born in Dunkirk on the 21st of October 1651. He served when young in the
Dutch navy, but when war broke out between Louis XIV. and Holland in 1672
he entered the French service. He gained great distinction in the
Mediterranean, where he held an irregular sort of commission, not being
then able from his low birth to receive a command in the navy. His success
was so great, however, that he was made a lieutenant in 1679. He rose
rapidly to the rank of captain and then to that of admiral. The peace of
Ryswick put a close to his active service. Many anecdotes are narrated of
the courage and bluntness of the uncultivated sailor, who became the
popular hero [v.03 p.0447] of the French naval service. The town of Dunkirk
has honoured his memory by a statue and by naming a public square after
him.
See Richer, _Vie de Jean Bart_ (1780), and many editions since; Vanderest,
_Histoire de Jean Bart._
BARTAN, more correctly BARTIN, a town in the vilayet of Kastamuni, Asiatic
Turkey, retaining the name of the ancient village Parthenia and situated
near the mouth of the Bartan-su (anc. _Parthenius_), which formed part of
the boundary between Bithynia and Paphlagonia. Various aetiological
explanations of the name Parthenius were given by the ancients, _e.g._ that
the maiden Artemis hunted on its banks, or that the flow of its waters was
gentle and maiden-like. The town, which is the residence of a _kaimakam,_
is built on two low limestone hills and its streets are paved with
limestone blocks. It is noted for the fine boxwood grown in the vicinity,
is a port of call for Black Sea coasting steamers and carries on a
considerable trade with Constantinople which might be increased were it not
for the obstruction of the harbour by a bar. Pop. 8677, according to
Cuinet, _La Turquie d'Asie_ (1894).
BARTELS, HANS VON (1856- ), German painter, was born in Hamburg, the son of
Dr N. F. F. von Bartels, a Russian government official. He studied first
under the marine painter R. Hardorff in Hamburg, then under C. Schweitzer
in Duesseldorf and C. Oesterley in Hamburg, and finally at the Berlin
School of Art. After travelling extensively, especially in Italy, he
settled in Munich in 1885 and was appointed professor of painting in 1891.
An oil painter of great power, he is one of the leading German water-colour
painters, mainly of marines and scenes of fishing life, painted with rude
vigour and a great display of technical skill. He excels in storm scenes
and in depicting the strong, healthy fishing-folk of the northern coasts.
He became an honorary member of leading English, German, Dutch, Belgian and
Austrian art societies. Among his principal works are:--"Sturmflut" (Berlin
Gallery); "Lonely Beach" (Hungarian National Gallery); "Potato
Harvest--Ruegen" (Prague); "Storm--Bornholm" (German emperor's collection);
and "Moonlight on the Zuyder Zee" (New Pinakothek, Munich).
BARTENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the Alle, 34
m. S. of Koenigsberg by rail. Pop. (1900) 6805. It has a considerable trade
in corn and live stock, and its industries comprise founding and
carriage-building, tanneries, breweries and potteries. Bartenstein is
celebrated for the treaty concluded here on the 26th of April 1807, between
Prussia and Russia.
BARTER (from Fr. _barater_, to truck, to exchange), the exchange of
commodities for commodities, in contra-distinction to the exchange of
commodities for money. Barter was the simplest form of trading among
primitive communities, but its inconveniences led, at an early stage of
civilization, to the adoption of metals as mediums of exchange. Barter,
however, is still very common in dealings with uncivilized peoples, and
traders in many countries find that the most satisfactory method of
effecting exchange is to furnish themselves with such commodities as
weapons, tools and ornaments, which are more readily taken than money.
For the history of barter and the steps by which a system of currency was
gradually evolved, see MONEY. Consult also W. S. Jevons, _Money and the
Mechanism of Exchange_; A. Marshall, _Economics_; W. Ridgeway, _Origin of
Currency and Weight Standards._
BARTET (REGNAULT), JEANNE JULIA (1854- ), French actress, was born in Paris
and trained at the Conservatoire. In 1872 she began a successful career at
the Vaudeville, and in 1879 was engaged at the Comedie Francaise, of which
she became a _societaire_ in 1880. For many years she played the chief
parts both in tragedy and comedy, her grand style and exquisite finesse
making her supreme among the younger actresses on the French stage. She had
a season in London in 1908, when her consummate art was displayed in a
number of parts.
BARTH, HEINRICH (1821-1865), German explorer, was born at Hamburg on the
16th of February 1821, and educated at Berlin University, where he
graduated in 1844. He had already visited Italy and Sicily and had formed a
plan to journey through the Mediterranean countries. After studying Arabic
in London he set out on his travels in 1845. From Tangier he made his way
overland throughout the length of North Africa, visiting the sites of the
ancient cities of Barbary and Cyrenaica. He also travelled through Egypt,
ascending the Nile to Wadi Halfa and crossing the desert to Berenice. While
in Egypt he was attacked and wounded by robbers. Crossing the Sinai
peninsula he traversed Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Turkey and Greece,
everywhere examining the remains of antiquity; and returned to Berlin in
1847. For a time he was engaged there as _Privat-docent_, and in preparing
for publication the narrative of his _Wanderungen durch die Kuestenlaender
des Mittelmeeres_, which appeared in 1849.
At the instance of Bunsen and other scientists, Barth and Adolf Overweg, a
Prussian astronomer, were appointed colleagues of James Richardson, an
explorer of the Sahara who had been selected by the British government to
open up commercial relations with the states of the central and western
Sudan. The party left Tripoli early in 1850, but the deaths of Richardson
(March 1851) and Overweg (September 1852) left Barth to early on the
mission alone. He returned to Europe in September 1855, after one of the
most fruitful expeditions ever undertaken in inner Africa. In addition to
journeys across the Sahara, Barth traversed the country from Lake Chad and
Bagirmi on the east to Timbuktu on the west and Cameroon on the south,
making prolonged sojourns in the ancient sultanates or emirates of Bornu,
Kano, Nupe, Sokoto and Gando and at Timbuktu. He studied minutely the
topography, history, civilizations and resources of the countries he
visited. The story of his travels was published simultaneously in English
and German, under the title _Travels and Discoveries in North and Central
Africa_ (1857-1858, 5 vols.). For accuracy, interest, variety and extent of
information Barth's _Travels_ have few rivals among works of the kind. It
is a book that will always rank as a standard authority on the regions in
question, of which a great part, under the name of Nigeria, has since come
under British rule. Except a C.B., Barth himself received no recognition of
his services from the British government. He returned to Germany, where he
prepared a collection of Central African vocabularies (Gotha, 1862-1866).
In 1858 he undertook another journey in Asia Minor, and in 1862 visited
Turkey in Europe. In the following year he was appointed professor of
geography at Berlin University and president of the Geographical Society.
