamentation such as would add to expense. The synopsis and standard

plans are from time to time revised, and brought up to date as improvements

suggest themselves, and increases in scale of accommodation are authorized,

after due consideration of the financial effect; so that systematic

evolution of barrack design is carried on.

_Modern British Barracks_.--A description of a modern barrack for a

battalion of infantry will give an idea of the standard of accommodation

which is now authorized, and to which older barracks are gradually

remodelled as funds permit. The unmarried soldiers are quartered in

barrack-rooms usually planned to contain twelve men in each; this number

forms a convenient division to suit the organization of the company, and is

more popular with the men than the larger numbers which were formerly the

rule in each barrack-room; there is a greater privacy, whilst the number is

not too small to keep up the feeling of barrack-room comradeship which

plays an important part in the soldier's training. The rooms give 600 cub.

ft. of air per man, and have windows on each side: the beds are spaced

between the windows so that only one bed comes in a corner, and not more

than two between any two windows: inlet ventilators are fixed high up in

the side walls, and an extract shaft warmed by the chimney flue keeps up a

circulation of air through the room: the door is usually at one end of the

room and the fireplace at the opposite end: over each man's bed is a locker

and shelf where he keeps his kit, and his rifle stands near the head of his

bed. Convenient of access from the door to the barrack-room is the

ablution-room with basins and foot-bath; also disconnected by a lobby is a

water-closet and urinal for night use, others for day use being provided in

separate external blocks. Baths are usually grouped in a central bath-house

adjacent to the cook-house, and have hot water laid on. For every two or

four barrack-rooms, a small single room is provided for the occupation of

the sergeant in charge, who is responsible for the safety of a small store,

where men may leave their rifle and kit when going on furlough. Adjacent to

the barrack blocks and next to the cook-house are arranged the dining-rooms

where the men assemble for their meals; no food is now served in the

barrack-rooms, and the air in them is thus kept much purer and fresher than

under the old system. The dining-rooms are lofty and well ventilated, and

are warmed by hot water; tables and forms are arranged so as to make the

most of the space, and room is provided for all the men to dine

simultaneously.

[Illustration: Barracks]

Next to the dining-room is the cook-house where the meals for a half

battalion are cooked, and served direct to the dining-rooms on each side.

Wash-up rooms are arranged off the serving-lobby with plate-racks and

shelves for the storage of the crockery after it has been washed. The

cooking apparatus is designed for economical use of coal fuel, and, if

carefully used, consumes little more than 1/2 lb of coal per man per day.

The cook-house is well lighted and ventilated by a top lantern; tables,

dressers, and pastry slab are provided for preparing and serving the meals,

and a sink for washing kitchen utensils. Under the kitchen block is a

basement containing the boiler for heating the dining-rooms and another for

the supply of hot water to baths and sinks, with in some cases also a

hot-air furnace for heating drying-rooms, for drying the men's clothing

when they come in wet from a route-march or field day. Not far from the

barrack blocks is placed the recreation establishment or soldiers' club,

where the rank and file may go for relaxation and amusement when off duty;

this establishment has, on the ground floor, a large and lofty room with a

stage at one end for lectures or entertainments, and at the other [v.03

p.0428] end is a supper bar, extending across the room, where mineral

waters and other light refreshments are sold; tables are also arranged for

suppers. A grocery shop is provided where the men and their families may

purchase goods bought under regimental arrangements at wholesale prices,

and sold without more profit than is necessary to keep the institution

self-supporting. On the first floor are billiard and games room,

reading-room and library, and writing-room. The manager's quarter and

kitchen premises complete the establishment. Near the recreation

establishment is the canteen, devoted solely to the sale of beer, and not

permitted to vie in attractiveness with the recreation establishment. A bar

is provided for the soldiers, a separate room for corporals, and a jug

department for the supply of the families; this building also has a

manager's quarter attached to it, and an office for the checking of

accounts.

For the senior non-commissioned officers a sergeants' mess is provided,

containing dining-room, reading-room and billiard-room, with kitchen

premises and liquor store, which also has a jug department for the

sergeants' families. The single non-commissioned officers have all their

meals in this mess, and the married members also use it as a club. The

warrant officers, and the proportion of non-commissioned officers and men

who are on the married establishment, are provided with accommodation at

some little distance from the men's barracks. In all recent schemes, on

open sites, self-contained cottages have been built, and these are more

popular than the older pattern of tenement buildings approached by common

staircases or verandahs. The warrant officers are allowed a living-room,

kitchen, and scullery, with three bedrooms and a bathroom. The married

soldiers have a living-room, scullery, and one, two, or three bedrooms

according to the size of their families. A laundry is provided adjacent to

the married quarters, equipped with washing-troughs, wringer,

drying-closet, and ironing-room; and the women are encouraged to use this

in preference to doing washing in their cottages.

_Officers' Quarters._--At a little distance from the men's barracks, and

usually looking over the parade or cricket ground, is the officers' mess.

This building has an entrance-hall with band alcove, where the band plays

on guest nights; on one side of the hall is the mess-room (or dining-room),

and on the other the anteroom (or reading-room), whilst the billiard-room

and kitchen are kept to the back so that lantern lights can be arranged

for. A mess office is provided, and all the accessories required for the

mess waiters' department, including pantry, plate-closet and cellarage, and

for the kitchen or mess-man's department, with also a quarter for the

mess-man. The officers' quarters are usually arranged in wings extending

the frontage of the mess building, and in a storey over the mess itself.

Each officer has a large room, part of which is partitioned off for a

bedroom, and the field officers are allowed two rooms. The soldier servant,

told off to each officer, has a small room allotted for cleaning purposes,

and bathrooms, supplied with hot water from the mess kitchen, are centrally

situated. A detached house, containing three sitting-rooms, seven bed- and

dressing-rooms, bathroom, kitchen, servants' hall, and the usual

accessories, is provided for the commanding officer: also a smaller house,

having two sitting-rooms, four bedrooms, bath, kitchen, &c., for the

quartermaster. Other regimental married officers are not provided for, and

have to arrange to house themselves, a lodging allowance being usually

granted.