He died at Berlin on the 25th of November 1865.
See Schubert's _Heinrich Barth, der Bahnbrecher der deutschen
Afrikaforschung_ (Berlin, 1897). An edition of the _Travels_ in two volumes
was published in London in 1890 (Minerva Library of Famous Books).
BARTH, KASPAR VON (1587-1658), German philologist, was born at Kuestrin in
the province of Brandenburg on the 21st of June 1587. He was an extremely
precocious child, and was looked upon as a marvel of learning. After
studying at Gotha, Eisenach, Wittenberg and Jena, he travelled extensively,
visiting most of the countries of Europe. Too independent to accept any
regular post, he lived alternately at Halle and on his property at
Sellerhausen near Leipzig. In 1636, his library and MSS. at Sellerhausen
having been destroyed by fire, he removed to the Paulinum at Leipzig, where
he died on the 17th of September 1658. Barth was a very voluminous writer;
his works, which were the fruits of extensive reading and a retentive
memory, are unmethodical and uncritical and marred by want of taste and of
clearness. He appears to have been excessively vain and of an unamiable
disposition. Of his writings the most important are; _Adversaria_ (1624), a
storehouse of miscellaneous learning, dealing not only with classical but
also with medieval and modern writers; and commentaries on Claudian (1612,
1650) and Statius (1664).
BARTH, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the Barther Bodden,
a lake connecting with the Baltic, 15 m. N.W. from Stralsund by rail. Pop.
(1900) 7070. It contains a fine Gothic Protestant church (St Mary's) dating
from the 13th century and has several educational establishments, notably a
[v.03 p.0448] school of seamanship. Its industries comprise iron-founding,
ship-building, brewing, and the manufacture of cigars, leather and tinned
fish. There is an active export trade in grain.
BARTHELEMY, ANATOLE JEAN-BAPTISTE ANTOINE DE (1821-1904), French
archaeologist and numismatist, was born at Reims on the 1st of July 1821,
and died at Ville d'Avray on the 27th of June 1904. In collaboration with
J. Geslin de Bourgogne he published _Etudes sur la revolution en Bretagne_
in 1858, and between 1855 and 1879 an exhaustive work in six volumes on the
_Anciens eveches de Bretagne; histoire et monuments_. In 1880 appeared the
_Choix de documents inedits sur l'histoire de la ligue en Bretagne_, by
himself alone. But it was, above all, his numismatical work which
established his reputation. This included several popular publications,
such as the _Nouveau manuel complet de numismatique ancienne_ (1851; second
edition, revised, 1890), and the _Nouveau manuel complet de numismatique du
moyen age et moderne_ (1853; new edition revised by Adrien Planchet), and a
large number of monographs and articles in the technical reviews. The
following may be specially mentioned: _Numismatique merovingienne_ (1865);
_Essai sur la monnaie parisis_ (1874); _Note sur l'origine de la monnaie
tournoise_ (1896); and in the series of instructions issued by the _Comite
des travaux historiques et scientifiques_ he edited the number on _La
Numismatique de la France_ (1891). In 1897 he was elected a member of the
Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres.
His younger brother, EDOUARD MARIE, comte de Barthelemy, who was born in
Angers in 1830, has published a number of documents upon the ancient French
nobility and upon the history of Champagne.
BARTHELEMY, AUGUSTE MARSEILLE (1796-1867), French satirical poet, was born
at Marseilles in 1796. His name can hardly be separated from that of his
friend and compatriot, J. P. A. Mery (1798-1866), with whom he carried on
so intimate a collaboration that it is not possible to distinguish their
personalities in their joint works. After having established some local
reputation as a poet, Barthelemy went to Paris, where by one of his first
efforts, _Le Sacre de Charles X_ (1825) he gained the favour of the court.
His energies, however, were soon enlisted in the service of the opposition
party. In 1825 appeared a clever political satire, _Les Sidiennes_,
followed by _La Villeliade ou la prise du chateau de Rivoli_ (1827), _La
Corbiereide_ (1827), _La Peyronneide_ (1827), the joint productions of
Barthelemy and Mery. The success was immediate and pronounced; fifteen
editions of the _Villeliade_ were called for during the year. A rapid
succession of political squibs and satires was now poured forth by the
authors, among the most remarkable being _Biographie des quarante de
l'academie francaise_ (1826) and _Napoleon en Egypte_ (1828), which passed
through nearly a dozen editions in a year. In 1829 Barthelemy was
imprisoned and fined 1000 francs for the publication of their _Fils de
l'homme_, a poem on the duke of Reichstadt, Napoleon's son. The Revolution
of 1830 liberated him; and in company with Mery, he celebrated the triumph
of the people in one of their most brilliant efforts, _L'Insurrection_.
From March 1831 to April 1832 they produced a series of verse satires
issued weekly, the _Nemesis_, attacking the government and ministers of
Louis Philippe. The small pension of which Barthelemy was the recipient was
stopped. When the publication ceased there was a strong suspicion that
Barthelemy had been paid for his silence. In 1832 he published an anonymous
poem, supporting some acts of the government which were peculiarly
obnoxious to the Liberal party. This change of front destroyed his
influence and his later writings passed unnoticed. For the next few years
he enjoyed a handsome pension from the government and refrained from all
satirical writing. He again resumed his old style in 1844 but without the
former success. From that date he contented himself with merely occasional
poems. Barthelemy died on the 23rd of August 1867 at Marseilles. Joseph
Mery was an ardent romanticist and wrote a great number of stories now
forgotten. He produced several pieces at the Paris theatres, and also
collaborated with Gerard de Nerval in adaptations from Shakespeare and in
other plays. He received a pension from Napoleon III. and died in Paris on
the 16th of June 1866.
The _Oeuvres_ of Barthelemy and Mery were collected, with a notice by L.
Reybaud, in 1831 (4 vols.). See also _Barthelemy et Mery etudies
specialement dans leurs rapports avec la legende napoleonienne_, by Jules
Garsou in vol. lviii. of the Memoires of the Academie Royale ... de
Belgique, which contains full information on both authors.
BARTHELEMY, FRANCOIS, MARQUIS DE (1747 or 1750-1830), French politician,
was educated by his uncle the abbe Jean Jacques Barthelemy for a diplomatic
career, and after serving as secretary of legation in Sweden, in
Switzerland and in England, was appointed minister plenipotentiary in
Switzerland, in which capacity he negotiated the treaties of Basel with
Prussia and Spain (1795). Elected a member of the Directory in May 1797,
through royalist influence, he was arrested at the _coup d'etat_ of the 18
Fructidor (17th of September 1797) and deported to French Guiana, but
escaped and made his way to the United States and then to England. He
returned to France after the 18 Brumaire, entered the senate in February
1800 and contributed to the establishment of the consulship for life and
the empire. In 1814 he abandoned Napoleon, took part in the drawing up of
the constitutional charter and was named peer of France. During the Hundred
Days he lived in concealment, and after the second Restoration obtained the
title marquis, and in 1819 introduced a motion in the chamber of peers
tending to render the electoral law more aristocratic.