_Regimental Accessories._--Apart from the buildings providing

accommodation, others are required for administrative and military

purposes. These are the guard house and regimental offices, the small-arm

ammunition store, the fire-engine house, the drill and gymnastic hall, and

the medical inspection block with dispensary, where the sick are seen by a

medical officer and either prescribed for or sent into hospital, as may be

necessary. Stables are provided for the officers' and transport horses, and

a vehicle shed and storehouse for the mobilization equipment. Stores are

required for bread, meat, coal, clothing, and for musketry, signalling, and

general small stores under the quartermaster's charge--also workshops for

armourers, carpenters, plumbers, painters and glaziers, shoemakers, and

tailors. Mention of the fives court, recreation ground and parade ground

completes the description of a battalion barrack.

_Cavalry Barracks._--The accommodation provided for cavalry is very similar

to that already described for infantry. The barrack blocks are arranged to

suit the organization of the regiment, and are placed so that the men can

turn out readily and get to their horses. Detached buildings are provided

for cavalry troop stables, one block for the horses of each troop. Formerly

stables were often built for convenience with the barrack-rooms over them;

but this system has been abandoned on sanitary grounds, to the benefit of

both men and horses. Each horse is given 1500 cub. ft. of air space, the

horses' heads are turned to the outer walls, and provision is made, by

traversed air-ducts below the mangers, for fresh air to be supplied to the

horses while lying down. Above the horses' heads are windows which are

arranged to open inwards, being hinged at the bottom and fitted with hopper

checks to avoid direct draught. Ridge ventilation and skylights are given,

so that all parts of the stable are well lighted and airy.

Cast-iron mangers and hay-racks are provided, and the horses are separated

by bails, with chains to manger brackets and heel posts; saddle brackets

are fixed to the heel posts. Each stable has a troop store, where spare

saddles and gear are kept; also an expense forage store, in which the day's

ration, after issue in bulk from the forage barn, is kept until it is given

out in feeds. The stables are paved with blue Staffordshire paving bricks,

graded to a collecting channel carrying the drainage well clear of the

building, before it is taken into a gully.

The space between the blocks of stables is paved with cement concrete to

form a yard, and horse-troughs, litter-sheds and dung-pits are provided.

Officers' stables are built in separate blocks, and usually have only one

row of stalls; the stalls are divided by partitions, and separate

saddle-rooms are provided. Stalls and loose boxes in infirmary stables give

2000 cub. ft. of air space per horse and are placed at some distance from

the troop stables in a separate enclosure. A forge and shoeing shed is

provided in a detached block near the troop stables. A forage barn and

granary is usually built to hold a fortnight's supply, and a chaff-cutter

driven by horse power is fixed close by. Cavalry regiments each have a

large covered riding school, and a number of open _maneges_, for exercise

and riding instruction.

_Artillery, &c._--The accommodation provided for horse and field artillery

is arranged to suit their organization in batteries and brigades, and is

generally similar to that already described, with the addition of vehicle

sheds for guns and ammunition wagons, and special shops for wheelers and

saddlers. Accommodation for other units follows the general lines already

laid down, but has to be arranged to suit the particular organization and

requirements of each unit.

_Garrison Accessories._--In every large military station in addition to the

regimental buildings which have been described, a number of buildings and

works are required for the service of the garrison generally. _Military

hospitals_ are established at home and abroad for the treatment of sick

officers and soldiers as well as their wives and families. Military

hospitals are classified as follows:--First-grade hospitals are large

central hospitals serving important districts. These hospitals are complete

in themselves and fully equipped for the carrying out of operations of all

kinds; they generally contain wards for officers, and may have attached to

them separate isolation hospitals for the treatment of infectious cases,

and military families' hospitals for women and children. Second-grade

hospitals are smaller in size and less fully equipped, but are capable of

acting independently and have operation rooms. Third-grade hospitals or

reception stations are required for small stations principally, to act as

feeders to the large hospitals, and to deal with accident and

non-transportable cases. The principles of construction of military

hospitals do not differ materially from the best modern civil practice; all

are now built on the pavilion system with connecting corridors arranged so

as to interfere as little as possible with the free circulation of air

between the blocks. The site is carefully selected and enclosed with

railings. The administration block [v.03 p.0429] is centrally placed, with

ward blocks on each side, and accessory buildings placed where most

convenient; the isolation wards are in a retired position and divided off

from the hospital enclosure. Ward blocks usually have two storeys, and the

ordinary large wards provide 1200 cub. ft. of air space per patient. A due

proportion of special case and other special wards is arranged in which the

space per patient is greater or less, as necessary.

_Army schools_ are built to give slightly more liberal accommodation than

is laid down as the minimum by the Board of Education, but the principles

of planning are much the same as in civil elementary schools. Schools are

usually placed between the married quarters and the barracks, so as to

serve both for the instruction of the men, when working for educational

certificates, and for the education of the children of the married

soldiers. _Garrison churches_ are built when arrangements for the troops to

attend divine service at neighbouring places of worship cannot well be

made. Only two _military prisons_ now remain, viz. Dover and Curragh, and

these are for soldiers discharged from the service with ignominy. For

ordinary sentences _detention barracks_ and _branch detention barracks_ are

attached to the military commands and districts: these are constructed in

accordance with the home office regulations; but crime in the army

fortunately continues to decrease, and little accommodation has recently

been added. Barrack expense stores for the issue of bedding, utensils and

other stores for which the troops depend upon the Army Service Corps, are

necessary in all barracks; and in large stations a supply depot for the

issue of provisions, with abattoir and bakery attached to it, may be

necessary. An engineer office with building yard and workshops to deal with

the ordinary duties in connexion with the upkeep of War Department property

is required at every station, and for large stations such as Aldershot, it

may be necessary to undertake special water supply schemes, works for

disposal of sewage, and for the supply of electricity or gas for lighting

the barracks. The system of roads, pipes and mains within the barracks are

in all cases maintained by the Royal Engineers, as well as the buildings

themselves. District and brigade offices are necessary for the

administration of large units, and quarters for the general officer

commanding and the headquarters staff may sometimes be required.

_Location of Barracks_.--The selection of a healthy site for a barrack

building or new military station is a matter of great importance. In the

earlier days of barrack construction, barracks were, for political reasons,

usually built in large towns, where troops would be at hand for putting

down disturbances, and cramped and inconvenient buildings of many storeys,

were erected on a small piece of ground often surrounded by the worst slums

of the city; such, for example, were the Ship Street barracks in Dublin,

and the cavalry barracks at Hulme, Manchester. Worse still were cases where

an existing building, such as the Linen Hall in Dublin, was purchased, and

converted into barracks with little regard for the convenience of the

occupants, and a total disregard for the need of a free circulation of pure

air in and about the buildings, which is the first condition of health. In

the present day, except in a few cases where strong local influence is

allowed to prevail to retain troops in towns, where their presence, and

perhaps the money they spend, are appreciated for patriotic or other

motives, every opportunity is taken to move troops from the vicinity of

crowded towns, and quarter them in barracks or hutments built in the open

country. Due regard can then be given to sanitary location, and military

training can more effectively be carried out. With improvements in

communication by rail, road and telegraph, support to the civil power in

case of disturbance can always be afforded in good time, without

permanently stationing troops in the actual locality where their assistance

may be needed. It has been recognized ever since the Crimean War, that the

leading principle of barrack policy must, in the future, be to facilitate

in peace time the training of the army for war, and that this can only be

done by quartering troops in large bodies, including all branches of the

service, in positions where they have space for training, gun and rifle

practice, and manoeuvring. The camps at Aldershot, Colchester, Shorncliffe

and Curragh were accordingly started between 1856 and 1860, and the same

policy has since been continued by the acquisition of Strensall Common,

near York, Kilworth domain, near Fermoy, the lease of a portion of Dartmoor

and a large area at Glen Imaal in Co. Wicklow, and the purchase of the

Stobs estate in Scotland and of a large part of Salisbury Plain.

_Barrack Construction_.--The history of barrack construction in Great

Britain is an interesting study, but can only be touched on briefly. As

long as operations in the field were carried on by troops levied especially

for the war in hand, no barracks apart from fortifications were required,

except those for the royal bodyguard; and even after the standing army

exceeded those limits, the necessity for additional barracks was often

avoided by having recourse to the device of billeting, _i.e._ quartering

the soldiers on the populations of the towns where they were posted. This,

however, was a device burdensome to the people, subversive of discipline,

and prejudicial to military efficiency in many ways, while it exposed the

scattered soldiers to many temptations to disloyalty. Hence barracks were

gradually provided, at first in places where such an arrangement was most

necessary owing to the paucity of the population, or where concentration of

troops was most important, owing to the disaffection of some of the

inhabitants. The earliest barracks of which there is any record as regards

England, were those for the foot guards, erected in 1660. Among the

earliest of those still existing are the Royal Barracks at Dublin, dating

from 1700, and during the 18th century barracks were built in several parts

of Ireland; but in England it was at the end of the 18th and beginning of

the 19th century that most of the earlier barracks were constructed. So

long as barracks were mainly in connexion with fortresses their

construction naturally fell to the duty of the King's Engineers, afterwards

the Corps of Engineers, working under the master-general of the ordnance.

About 1796, however, a special civil department was formed under the

commissioners for the affairs of barracks, to deal with barracks apart from

fortifications. In 1816 we find a warrant appointing a civilian comptroller

of the barrack department to deal with the erection and upkeep of barracks

and barrack hospitals not within fortified places. This warrant gives one

of the earliest records of the nature of accommodation provided, and a few

extracts from it are worth notice. No definite regulations as to cubic or

floor space per man are laid down; but in the infantry, twelve men, and in

the cavalry, eight men are allotted to one room. "Bedsteads or berths" are

allowed, "a single one to each man, or a double one to two men," or

"hammocks where necessary." The married soldier's wife is barely

recognized, as shown by the following extract:--"The Comptroller of the

barrack department may, if he sees fit, and when it in no shape interferes

with or straitens the accommodation of the men, permit (as an occasional

indulgence, and as tending to promote cleanliness, and the convenience of

the soldier) four married women per troop or company of sixty men, and six

per troop or company of a hundred men, to be resident within the barracks;

but no one article shall on this account be furnished by the

barrack-masters, upon any consideration whatever. And if the

barrack-masters perceive that any mischief, or damage, arises from such

indulgence, the commanding officer shall, on their representation, displace

such women. Nor shall any dogs be suffered to be kept in the rooms of any

barrack or hospital." Another regulation says: "Where kitchens are provided

for the soldiers, they shall not be allowed to dress their provisions in

any other places." In about 1818 the civil barrack department was abolished

on account of abuses which had grown up, and the duke of Wellington as

master-general of the ordnance and commander-in-chief transferred to the

corps of Royal Engineers the duties of construction and maintenance of

barracks. In 1826 a course of practical architecture was started at the

school of military engineering at Chatham under Lieutenant-Colonel

(afterwards Sir Charles) Pasley, the first commandant of the school, who

himself wrote an outline of the course. Wellington interested himself in

the [v.03 p.0430] barrack question, and under his orders single iron

bedsteads were substituted for the wooden berths, two tiers high, in which

two men slept in the same bed, then a certain cubical space per man was

allotted, and cook-houses and ablution-rooms were added. Next, sergeants'

messes were started, and ball courts allowed for the recreation of the men.

It was not, however, till after the Crimean War that public attention was

directed by the report dated 1857 of the royal commission on the sanitary

state of the army, to the high death-rate, and certain sanitary defects in

barracks and hospitals, such as overcrowding, defective ventilation, bad

drainage and insufficient means of cooking and cleanliness, to which this

excessive mortality was among other causes assigned.