His _Papiers_ have been published by J. Kaulek, 4 vols. (Paris, 1886-1888).
See A. Sorel, _L'Europe et la Revolution francaise_, iv. (Paris, 1892); L.
Sciout, _Le Directoire_ (Paris, 1895).
BARTHELEMY, JEAN JACQUES (1716-1795) French writer and numismatist, was
born on the 20th of January 1716 at Cassis, in Provence. He was educated
first at the college of the Oratory in Marseilles, and afterwards at that
of the Jesuits in the same city. While studying for the priesthood, which
he intended to join, he devoted much attention to oriental languages, and
was introduced by his friend M. Gary of Marseilles to the study of
classical antiquities, particularly in the department of numismatics. In
1744 he went to Paris with a letter of introduction to M. Gros de Boze,
perpetual secretary of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-lettres and
keeper of the royal collection of medals. He became assistant to de Boze,
on whose death (1753) he became keeper of the medals. In 1755 he
accompanied the French ambassador, M. de Stainville, afterwards duc de
Choiseul, to Italy, where he spent three years in archaeological research.
Choiseul had a great regard for Barthelemy, and on his return to France,
Barthelemy became an inmate of his house, and received valuable preferments
from his patron. In 1789, after the publication of his _Voyage du jeune
Anacharsis_, he was elected a member of the French Academy. During the
Revolution Barthelemy was arrested as an aristocrat. The Committee of
Public Safety, however, were no sooner informed by the duchess of Choiseul
of the arrest, than they gave orders for his immediate release, and in 1793
he was nominated librarian of the Bibliotheque Nationale. He refused this
post but resumed his old functions as keeper of medals, and enriched the
national collection by many valuable accessions. Barthelemy died on the
30th of April 1795.
Barthelemy was the author of a number of learned works on antiquarian
subjects, but the great work on which his fame rests is _Voyage du jeune
Anacharsis en Grece, vers le milieu du quatrieme siecle avant l'ere
chretienne_ (4 vols., 1787). He had begun it in 1757 and had been working
on it for thirty years. The hero, a young Scythian descended from the
famous philosopher Anacharsis, is supposed to repair to Greece for
instruction in his early youth, and after making the tour of her republics,
colonies and islands, to return to his native country and write this book
in his old age, after the Macedonian hero had overturned the Persian
empire. In the manner of modern travellers, he gives an account of the
customs, government and antiquities of the country he is supposed to have
visited; a copious introduction supplies whatever may be wanting in respect
to historical details; whilst various dissertations on the music of the
Greeks, on the literature of the Athenians, and on the economy, pursuits,
ruling passions, manners and customs of the surrounding states supply ample
[v.03 p.0449] information on the subjects of which they treat. Modern
scholarship has superseded most of the details in the _Voyage_, but the
author himself did not imagine his book to be a register of accurately
ascertained facts; he rather intended to afford to his countrymen, in an
interesting form, some knowledge of Greek civilization. The _Charicles_ of
W. A. Becker is an attempt in a similar direction, but, though superior in
scholarship, it wants the charm of style of the _Anacharsis_.
Barthelemy's correspondence with Paolo Paciaudi, chiefly on antiquarian
subjects, was edited with the _Correspondance inedite du comte de Caylus_
in 1877 by Ch. Nisard; his letters to the comte de Caylus were published by
Antoine Serieys as _Voyage en Italie_ (1801); and his letters to Mme du
Deffand, with whom he was on intimate terms, in the _Correspondance
complete de Mme du Deffand avec la duchesse de Choiseul, l'abbe Barthelemy
et M. Craufurt_ (3 vols., 1866), edited by the marquis de Sainte-Aulaire.
See also _Memoires sur la vie de l'abbe Barthelemy, ecrits par lui-meme_
(1824), with a notice by Lalande. His _Oeuvres completes_ (4 vols. 1821),
contain a notice by Villenave.
BARTHELEMY SAINT-HILAIRE, JULES (1805-1895), French philosopher and
statesman, was born at Paris on the 19th of August 1805. In his early years
he was an active political journalist, and from 1826 to 1830 opposed the
reactionary policy of the king in _Le Globe_. At the revolution of 1830 he
signed the protestation of the journalists on the 28th of July 1830. After
1830 he contributed to different newspapers--_Le Constitutionnel_, _Le
National_ and the _Courrier francais_--until 1833, when he gave up politics
in order to devote himself to the history of ancient philosophy,
undertaking a translation of Aristotle, which occupied him the greater part
of his life (1837-1892). The reputation which he gained from this work won
for him the chair of ancient philosophy at the College de France (1838) and
a seat at the Academy of Moral and Political Science (1839). After the
revolution of 1848 he was elected as a republican deputy; but was obliged
to withdraw after the _coup d'etat_ of Louis Napoleon. In 1855 he went as
member of the international commission to Egypt to report on the
possibility of the proposed Suez canal, and by the articles which he wrote
he contributed largely to making the project popular in France. Elected
deputy again in 1869, he joined the opposition to the Empire, and in 1871
bent all his efforts to the election of Thiers as president of the
republic, acting afterwards as his secretary. Appointed senator for life in
1875, he took his place among the moderate republicans, and from September
1880 to November 1881 was minister of foreign affairs in the cabinet of
Jules Ferry. The most important event of his administration was the
annexation of Tunis under the form of a French protectorate, which he
actively promoted. He died on the 24th of November 1895. His principal
works, besides the translation of Aristotle and a number of studies
connected with the same subject, are _Des Vedas_ (1854), _Du Bouddhisme_
(1856) and _Mahomet et le Coran_ (1865).
BARTHEZ, or BARTHES, PAUL JOSEPH (1734-1806), French physician, was born on
the 11th of December 1734 at Montpellier. He was educated at Narbonne and
Toulouse, and began the study of medicine at Montpellier in 1750, taking
his doctor's degree in 1753. In 1756 he obtained the appointment of
physician to the military hospital in Normandy attached to the army of
observation commanded by Marshal d'Estrees, but a severe attack of hospital
fever compelled him to leave this post. In 1757 his services were required
in the medical staff of the army of Westphalia, where he had the rank of
consulting physician, and on his return to Paris he acted as joint editor
of the _Journal des savants_ and the _Encyclopedie methodique_. In 1759 he
obtained a medical professorship at Montpellier, and in 1774 he was created
joint chancellor of the university. In 1778 he published his most famous
work, _Nouveaux elemens de la science de l'homme_, in which he employs the
expression "vital principle" as a convenient term for the cause of the
phenomena of life, without committing himself to either a spiritualistic or
a materialistic view of its nature. Taking the degree of doctor of civil
law in 1780, he secured the appointment of counsellor to the Supreme Court
of Aids at Montpellier, but he soon took up his residence in Paris, having
been nominated consulting physician to the king.