In 1857 a commission appointed for improving the sanitary condition of

barracks and hospitals made an exhaustive inspection of the barracks in the

United Kingdom, and reported in 1861. This was followed by similar

commissions to examine the barracks in the Mediterranean stations and in

India. These commissions, besides making valuable recommendations for the

improvement of almost every barrack inspected by them, laid down the

general sanitary principles applicable to the arrangement and construction

of military barracks and hospitals; and in spite of the lapse of time, the

reports repay close study by any one interested in sanitary science as

applied to the construction and improvement of such buildings. The names of

Sidney Herbert (afterwards Lord Herbert of Lea), Captain (afterwards Sir

Douglas) Gallon, R.E., and John Sutherland, M.D., stand out prominently

among those who contributed to the work. The commission was constituted a

standing body in 1862, and continues its work to the present day, under the

name of the Army Sanitary Committee, which advises the secretary of state

for war on all sites for new barracks or hospitals, also upon type plans,

especially as to sanitary details, and principles of sanitary construction

and fitments. A definite standard of accommodation was laid down, which

formed the basis of the first issue of the _Barrack Synopsis_ in 1865. A

general order dated 1845 had directed that a space of 450 to 500 cub. ft.

per man should be provided in all new barracks at home stations; but this

had not been applied in existing barracks or buildings appropriated as

such, and when detailed examination was made, it was found that some men

had actually less than 250 cub. ft., and out of accommodation for nominally

76,813 soldiers, 2003 only had 600 cub. ft. per man, which was the minimum

scale now laid down by the royal commission of 1857. To give every soldier

his allotted amount of 600 cub. ft., meant a reduction in accommodation of

the barracks by nearly one-third the number. Many buildings were condemned

as being entirely unsuitable for use as barracks; in other cases

improvements were possible by alterations to buildings and opening-up of

sites. Ventilation of the rooms was greatly improved, cook-houses,

ablution-rooms and sanitary accessories were carefully examined and a

proper scale laid down. Separate quarters for the married soldiers did not

exist in many barracks, and in some instances married men's beds were found

in the men's barrack-rooms without even a screen to separate them; in other

cases, married people were accommodated together in a barrack-room, with

only a blanket hung on a cord as a screen between the different families.

The recommendations of the committee resulted in a single room being

allotted to all married soldiers, and this accommodation has gradually

improved up to the comfortable cottage now provided.

From the time of this first thorough inquiry into barrack accommodation,

steady and systematic progress has been made. Although lack of funds has

always hampered rapid progress, and keeps the accommodation actually

existing below the standard aimed at, much has been done to improve the

soldiers' condition in this respect. Numerous regimental depots and other

barracks were built under the Military Forces Localization Act of 1872. The

Barracks Act of 1890 replaced the worn-out huts at Aldershot, Colchester,

Shorncliffe and Curragh by convenient and sanitary permanent buildings, and

further additions and improvements have been made under the Military Works

Acts of 1897, 1899 and 1901. As some evidence of the practical result of

the care and money that has been expended on this work, it is interesting

to note that while, in 1857, the annual rate of mortality in the army at

home per 1000 men was 17.5 (compared with 9.2 for the civil male population

of corresponding age), forty years later, in 1897, the rate of mortality in

the army was only 3.42 per 1000. No doubt, improved barrack accommodation

contributed greatly to this result. Barrack construction work remained in

the hands of the Corps of Royal Engineers until 1904, when a civil

department was again formed under an architect styled "director of barrack

construction," to deal with the construction of barracks at home stations,

and the construction and maintenance of military hospitals.

_British Colonial_.--Barracks at colonial stations are governed by the

general scale of accommodation in the _Barrack Synopsis_, modified

according to the climate of the station, in the direction of increase in

floor area and height of rooms. In the planning of rooms for occupation in

tropical or sub-tropical countries provision has to be made for the freest

possible circulation of air through the buildings. The walls have to be

protected by verandahs from the direct rays of the sun, and the special

local domestic arrangements have to be taken into consideration. For

example, in hot countries it is usually undesirable to have kitchens

directly attached to the dwelling-houses, sanitary arrangements vary

according to the method's adopted, and in some cases it is necessary to

provide a free circulation of air below the ground floors of all inhabited

buildings by raising them off the ground some 4 ft. The aspect of the

buildings will usually be arranged so as to catch the prevailing wind, and

the mode of construction varies greatly according to the custom and

resources of the country.

_Indian Barracks_.--In India, barracks for the British troops are built by

the Royal Engineer officers detailed for military work duties, assisted by

military foremen, who pass through the civil engineering colleges, and by a

native subordinate staff. The scale of accommodation to be provided is laid

down in the Indian army regulations, and is for the private soldier more

liberal than is allowed by the home government for any of the colonial

stations. The barrack-rooms are lofty and airy, with verandahs all round,

and clerestory windows. Roofs are usually of double tiling. The allowance

of space is 90 sq. ft. per man in rooms 16 ft. high, with, in addition, a

day room adjoining for the use of the men for their meals or as a

sitting-room. Recreation establishments are liberally provided for, and

other means of recreation, such as bowling and skittle alleys, fives

courts, plunge baths and cricket grounds, are given. Separate blocks of

married quarters are provided, and schools for the children. Hospital

accommodation on a higher scale than at home is necessary; but hill

sanatoria have in recent years done much to improve the health of the

troops by giving change of air, during the hot weather, to a large

proportion of the men and families. Piped water supplies have replaced the

old wells at many stations, and attention is being directed to improved

cooking and sanitary arrangements.

_Naval Barracks_.--In recent years, large naval barracks have been built,

notably at Portsmouth, Chatham and Devonport. These differ from military

barracks principally in that they keep up the system of board-ship life to

which the men are accustomed. Large barrack-rooms are provided with caulked

floors like ships' decks, and have rows of hammocks slung across them;

these are stowed in the day-time, when the rooms are used as mess-rooms.

Ablution and sanitary arrangements are grouped together on the basement

floors. Fine recreation establishments and canteens have been built. The

officers' messes have splendid public rooms, but the officers' quarters are

not so large as in military barracks, though no doubt spacious to the naval

officer, accustomed as he is to a small cabin. Married quarters for the men

are not provided except in connexion with coastguard stations.

_Other Countries_.--A great number of the German and French barracks are

erected in the form of a large block of three or four storeys containing

all the accommodation and accessories for officers, married and single

non-commissioned officers and men, of a complete battalion or regiment in

one building. Some of the [v.03 p.0431] modern barracks, however, are

arranged more on the pavilion system with separate blocks; but the single

block system is well liked on account of its compactness and the facility

it gives for supervision; it is also more satisfactory from the

architectural point of view. The system of allotment and arrangement of

accommodation for these two great armies does not differ much, except in

detail, from that adopted by the British army. The floor and cubic space

allotted per man is a little less; accommodation for officers is not

usually provided, except to a limited extent, unless the barracks are on a

country site. The German army, however, now provides every regiment with a

fine officers' mess-house furnished at the public expense. Married quarters

for some of the non-commissioned officers are provided, but not for

privates. American barracks are interesting, as providing for perhaps a

higher class of recruit than usual; they are well designed and superior

finish internally is given. The barracks are arranged usually on the

separate block system, and centre round a post-exchange or soldiers' club,

which is a combined recreation establishment, gymnasium and sergeants'

mess, with bath-house attached. Canteens for the sale of liquor were

abolished in 1901.

See _The Barrack Synopsis_ (1905); _The Handbook of Design and Construction

of Military Buildings_ (1905); _The Army Regulations, India_, vol. xii.

(E. N. S.)

BARRANDE, JOACHIM (1799-1883), Austrian geologist and palaeontologist, was

born at Saugues, Haute Loire, on the 11th of August 1799, and educated in

the Ecole Polytechnique at Paris. Although he had received the training of

an engineer, his first appointment was that of tutor to the duc de Bordeaux

(afterwards known as the comte de Chambord), grandson of Charles X., and

when the king abdicated in 1830, Barrande accompanied the royal exiles to

England and Scotland, and afterwards to Prague. Settling in that city in

1831, he became occupied in engineering works, and his attention was then

attracted to the fossils from the Lower Palaeozoic rocks of Bohemia. The

publication in 1839 of Murchison's _Silurian System_ incited Barrande to

carry on systematic researches on the equivalent strata in Bohemia. For ten

years (1840-1850) he made a detailed study of these rocks, engaging workmen

specially to collect fossils, and in this way he obtained upwards of 3500

species of graptolites, brachiopoda, mollusca, crustacea (particularly

trilobites) and fishes. The first volume of his great work, _Systeme

silurien du centre de la Boheme_ (dealing with trilobites), appeared in

1852; and from that date until 1881, he issued twenty-one quarto volumes of

text and plates. Two other volumes were issued after his death in 1887 and

1894. It is estimated that he spent nearly L10,000 on these works. In

addition he published a large number of separate papers. In recognition of

his important researches the Geological Society of London in 1855 awarded

to him the Wollaston medal.

The term Silurian was employed by Barrande, after Murchison, in a more

comprehensive sense than was justified by subsequent knowledge. Thus the

Silurian rocks of Bohemia were divided into certain stages (A to H)--the

two lowermost, A and B without fossils (Azoic), succeeded by the third

stage, C, which included the primordial zone, since recognized as part of

the Cambrian of Sedgwick. The fourth stage (Etage D), the true lower

Silurian, was described by Barrande as including isolated patches of strata

with organic remains like those of the Upper Silurian. These assemblages of

fossils were designated "Colonies," and regarded as evidence of the early

introduction into the area of species from neighbouring districts, that

became locally extinct, and reappeared in later stages. The interpretation

of Barrande was questioned in 1854 by Edward Forbes, who pointed to the

disturbances, overturns and crumplings in the older rocks as affording a

more reasonable explanation of the occurrence of strata with newer fossils

amid those containing older ones. Other geologists subsequently questioned

the doctrine of "Colonies." In 1880 Dr J. E. Marr, from a personal study in

the field, brought forward evidence to show that the repetitions of the

fossiliferous strata on which the "Colonies" were based were due to faults.

The later stages of Barrande, F, G and H, have since been shown by Emanuel

Friedrich Heinrich Kayser (b. 1845) to be Devonian.

Despite these modifications in the original groupings of the strata, it is

recognized that Barrande "made Bohemia classic ground for the study of the

oldest fossiliferous formations." He died at Frohsdorf on the 5th of

October 1883.

See "Sketch of the Life of Joachim Barrande," _Geol. Mag._ (1883), p. 529

(with portrait).

BARRANQUILLA, a city and port of Colombia, South America, capital of a

province of the same name in the department of Atlantico, on the left bank

of the Magdalena river about 7 m. above its mouth and 18-1/2 m. by rail

from its seaport, Puerto Colombia. Pop. (est. 1902) 31,000. Owing to a

dangerous bar at the mouth of the Magdalena the trade of the extensive

territory tributary to that river, which is about 60% of that of the entire

country, must pass in great part through Barranquilla and its seaport,

making it the principal commercial centre of the republic. Savanilla was

used as a seaport until about 1890, when shoals caused by drifting sands

compelled a removal to Puerto Colombia, a short distance westward, where a

steel pier, 4000 ft. in length, has been constructed to facilitate the

handling of freight. The navigation of the Magdalena is carried on by means

of light-draught steamboats which ascend to Yeguas, 14 m. below Honda,

where goods are transhipped by rail to the latter place, and thence by pack

animals to Bogota, or by smaller boats to points farther up the river.

Barranquilla was originally founded in 1629, but attracted no attention as

a commercial centre until about the middle of the 19th century, when

efforts were initiated to secure the trade passing through Cartagena. The

city is built on a low plain, is regularly laid out, and has many fine

warehouses, public buildings and residences, but its greater part, however,

consists of mud-walled cabins supported by bamboo (_guadua_) framework and

thatched with rushes. The water-supply is drawn from the Magdalena, and the

city is provided with telephone, electric light and tram services. Owing to

periodical inundations, the surrounding country is but little cultivated,

and the greater part of the population, which is of the mixed type common

to the lowlands of Columbia, is engaged in no settled productive

occupation.

BARRAS, PAUL FRANCOIS NICOLAS, COMTE DE (1755-1829), member of the French

Directory of 1795-1799, was descended from a noble family of Provence, and

was born at Fox-Amphoux. At the age of sixteen he entered the regiment of

Languedoc as "gentleman cadet," but embarked for India in 1776. After an

adventurous voyage he reached Pondicherry and shared in the defence of that

city, which ended in its capitulation to the British on the 18th of October

1778. The garrison being released, Barras returned to France. After taking

part in a second expedition to the East Indies in 1782-1783, he left the

army and occupied the following years with the frivolities congenial to his

class and to his nature. At the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789, he

espoused the democratic cause, and became one of the administrators of the

department of the Var. In June 1792 he took his seat in the high national

court at Orleans; and later in that year, on the outbreak of war with the

kingdom of Sardinia, he became commissioner to the French army of Italy,

and entered the Convention (the third of the national assemblies of France)

as a deputy for the department of the Var. In January 1793 he voted with

the majority for the death of Louis XVI. Much of his time, however, was

spent in missions to the districts of the south-east of France; and in this

way he made the acquaintance of Bonaparte at the siege of Toulon. As an

example of the incorrectness of the _Barras Memoirs_ we may note that the

writer assigned 30,000 men to the royalist defending force, whereas it was

less than 12,000; he also sought to minimize the share taken by Bonaparte

in the capture of that city.