On the outbreak of the French Revolution he lost much of his fortune and
retired to Carcassonne, where he devoted himself to the study of
theoretical medicine. It was from this retreat that he gave to the world
his _Nouvelle mecanique des mouvemens de l'homme et des animaux_, which
appeared in 1798. In 1802 he published his _Traitement des maladies
goutteuses_, and he afterwards occupied himself in preparing for the press
a new edition of his _Elemens de la science de l'homme_, of which he just
lived to see the publication. His health had been declining for some years
before his death, which took place soon after his removal to Paris, on the
15th of October 1806. He bequeathed his books and manuscripts to J. Lordat,
who published two volumes of his _Consultations de medecine_ in 1810. His
_Traite du beau_ was also published posthumously in 1807.
BARTHOLINUS, GASPARD [CASPAR BERTHELSEN], (1585-1629), physician, was born
in 1585 at Malmo, in Sweden. His precocity was extraordinary; at three
years of age he was able to read, and in his thirteenth year he composed
Greek and Latin orations and delivered them in public. When he was about
eighteen he went to the university of Copenhagen and afterwards studied at
Rostock and Wittenberg. He then travelled through Germany, the Netherlands,
England, France and Italy, and was received with marked respect at the
different universities he visited. In 1613 he was chosen professor of
medicine in the university of Copenhagen, and filled that office for eleven
years, when, falling into a dangerous illness, he made a vow that if he
should recover he would apply himself solely to the study of divinity. He
fulfilled his vow by becoming professor of divinity at Copenhagen and canon
of Roskilde. He died on the 13th of July 1629 at Soro in Zeeland.
Of his sons, Thomas (1616-1680) was born at Copenhagen, where, after a long
course of study in various universities of Europe, he was appointed
successively professor of mathematics (1647) and anatomy (1648). During his
tenure of the latter chair he distinguished himself by observations on the
lymphatics. In 1661 he retired to Hagestaed. In 1670 his house and library
were burnt, and in consideration of his loss he was appointed physician to
the king, with a handsome salary, and librarian to the university of
Copenhagen. He died at Hagestaed in 1680. Another son, Erasmus (1625-1698),
born at Roskilde, spent ten years in visiting England, Holland, Germany and
Italy, and filled the chairs of mathematics and medicine at Copenhagen. He
discovered double refraction in Iceland spar (_Experimenta crystalli
islandici disdiaclastici_, Copenhagen, 1669). He died at Copenhagen in
1698. In the third generation Caspar Thomeson (1655-1738), son of Thomas,
also taught anatomy at Copenhagen, his name being associated with the
description of one of the ducts of the sublingual gland and of the
_glandulae Bartholini_, while his younger brother, Thomas (1659-1690), was
a student of northern antiquities who published _Antiquitatum Danicarum
libri tres_ in 1689.
BARTHOLOMEW, SAINT, one of the twelve apostles, regarding whose early life
we know nothing, unless in accordance with a widely-spread belief he is to
be identified with Nathanael (_q.v._). If so, Bartholomew is probably a
patronymic, the apostle's full name being Nathanael Bartolmai, _i.e._ the
son of Tolmai. On the other hand, according to a Syrian tradition,
Bartholomew's original name was Jesus, which he dropped owing to its being
the name of the Master Himself. In the synoptic gospels Bartholomew is
never mentioned except in the lists of the apostles, where his name always
appears after Philip's. He is said to have gone, after the ascension of the
Lord, on a missionary tour to India (then a very wide geographical
designation) where, according to a story in Eusebius (_H.E._ v. 10), he
left behind him a copy of St Matthew's gospel. According to the traditional
account he was flayed alive and then crucified with his head downwards, at
Albanopolis in Armenia, or, according to Nicephorus, at Urbanopolis in
Cilicia. In works of art he is generally represented with a large knife,
the instrument of his martyrdom, or, as in Michelangelo's "Last Judgment,"
with his own skin hanging over his arm. The festival of St Bartholomew is
celebrated on the 24th of August.
[v.03 p.0450] Dr. Nestle has drawn attention to the fact that in the Syriac
translation of Eusebius' history the name Tolmai, _i.e._ Bartholomew, takes
the place of Matthias, the apostle who was appointed in place of Judas (i.
12, cf. ii. 1, iii. 25 and 29). If this identification can be made out
there would, in the list of apostles as finally constituted, be two men who
bore the patronymic Bartholomew. See further _Expository Times_, ix. pp.
566 ff. (1898).
BARTHOLOMEW, JOHN (1831-1893), Scottish cartographer, was born at Edinburgh
on the 25th of December 1831. His father had a cartographical establishment
there and he was educated in the work. He was subsequently assistant to the
German geographer August Petermann, until in 1856 he took up the management
of his father's firm. For this establishment, now known as the Edinburgh
Geographical Institute, Bartholomew built up a reputation unsurpassed in
Great Britain for the production of the finest cartographical work. Among
his numerous publications mention may be specially made of the series of
maps of Great Britain reduced from the Ordnance Survey to scales of 1/2 in.
and 1/4 in. to 1 m., with relief shown by contours and a systematic scale
of colours. The 1/2 in. series, which was extended (and its principles
applied to many other works) by Mr. J. G. Bartholomew, who succeeded his
father in the business, is the finest of its kind ever produced. John
Bartholomew died in London on the 29th of March 1893.
BARTHOLOMEW FAIR, a fair held in West Smithfield, London, on St
Bartholomew's Day (24th of August, O.S.) from 1133 to 1855. The charter
authorizing its holding was granted by Henry I. to his former minstrel,
Rahere, who had taken orders and had founded the priory of St Bartholomew
close by. For many centuries the fair lasted a fortnight, but in 1691 it
was shortened to four days only. In 1641 it had become so large that it
involved no less than four parishes: Christ Church, Great and Little St
Bartholomew's and St Sepulchre's. It was customary for the lord mayor of
London to open the fair formally on St Bartholomew's Eve, and on his way to
stop at Newgate where he received from the governor a cup of sack. In 1753,
owing to the change in the calendar, the fair was proclaimed on the 3rd of
September. During its earlier history the fair grew to be a vast national
market and the chief cloth sale in the kingdom. Down to 1854 it was usual
for the representative of the Merchant Taylors' Gild to proceed to the
cloth fair which formed part of Bartholomew fair, and test the measures
used for selling cloth there by the company's silver yard. The fair was
finally closed in 1855.