In 1794 Barras sided with the men who sought to overthrow the Robespierre

faction, and their success in the _coup d'etat_ of 9 Thermidor (27th of

July) brought him almost to the front rank. In the next year, when the

Convention was threatened by the malcontent National Guards of Paris, it

appointed Barras to command the troops engaged in its defence. His

nomination of Bonaparte as one of his subalterns led to the adoption of

vigorous measures, which ensured the dispersion of the royalists and [v.03

p.0432] malcontents in the streets near the Tuileries, 13 Vendemiaire (5th

of October 1795). Thereupon Barras became one of the five Directors who

controlled the executive of the French republic. Owing to his intimate

relations with Josephine de Beauharnais, he helped to facilitate a marriage

between her and Bonaparte; and many have averred, though on defective

evidence, that Barras procured the appointment of Bonaparte to the command

of the army of Italy early in the year 1796. The achievements of Bonaparte

gave to the Directory a stability which it would not otherwise have

enjoyed; and when in the summer of 1797 the royalist and constitutional

opposition again gathered strength, Bonaparte sent General Augereau

(_q.v._), a headstrong Jacobin, forcibly to repress that movement by what

was known as the _coup d'etat_ of 18 Fructidor (4th September). Barras and

the violent Jacobins now carried matters with so high a hand as to render

the government of the Directory odious; and Bonaparte had no difficulty in

overthrowing it by the _coup d'etat_ of 18-19 Brumaire (9th-10th of

November). Barras saw the need of a change and was to some extent (how far

will perhaps never be known) an accomplice in Bonaparte's designs, though

he did not suspect the power and ambition of their contriver. He was left

on one side by the three Consuls who took the place of the five Directors

and found his political career at an end. He had amassed a large fortune

and spent his later years in voluptuous ease. Among the men of the

Revolution few did more than Barras to degrade that movement. His

immorality in both public and private life was notorious and contributed in

no small degree to the downfall of the Directory, and with it of the first

French Republic. Despite his profession of royalism in and after 1815, he

remained more or less suspect to the Bourbons; and it was with some

difficulty that the notes for his memoirs were saved from seizure on his

death on the 29th of January 1829.

Barras left memoirs in a rough state to be drawn up by his literary

executor, M. Rousselin de St Albin. The amount of alteration which they

underwent at his hands is not fully known; but M. George Duruy, who edited

them on their publication in 1895, has given fairly satisfactory proofs of

their genuineness. For other sources respecting Barras see the _Memoirs_ of

Gohier, Larevelliere-Lepeaux and de Lescure; also Sciout, _Le Directoire_

(4 vols., Paris, 1895-1897), A. Sorel, _L'Europe et la Revolution

francaise_ (esp. vols. v. and vi., Paris, 1903-1904), and A. Vandal,

_L'Avenement de Bonaparte_ (Paris, 1902-1904).

(J. HL. R.)

BARRATRY (O. Fr. _bareter_, _barater_, to barter or cheat), in English

criminal law, the offence (more usually called _common barratry_) of

constantly inciting and stirring up quarrels in disturbance of the peace,

either in courts or elsewhere. It is an offence both at common law and by

statute, and is punishable by fine and imprisonment. By a statute of 1726,

if the person guilty of common barratry belonged to the profession of the

law, he was disabled from practising in the future. It is a cumulative

offence, and it is necessary to prove at least three commissions of the

act. For nearly two centuries there had been no record of an indictment

having been preferred for this offence, but in 1889 a case occurred at the

Guildford summer assizes, _R._ v. _Bellgrove_ (_The Times_, 8th July 1889).

As, however, the defendant was convicted of another offence, the charge was

not proceeded upon. (See Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_;

Russell, _Crimes and Misdemeanours_; Stephen, _Criminal Law_.)

In _marine insurance_ barratry is any kind of fraud committed upon the

owner or insurers of a ship by a master with the intention of benefiting

himself at their expense. Continental jurists give a wider meaning to

barratry, as meaning any wilful act by the master or crew, by whatever

motive induced, whereby the owners or charterers are damnified. In bills of

lading it is usual to except it from the shipowners' liability (see

AFFREIGHTMENT).

In Scotland, barratry is the crime committed by a judge who is induced by

bribery to pronounce judgment.

BARRE, ISAAC (1726-1802), British soldier and politician, was born at

Dublin in 1726, the son of a French refugee. He was educated at Trinity

College, Dublin, entered the army, and in 1759 was with Wolfe at the taking

of Quebec, on which occasion he was wounded in the cheek. His entry into

parliament in 1761 under the auspices of Lord Shelburne, who had selected

him "as a bravo to run down Mr Pitt," was characterized by a virulent

attack on Pitt, of whom, however, he became ultimately a devoted adherent.

A vigorous opponent of the taxation of America, his mastery of invective

was powerfully displayed in his championship of the American cause, and the

name "Sons of Liberty," which he had applied to the colonists in one of his

speeches, became a common designation of the American organizations

directed against the Stamp Act, as well as of later patriotic clubs. His

appointment in 1782 to the treasurership of the navy, which carried with it

a pension of L3200 a year, at a time when the government was ostensibly

advocating economy, caused great discontent; subsequently, however, he

received from the younger Pitt the clerkship of the pells in place of the

pension, which thus was saved to the public. Becoming blind, he retired

from office in 1790 and died on the 20th of July 1802.

BARRE, a city of Washington county, Vermont, U.S.A., in the north central

part of the state, about 6 m. S.E. of Montpelier. Pop. (1890) 4146; (1900)

8448, of whom 2831 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 10,734. It is served

by the Central Vermont and the Montpelier & Wells River railways, and is

connected by electric street railways with Montpelier. Barre is an

important seat of the granite industry, and manufactures monuments and

tombstones, stone-cutting implements and other machinery. In 1905 the

city's factory products were valued at $3,373,046, of which 86.9% was the

value of the monuments and tombstones manufactured. Among its institutions

are the Aldrich public library and Goddard Seminary (1870; Universalist).

There is a beautiful granite statue of Burns (by J. Massey Rhind), erected

in 1899 by the Scotsmen of Barre. The water-works are owned and operated by

the municipality. Settled soon after the close of the War of Independence,

the township of Barre (pop. in 1910, 4194) was organized in 1793 and named

in honour of Isaac Barre (1726-1802), a defender of American rights in the

British parliament. The present city, chartered in 1894, was originally a

part of the township.

BARREL (a word of uncertain origin common to Romance languages; the Celtic

forms, as in the Gaelic _baraill_, are derived from the English), a vessel

of cylindrical shape, made of staves bound together by hoops, a cask; also

a dry and liquid measure of capacity, varying with the commodity which it

contains (see WEIGHTS AND MEASURES). The term is applied to many

cylindrical objects, as to the drum round which the chain is wound in a

crane, a capstan or a watch; to the cylinder studded with pins in a

barrel-organ or musical-box; to the hollow shaft in which the piston of a

pump works; or to the tube of a gun. The "barrel" of a horse is that part

of the body lying between the shoulders and the quarters. For the system of

vaulting in architecture known as "barrel-vaulting" see VAULT.

BARREL-ORGAN (Eng. "grinder-organ," "street-organ," "hand-organ," "Dutch

organ"; Fr. _orgue de Barbarie_, _orgue d'Allemagne_, _orgue mecanique_,

_cabinet d'orgue_, _serinette_; Ger. _Drehorgel_, _Leierkasten_; Ital.

_organetto a manovella_, _organo tedesco_), a small portable organ

mechanically played by turning a handle. The barrel-organ owes its name to

the cylinder on which the tunes are pricked out with pins and staples of

various lengths, set at definite intervals according to the scheme required

by the music. The function of these pins and staples is to raise balanced

keys connected by simple mechanism with the valves of the pipes, which are

thus mechanically opened, admitting the stream of air from the wind-chest.

The handle attached to the shaft sets the cylinder in slow rotation by

means of a worm working in a fine-toothed gear on the barrel-head; the same

motion works the bellows by means of cranks and connecting rods on the

shaft. The wind is thereby forced into a reservoir, whence it passes into

the wind-chest, on the sides of which are grouped the pipes. The barrel

revolves slowly from back to front, each revolution as a rule playing one

complete tune. A notch-pin in the barrelhead, furnished with as many

notches as there are tunes, enables the performer to shift the barrel and

change the tune. The ordinary street barrel-organ had a compass varying

from 24 to 34 notes, forming a diatonic scale with a few accidentals,

generally F#, G#, C#. There were usually two stops, one for the open pipes

of metal, the other for the closed wooden pipes. Barrel-organs [v.03

p.0433] have been made with as many as three or four cylinders set in a

circular revolving frame, but these more elaborate instruments were mainly

used in churches[1] and chapels, a purpose for which they were in great

demand for playing hymns, chants and voluntaries during the 18th and early

19th centuries. A barrel-organ was built for Fulham church by Wright, and a

large instrument with four barrels was constructed by Bishop for

Northallerton church in 1820.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Large stationary barrel-organ worked by hydraulic

power, from Solomon de Caus, _Les Raisons des forces mouvantes_

(Frankfort-on-Main, 1615).]

The origin of the barrel-organ is now clearly established, and many will

doubtless be surprised to find that it must be sought in the Netherlands as

early as the middle of the 15th century, and that accurate and detailed

diagrams of every part of the mechanism for a large stationary barrel-organ

worked by hydraulic power were published in 1615. There are letters patent

preserved in the archives of Belgium appointing a certain organ-builder,

Jehan van Steenken, _dit_ Aren, "Master of organs which play of

themselves"; in the original Flemish _Meester van orgelen spelende bij hen

selven_.[2] This organ was not a portable one like English street organs,

but a more imposing instrument, as we learn from other documents giving a

detailed account of the moneys paid to Maistre Jehan for conveying the

organs from Bruges to Brussels.[3] Steenken was, by virtue of the same

letters patent, awarded an annual pension of fifty Rhenish florins in

consideration of the services rendered to the duke of Burgundy, and on

condition of his submitting to his liege Philip the Good all other

instruments he might make in the future. There is nothing singular in the

early date of this invention, for the 15th century was distinguished for

the extraordinary impulse which the patronage and appreciation of the dukes

of Burgundy gave to automatic contrivances of all kinds, carillons, clocks,

speaking animals and other curiosities due to Flemish genius.[4] No

contemporary illustration is forthcoming, but in 1615 Solomon de Caus, who

avowedly owed his inspiration to Hero and Vitruvius, describes a number of

hydraulic machines, amongst which is the barrel-organ,[5] illustrating his

description by means of several large drawings and diagrams very carefully

carried out. De Caus' organ, entitled "Machine par laquelle l'on fera

sonner un jeu d'orgues par le moyen de l'eau," was built up on a wall a

foot thick. In the illustrations the barrel is shown to be divided into

bars, and each bar into eight beats for the quavers. The whole drum is

pierced with holes at the intersecting points, the pins being movable, so

that when the performer grew tired of one tune, he could re-arrange the

pins to form another. The four bellows are set in motion by means of ropes

strained over pulleys and attached to four cranks on the rotating shaft.

Solomon de Caus lays no claim to the invention of this organ, but only to

the adaptation of hydraulic power for revolving the drum; on the contrary,

in a dissertation on the invention of hydraulic machines and organs, he

states that there was evidently some difference between the organs of the

ancients and those of his day, since there is no mention in the classics of

any musical wheel by means of which tunes could be played in several

parts--the ancients, indeed, seem to have used their fingers on the

keyboard to sound their organs. The eighteen keys drawn in one diagram bear

names, beginning at the left, D, C, B, A, G, F, F#, E, D, C, B, A, G, F, E,

D, C, B; De Caus states that only half the keyboard is given for want of

space; the compass, therefore, probably was as shown, with a few

accidentals. [Notation: D6 to D2.] A barrel-organ, also worked by hydraulic

power, is somewhat fantastically drawn by Robert Fludd in a work[6]

published two years after that of Solomon de Caus. This diagram is of no

value except as a curiosity, for the author betrays a very imperfect

knowledge of the mechanical principles involved. The piece of music

actually set on de Caus' barrel-organ, six bars of which can be made

out,[7] consists of a madrigal, "Chi fara fed' al ciel," by Alessandro

Striggio, written in organ tablature by Peter Philips, organist of the

Chapel Royal, Brussels, at the end of the 16th century.[8] A French

barrel-organ[9] in the collection of the Brussels Conservatoire, bearing

the date "5 Mars 1797," has the following compass with flats, beginning at

the left:--

[Illustration]