For a full account see Prof. H. Morley, _Memoirs of Bartholomew Fair_
(1859).
BARTIZAN (according to the _New English Dictionary_, from _bertizene_, a
Scottish corruption of "bratticing" or "brattishing," from O. Fr.
_bretesche_, and meaning a battlemented parapet; apparently first used by
Sir Walter Scott), a small battlemented turret, corbelled out at the angle
of a wall or tower to protect a warder and enable him to see around him.
Bartizans generally are furnished with oylets or arrow-slits.
BARTLETT, JOHN (1820-1905), American publisher and compiler, was born in
Plymouth, Massachusetts, on the 14th of June 1820. He became a bookseller
and publisher in Cambridge, Mass., and from 1865 to 1889, when he retired,
was a member of the bookselling and publishing firm of Little, Brown & Co.,
in Boston. In 1855 he published the first edition of his _Familiar
Quotations_, subsequently greatly expanded and long the best-known
collection of the sort, and in 1894 (although it had been copyrighted five
years before), after many years' labour, he published his _New and Complete
Concordance or Verbal Index to Words, Phrases and Passages in the Dramatic
Works of Shakespeare; with a Supplementary Concordance to the
Poems_--surpassing any of its predecessors in the number and fulness of its
citations from the poet's writings.. In all of his work he was greatly
assisted by his wife, a daughter of Sidney Willard (1780-1856), professor
of Hebrew at Harvard from 1807 to 1831. Bartlett died at Cambridge, Mass.,
on the 3rd of December 1905.
BARTLETT, JOHN RUSSELL (1805-1886), American historical and linguistic
student, was born in Providence, Rhode Island, on the 23rd of October 1805.
From his first to his eighteenth year he lived in Kingston, Canada; he was
then in turn, from 1824 to 1836, a clerk in a dry goods store, a
book-keeper and a bank cashier at Providence, and for more than ten years
after 1836 he was a bookseller in New York City, returning to Providence in
1850. In 1850-1853 he was the commissioner on the part of the United States
for the survey of the boundary between the United States and Mexico, but
owing to the lack of funds did not finish the work. After being superseded
by another commissioner upon the accession of President Franklin Pierce, he
published _A Personal Narrative of Explorations and Incidents in Texas, New
Mexico, California, Sonora and Chihuahua_ (2 vols., 1854), which contains
much valuable scientific and historical material concerning the south-west.
From 1855 to 1872 he was secretary of state of Rhode Island, and while
serving in this capacity thoroughly re-arranged and classified the state
records, and prepared various bibliographies and compilations, relating
chiefly to the history of the state. He is chiefly remembered however, for
his _Dictionary of Americanisms_ (1848), a pioneer work, which, although
later dialect changes have, of course, deprived it of completeness or final
authoritativeness, is still of value to students of language and remains
the chief contribution to the subject. He died in Providence on the 28th of
May 1886.
BARTLETT, PAUL WAYLAND (1865- ), American sculptor, was born in New Haven,
Connecticut, the son of Truman H. Bartlett, an art critic and sculptor.
When fifteen he began to study at Paris under Fremiet, modelling from
animals in the Jardin des Plantes. He won a medal at the Paris Salon of
1887. Among his principal works are: "The Bear Tamer," in the Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York; the equestrian statue of Lafayette, in the Place
du Carrousel, Paris, presented to the French Republic by the school
children of America; the powerful and virile Columbus and Michelangelo, in
the Congressional Library, Washington, D.C.; the "Ghost Dancer," in the
Pennsylvania Academy, Philadelphia; the "Dying Lion"; the equestrian statue
of McClellan in Philadelphia; and a statue of Joseph Warren in Boston,
Massachusetts. His bronze patinas of reptiles, insects and fish are also
remarkable.
BARTOLI, DANIELLO (1608-1685), Italian Jesuit priest, was born at Ferrara
and entered the Society of Jesus in 1623. Debarred from the foreign mission
field, he attained high distinction as a preacher and as a teacher of
rhetoric in Genoa, Florence and Rome. He wrote (in Italian) a book called
_The Learned Man_ as a counterblast to the widespread reading of romances,
and also a history of his order in 6 vols. (Rome, 1650-1673), which is
particularly informing with regard to the early work of the society in
Asia. He died at Rome.
A collected edition of his works, in 12 vols., was published by Marietti at
Turin, 1825-1856; another in 50 vols. at Florence in 1826.
BARTOLINI, LORENZO (1777-1850), Italian sculptor, was born in Vernio in
Tuscany. After acquiring great skill and reputation as a modeller in
alabaster, he went in 1797 to Paris, where he studied painting under
Desmarets, and afterwards sculpture under F. F. Lemot. The bas-relief
"Cleobis and Biton," with which he gained the second prize of the Academy
in 1803, at once established his fame as a sculptor and gained for him a
number of influential patrons. He executed many minor pieces for Denon,
besides busts of Mehul and Cherubini. His great patron, however, was
Napoleon, for whom he executed a colossal bust, and who sent him to Carrara
to found a school of sculpture. Here he remained till after the fall of
Napoleon, and then took up his residence in Florence, where he resided till
his death. His works are varied and include an immense number of busts. The
best are, perhaps, the group of Charity, the "Hercules and Lichas" and the
"Faith in God," which exemplify the highest types of Bartolini's style.
Popular opinion in Italy associates his qualities as a sculptor with those
of Thorwaldsen and Canova.