Other evidences of the origin of the barrel-organ are not wanting. The

inventory of the organs and other keyboard instruments belonging to the

duke of Modena, drawn up in 1598, contains two entries of an _organo

Tedesco_.[10] In England these organs were also known as "Dutch organs,"

and the name clung to the instrument even in its diminutive form of

hand-organ of the itinerant musician. In Jedediah Morse's description of

the [v.03 p.0434] manners and customs of the Netherlands,[11] we find the

following allusion:--"The diversions of the Dutch differ not much from

those of the English, who seem to have borrowed from them the neatness of

their drinking booths, skittle and other grounds ... which form the

amusements of the middle ranks, not to mention their hand-organs and other

musical inventions." An illustration of the hand-organ of that period is

given in Knight's _London_[12] being one of a collection of street views

published by Dayes in 1789. In a description of Bartholomew Fair, as held

at the beginning of the 18th century, is a further reference to the Dutch

origin of the barrel-organ:--"A band at the west-end of the town, well

known for playing on winter evenings before Spring Garden Coffee House,

opposite Wigley's great exhibition room, consisted of a double drum, a

Dutch organ, the tambourine, violin, pipes and the Turkish jingle used in

the army. This band was generally hired at one of the booths of the

fair."[13] Mr Thomas Brown relates that one Mr Stephens, a _Poultry_

author, proposed to parliament for any one that should presume to keep an

organ in a Publick House to be fined L20 and made incapable of being an

ale-draper for the future.[14] In 1737 Horace Walpole writes[15]:--"I am

now in pursuit of getting the finest piece of music that ever was heard; it

is a thing that will play eight tunes. Handel and all the great musicians

say that it is beyond anything they can do, and this may be performed by

the most ignorant person, and when you are weary of those eight tunes, you

may have them changed for any other that you like." The organ was put in a

lottery and fetched L1000.

There was a very small barrel-organ in use during the 18th and 19th

centuries, known as the bird-organ (Fr. _serinette_, _turlutaine_,

_merline_). One of these now in the collection of the Brussels

Conservatoire is described by V. C. Mahillon.[16] The instrument is in the

form of a book, on the back of which is the title "_Le chant des oiseaux,

Tome vi._" There are ten pewter stopped pipes giving the scale of G with

the addition of Fb and A two octaves higher. [Notation: G4 A5.] The whole

instrument measures approximately 8 x 5-1/2 x 2-3/4 in. and plays eight

tunes. Mozart wrote an _Andante_[17] for a small barrel-organ.

For an illustration of the construction of the barrel-organ during the 18th

century, consult P. M. D. J. Engramelle, _La Tonotechnie ou l'art de noter

les cylindres et tout ce qui est susceptible de notage dans les instruments

de concerts mechaniques_ (Paris, 1775), with engravings (not in the British

Museum); and for a clear diagram of the modern instrument the article on

"Automatic Appliances connected with Music," by Dr. E. J. Hopkins, in

Grove's _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_, vol. i. (1904), p. 134.

(K. S.)

[1] This practice had evidently not been adopted in Germany, as the

following instance will show. The use of barrel-organs (_Drehorgeln_) in

country churches was seriously recommended by an anonymous writer in two

German papers at the beginning of the 19th century (_Beobachter an der

Spree_, Berlin, 22nd October 1821, and in _Markische Boten_, Nos. 138 and

139, 1821). The organist Wilke of Leipzig published in reply an article in

the _Allgem. musik. Zeitung_ (1822, pp. 777 et seq.) in which "he very

properly repudiated such a laughable recommendation."

[2] _Archives generales du royaume de Belgique, Chambre des Comptes_, No.

2, 449 r^o. cf. 52 r^o.; and Edmund van der Straeten, _La Musique aux

Pays-Bas_, vol. vii. pp. 230-232.

[3] Van der Straeten, _op. cit._ p. 299.

[4] Van der Straeten, _op. cit._ p. 231.

[5] Solomon de Caus, _Les Raisons des forces mouvantes_ (Frankfort, 1615),

problems 25, 28, 29, 30.

[6] _Historia utriusque cosmi_ (Oppenheim, 1617), t. i., experimentum viii.

p. 483.

[7] _Op. cit._ problem 29 shows the arrangement of the bellows for the

wind-supply. In problem 30 is drawn a large section of the barrel, showing

six bars of music represented by the pin tablature, which can be actually

deciphered by the help of the keyboard included in the drawing. These

diagrams are admirably clear and of real technical value. A copy of this

work is in the library of the British Museum.

[8] See also E. van der Straeten, who has translated Philips' setting into

modern notation, _op. cit._ t. vi. pp. 506 and 510.

[9] See V. C. Mahillon, _Catalogue descriptif_ (Brussels, 1896), No. 1137,

p. 371.

[10] _Tedesco_ was applied by Italians to both German and Dutch. Count

Valdrighi, _Musurgiana I. Serandola, Pianoforte, Salterio_ (Modena, 1879),

pp. 27 and 28; and E. van der Straeten, _op. cit._ vol. vi. p. 122.

[11] Jedediah Morse _American Geography_, part ii. p. 334 (Boston, Mass.,

1796).

[12] Knight's _London_, vol. i. p. 144.

[13] Hone's _Every Day Book_, i. p. 1248.

[14] _Collection of all the Dialogues written by Mr Thomas Brown_ (London,

1704), p. 297.

[15] Hone's _Every Day Book_, ii. pp. 1452-1453.

[16] See _Catalogue descriptif_ (Ghent, 1880), Nos. 461 and 462.

[17] Breitkopf and Haertel's _Critically revised edition of Mozart's

Works_, series x. no. 10.

BARREN ISLAND, a volcanic island in the Bay of Bengal. It has an

irregularly circular form of about 2 m. in diameter, composed of an outer

rim rising to a height of from 700 to 1000 ft., with a central cone the

altitude of which is 1015 ft. This cone rises from a depth of 800 fathoms

below the sea. It was active between 1789 and 1832, but has since been

dormant.