BARTOLOMMEI, MARQUIS FERDINANDO (1821-1869), Italian revolutionist and
statesman, who played an important part in the political events of Tuscany
from 1848 to 1860. From the beginning of the revolutionary movement
Bartolommei was always an ardent Liberal, and although belonging to an old
and [v.03 p.0451] noble Florentine family his sympathies were with the
democratic party rather than with the moderately liberal aristocracy. In
1847-1848 his house was a centre of revolutionary committees, and during
the brief constitutional _regime_ he was much to the fore. After the return
of the grand duke Leopold II. in 1849 under Austrian protection,
Bartolommei was present at a requiem service in the church of Santa Croce
for those who fell in the late campaign against Austria; on that occasion
disorders occurred and he was relegated to his country estate in
consequence (1851). Shortly afterwards he was implicated in the
distribution of seditious literature and exiled from Tuscany for a year. He
settled at Turin for a time and established relations with Cavour and the
Piedmontese liberals. He subsequently visited France and England, and like
many Italian patriots became enamoured of British institutions. He returned
to Florence in 1853; from that time onward he devoted himself to the task
of promoting the ideas of Italian independence and unity among the people,
and although carefully watched by the police, he kept a secret
printing-press in his palace in Florence. Finding that the nobility still
hesitated at the idea of uncompromising hostility to the house of Lorraine,
he allied himself more firmly with the popular party, and found an able
lieutenant in the baker Giuseppe Dolfi (1818-1869), an honest and
whole-hearted enthusiast who had great influence with the common people. As
soon as war between Piedmont and Austria appeared imminent, Bartolommei
organized the expedition of Tuscan volunteers to join the Piedmontese army,
spending large sums out of his own pocket for the purpose, and was also
president of the Tuscan branch of the Societa Nazionale (see under LA
FARINA and CAVOUR). He worked desperately hard conspiring for the overthrow
of the grand duke, assisted by all the liberal elements, and on the 27th of
April 1859, Florence rose as one man, the troops refused to fire on the
people, and the grand duke departed, never to return. _Sapristi! pas un
carreau casse!_ was the comment of the French minister to Tuscany on this
bloodless revolution. A provisional government was formed and Bartolommei
elected gonfaloniere. He had much opposition to encounter from those who
still believed that the retention of the grand duke as a constitutional
sovereign and member of an Italian confederation was possible. In the
summer elections were held, and on the meeting of parliament Bartolommei's
Unitarian views prevailed, the assembly voting the resolution that the
house of Lorraine had forfeited its rights and that Tuscany must be united
to Italy under King Victor Emmanuel. Bartolommei was made senator of the
Italian kingdom and received various other honours. His last years were
spent in educational and philanthropic work. He died on the 15th of June
1869, leaving a widow and two daughters.
The best biography of Bartolommei is contained in _Il Rivolgimento Toscano
e l'azione popolare_, by his daughter Matilde Gioli (Florence, 1905), but
the author attributes perhaps an undue preponderance to her father in the
Tuscan revolution, and is not quite fair towards Bettino Ricasoli (_q.v._)
and other leaders of the aristocratic party. Cf. _Lettere e documenti di B.
Ricasoli_ (Florence, 1887-1896), and D. Zanichelli's _Lettere politiche di
B. Ricasoli, U. Peruzzi, N. Corsini, e C. Ridolfi_ (Bologna, 1898).
BARTOLOMMEO DI PAGHOLO, FRA (1475-1517), the Italian historical and
portrait painter,--known also as BACCIO (short for Bartolommeo) BELLA PORTA
(because he lived near the Porta Romana) was born at Soffignano, near
Florence, in 1475, and died at Florence in 1517. He received the first
elements of his artistic education from Cosimo Roselli; and after leaving
him, devoted himself to the study of the great works of Leonardo da Vinci.
Of his early productions, which are distinguished for their grace and
beauty, the most important is the fresco of the Last Judgment, in which he
was assisted by his friend Mariotto Albertinelli. While he was engaged upon
some pieces for the convent of the Dominican friars, he made the
acquaintance of Savonarola, who quickly acquired great influence over him,
and Bartolommeo was so affected by his cruel death, that he soon after
entered the convent, and for some years gave up his art. He had not long
resumed it, in obedience to his superior, when Raphael came to Florence and
formed a close friendship with him. Bartolommeo learned from the younger
artist the rules of perspective, in which he was so skilled, while Raphael
owes to the _frate_ the improvement in his colouring and handling of
drapery, which was noticeable in the works he produced after their meeting.
Some years afterwards he visited Rome, and was struck with admiration and a
feeling of his own inferiority when he contemplated the masterpieces of
Michelangelo and Raphael. With the latter, however, he remained on the most
friendly terms, and when he departed from Rome, left in his hands two
unfinished pictures which Raphael completed. Fra Bartolommeo's figures had
generally been small and draped. These qualities were alleged against him
as defects, and to prove that his style was not the result of want of
power, he painted the magnificent figure of St Mark (his masterpiece, at
Florence), and the undraped figure of St Sebastian. The latter was so well
designed, so naturally and beautifully coloured, and so strongly expressive
of suffering and agony, that it was found necessary to remove it from the
place where it had been exhibited in the chapel of a convent. The majority
of Bartolommeo's compositions are altar-pieces. They are remarkable for
skill in the massing of light and shade, richness and delicacy of
colouring, and for the admirable style in which the drapery of the figures
is handled, Bartolommeo having been the first to introduce and use the
lay-figure with joints.
BARTOLOZZI, FRANCESCO (1725-1815), Italian engraver, was born at Florence.
He was originally destined to follow the profession of his father, who was
a gold- and silver-smith; but he manifested so much skill and taste in
designing that he was placed under the superintendence of two Florentine
artists, who instructed him in painting. After devoting three years to that
art, he went to Venice and studied engraving. He made very rapid progress,
and executed some works of considerable importance at Venice.. He then
removed for a short time to Rome, where he completed a set of engravings
representing events from the life of St Nilus, and, after returning to
Venice, set out for London in 1764. For nearly forty years he resided in
London, and produced an enormous number of engravings, the best being those
of Clytie, after Annibale Caracci, and of the Virgin and Child, after Carlo
Dolce. A great proportion of them are from the works of Cipriani and
Angelica Kauffmann. Bartolozzi also contributed a number of plates to
Boydell's _Shakespeare Gallery_. In 1802 he was invited to Lisbon as
director of the National Academy. He remained in Portugal till his death.
His son Gaetano Stephano (1757-1821), also an engraver, was the father of
Madame Vestris.
BARTOLUS (1314-1357), Italian jurist, professor of the civil law at the
university of Perugia, and the most famous master of the dialectical school
of jurists, was born in 1314, at Sassoferrato, in the duchy of Urbino, and
hence is generally styled Bartolus de Saxoferrato. His father was
Franciscus Severi, and his mother was of the family of the Alfani. He
studied the civil law first of all under Cinus at Perugia, and afterwards
under Oldradus and Jacobus de Belvisio at Bologna, where he was promoted to
the degree of doctor of civil law in 1334. His great reputation dates from
his appointment to a chair of civil law in the university of Perugia, 1343,
where he lectured for many years, raising the character of the law school
of Perugia to a level with that of Bologna. He died in 1357 at Perugia,
where a magnificent monument recorded the interment of his remains in the
church of San Francisco, by the simple inscription of "Ossa Bartoli."
Bartolus left behind him a great reputation, and many writers have sought
to explain the fact by attributing to him the introduction of the
dialectical method of teaching law; but this method had been employed by
Odofredus, a pupil of Accursius, in the previous century, and the
successors of Odofredus had abused it to an extent which has rendered their
writings in many instances unprofitable to read, the subject matter being
overlaid with dialectical forms. It was the merit of Bartolus, on the other
hand, that he employed the dialectical method with advantage as a teacher,
and discountenanced the abuse of it; but his great reputation was more
probably owing to the circumstance that he revived the exegetical system of
teaching law (which had been [v.03 p.0452] neglected since the ascendancy
of Accursius) in a spirit which gave it new life, whilst he imparted to his
teaching a practical interest, from the judicial experience which he had
acquired while acting as assessor to the courts at Todi and at Pisa before
he undertook the duties of a professorial chair. His treatises _On
Procedure_ and _On Evidence_ are amongst his most valuable works, whilst
his _Commentary on the Code of Justinian_ has been in some countries
regarded as of equal authority with the code itself.
BARTON, BENJAMIN SMITH (1766-1815), American naturalist, was born at
Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1766, studied for two years at Edinburgh, and
afterwards graduated at Goettingen. He settled at Philadelphia, and soon
obtained a considerable practice. In 1789 he was appointed professor of
botany and natural history in the College of Philadelphia, now the
University of Pennsylvania; he was made professor of _materia medica_ in
1795, and on the death of Dr Benjamin Rush in 1813 he obtained the chair of
practical medicine. In 1802 he was chosen president of the American
Philosophical Society, of which he was a strong supporter. Barton was the
author of various works on natural history, botany and _materia medica_,
his _Elements of Botany_ (1803) being the best known. He died at
Philadelphia on the 19th of December 1815.
BARTON, BERNARD (1784-1849), English poet, was born at Carlisle on the 31st
of January 1784. His parents were Quakers, and he was commonly known as the
Quaker poet. After some experience of business, he became, in 1809, clerk
to Messrs Alexander's bank at Woodbridge, Suffolk, and retained this post
till his death. His first volume of verse--_Metrical Effusions_--was
published in 1812. It brought him into correspondence with Southey, and
shortly afterwards, through the medium of a set of complimentary verses, he
made the acquaintance of Hogg. From this time onwards to 1828 Barton
published various volumes of verse. After 1828 his work appeared but rarely
in print, but his _Household Verses_ published in 1845 secured him, on the
recommendation of Sir Robert Peel, a Civil List pension of L100 a year,
L1200 having already been raised for him by some members of the Society of
Friends. Barton is chiefly remembered for his friendship with Charles Lamb,
which arose, curiously enough, out of a remonstrance addressed by him to
the author of _Essays of Elia_ on the freedom with which the Quakers had
been handled in that volume. When Barton contemplated resigning his bank
clerkship and supporting himself entirely by literature, Lamb strongly
dissuaded him. "Keep to your bank," he wrote, "and the bank will keep you."
Barton died at Woodbridge on 19th February 1849. His daughter Lucy married
Edward FitzGerald.
See _Poems and Letters of Bernard Barton, selected by Lucy Barton, with a
biographical notice by Edward FitzGerald_ (1849).
BARTON, CLARA (1821- ), American philanthropist, was born in Oxford,
Massachusetts, in 1821. She was educated at the Clinton Liberal Institute
(then in Clinton, New York). Ill-health compelled her to give up the
profession of teaching, which she had taken up when she was only sixteen
years old, and from 1854 to 1857 she was a clerk in the Patent Office at
Washington. During the Civil War she distributed large quantities of
supplies for the relief of wounded soldiers; and at its close she organized
at Washington a bureau of records to aid in the search of missing men for
whom inquiries were made. In connexion with this work, which was continued
for about four years, she identified and marked the graves of more than
twelve thousand soldiers in the National Cemetery at Andersonville,
Georgia. In 1869 she went for her health to Switzerland. Upon her arrival
at Geneva she was visited by members of the International Committee of the
Red Cross, who sought her co-operation in the work of their society. The
United States had declined to become a party to the treaty of Geneva on the
basis of which the Red Cross Society was founded, but upon the outbreak of
the Franco-Prussian War Miss Barton went with members of this society to
the seat of hostilities and assisted them in organizing their military
hospitals. In 1871 she superintended the distribution of relief to the poor
in Strassburg, and in 1872 performed a like service in Paris. For her
services she was decorated with the Iron Cross by the German emperor. In
1873 she returned to the United States, where she at once began her efforts
to effect the organization of the United States branch of the Red Cross and
to bring her country into the treaty of Geneva, which efforts were
successful in 1881-1882. She was the first president of the American Red
Cross, holding the position until 1904: and represented the United States
at the International conference held at Geneva, 1884; Karlsruhe, 1887;
Rome, 1892; Vienna, 1897; and St Petersburg, 1903. She was the author of
the American amendment to the constitution of the Red Cross which provides
that the society shall distribute relief not only in war but in times of
such other calamities as famines, floods, earthquakes, cyclones, and
pestilence, and in accordance with this amended constitution, she conducted
the society's relief for sufferers from the yellow fever in Florida (1887),
the flood at Johnstown, Pennsylvania (1889), the famine in Russia (1891),
the hurricane along the coast of South Carolina (1893), the massacre in
Armenia (1896), the Spanish-American War in Cuba (1898), the hurricane at
Galveston, Texas (1900), and several other calamities. Upon her retirement
from the Red Cross she incorporated and became president of "The National
First Aid of America" for "first aid to the injured." She wrote _An
Official History of the Red Cross_ (1882), _The Red Cross in Peace and War_
(1898), _A Story of the Red Cross_ (1904), and _Story of my Childhood_
(1907).
BARTON, ELIZABETH (_c._ 1506-1534), "the maid of Kent," was, according to
her own statement, born in 1506 at Aldington, Kent. She appears to have
been a neurotic girl, subject to epilepsy, and an illness in her nineteenth
year resulted in hysteria and religious mania. She was at the time a
servant in the house of Thomas Cobb, steward of an estate near Aldington
owned by William Warham, archbishop of Canterbury. During her convalescence
she passed into trances lasting for days at a time, and in this state her
ravings were of such "marvellous holiness in rebuke of sin and vice" that
the country folk believed her to be inspired. Cobb reported the matter to
Richard Masters, the parish priest, who in turn acquainted Archbishop
Warham. The girl having recovered, and finding herself the object of local
admiration, was cunning enough, as she confessed at her trial, to feign
trances, during which she continued her prophecies. Her fame steadily
growing, the archbishop in 1526 instructed the prior of Christ Church,
Canterbury, to send two of his monks to hold an inquiry into the case. One
of these latter, Edward Bocking, obtained her admission as a nun to St
Sepulchre's convent, Canterbury. Under Bocking's instruction Barton's
prophecies became still more remarkable, and attracted many pilgrims, who
believed her to be, as she asserted, in direct communication with the
Virgin Mary. Her utterances were cunningly directed towards political
matters, and a profound and widespread sensation was caused by her
declaration that should Henry persist in his intention of divorcing
Catherine he "should no longer be king of this realm ... and should die a
villain's death." Even such men as Fisher, bishop of Rochester, and Sir
Thomas More, corresponded with Barton. On his return from France in 1532
Henry passed through Canterbury and is said to have allowed the nun to
force herself into his presence, when she made an attempt to terrify him
into abandoning his marriage. After its solemnization in May 1533. her
utterances becoming still more treasonable, she was examined before Cranmer
(who had in March succeeded to the archbishopric on Warham's death) and
confessed. On the 25th of September Bocking and another monk, Hadley, were
arrested, and in November, Masters and others were implicated. The maid and
her fellow prisoners were examined before the Star Chamber, and were by its
order publicly exposed at St Paul's Cross, where they each read a
confession. In January 1534 by a bill of attainder the maid and her chief
accomplices were condemned to death, and were executed at Tyburn on the
20th of April. It has been held that her confession was extracted by force,
and therefore valueless, but the evidence of her imposture seems
conclusive.
See Froude, _History of England_; Burnet, _History of the Reformation_;
Lingard, _History of England_; F. A. Gasquet, _Henry VIII. [v.03 p.0453]
and the English Monasteries_ (ch. iii. 1899 ed.); T. E. Bridgett, _Life of
Blessed John Fisher_ (1888); vols. vi. and vii. of _Letters and Papers of
Henry VIII._; James Gairdner, _The English Church in the 16th Century_
(1899); Strype, _Memorials_, I. i. 271, and _Cranmer_; a detailed account
of the case is contained in the published Act of Attainder 25 Henry VIII.
c. 12.
BARTON BEDS, in geology, the name given to a series of softish grey and
brown clays, with layers of sand, of Upper Eocene age, which are found in
the Hampshire Tertiary basin, where they are particularly well exposed in
the cliffs of Barton, Hordwell, and in the Isle of Wight. Above the highly
fossiliferous Barton Clay there is a sandy series with few fossils; these
are the Headon Hill or Barton Sands. Either of these names is preferable to
the term "Upper Bagshot Beds," which has been applied to these sands. The
Barton Beds are absent from the London basin, and the Upper Bagshot Sands
of that area are probably at a lower horizon than the Barton Sands. The
term "Bartonien" was introduced by Mayer-Eymar in 1857 for the continental
equivalents of the series.
Hampshire basin and Paris Basin.
Isle of Wight.
Barton Sands 140-200 ft. } { Limestone of St. Ouen.
Barton Clay 162-255 ft. } Bartonien { Sands of Beauchamp
{ (_sables moyen_).
_Fusus longaevus_, _Volutilithes luctatrix_, _Ostrea gigantea_,
_Pectunculus (Glycimeris) deleta_ are characteristic fossils; fishes
(_Lamna_, _Arius_, &c.) and a crocodile (_Diplocynodon_) are also found in
the Barton Clay. The sands are very pure and are used in glass making.
See "Geology of the Isle of Wight," _Mem. Geol. Survey_ (2nd ed., 1889);
and "The Geology of the Country around Southampton," _Mem. Geol. Survey_
(1902).
(J. A. H.)
BARTON-UPON-HUMBER, a market town in the N. Lindsey or Brigg parliamentary
division of Lincolnshire, England, the terminus of a branch of the Great
Central railway, 44 m. N. by E. of Lincoln. Pop. of urban district (1901)
5671. It lies beneath low hills, on flat ground bordering the Humber, but
the centre of the town is a mile from the river. The church of St Peter has
a remarkable west tower of pre-Conquest workmanship, excepting the early
Norman top storey. Against the western face is a low building of the date
of the lower tower-storeys, measuring 15 ft. by 12, with rude,
deeply-splayed windows. The tower itself is arcaded in the two lower
storeys, having round arches in the lower and triangular in the upper, and
there is a round-headed S. doorway and a triangular-headed N. doorway. The
rest of the church is Decorated and Perpendicular. The church of St Mary is
fine Early English with Perpendicular clerestory. Industries include
brick-making, malting, and rope-making. Barton appears in Domesday, when
the ferry over the Humber existed. As a port, moreover, it subsequently
rose into some importance, for it was able to supply eight ships and men to
the expedition of Edward III. to Brittany.
BARUCH, the name (meaning "Blessed" in Hebrew) of a character in the Old
Testament (Jer. xxxvi., xxxvii., xliii.), associated with the prophet
Jeremiah, and described as his secretary and spokesman.
BOOK OF BARUCH. This deutero-canonical book of the Old Testament is placed
by the LXX. between _Jeremiah_ and _Lamentations_, and in the Vulgate after
_Lamentations_. It consists of several parts, which cohere so badly that we
are obliged to assume plurality of authorship.
_Contents_.--The book consists of the following parts:--
i. 1-14. The historical preface with a description of the origin and
purpose of the book.
i. 15-ii. 5. A confession of sin used by the Palestinian Remnant. This
confession was according to i. 14 sent from Babylon (i. 4, 7) to Jerusalem
to be read "on the day of the feast and on the days of the solemn
assembly." The confession is restricted to the use of the remnant at home
(see next paragraph). In this confession there is a national acknowledgment
of sin and a recognition of the Exile as a righteous judgment.
ii. 6-iii. 8. A confession of the captives in Babylon and a prayer for
restoration. This confession opens as the former (in i. 15) with the words
found also in Daniel ix. 7, "To the Lord our God belongeth righteousness,
&c." The confession is of the Exiles and not of the remnant in Palestine,
as Marshall has pointed out. Thus it is the Exiles clearly who are speaking
in ii. 13, "We are but a few left among the heathen where thou hast
scattered _us_"; ii. 14, "Give us favour in the sight of them which have
led us away captive"; iii. 7, "We will praise thee in our captivity"; iii.
8, "We are yet this day in our captivity where thou hast scattered us." On
the other hand the speakers in the confession in i. 15-ii. 5 are clearly
the remnant in Jerusalem. i. 15, "To the Lord our God belongeth
righteousness, but unto us confusion of face ... to the men of Judah and
the inhabitants of Jerusalem." The Exiles are mentioned by way of contrast
to the speakers; ii. 4, 5, "He hath given _them_ to be in subjection to all
the kingdoms that are round about _us_ to be a reproach among all the
people round about where the Lord hath scattered _them_. Thus were they
cast down ... because _we_ sinned against the Lord our God."[1]
iii. 9-iv. 4. The glorification of wisdom, that is, of the Law. Israel is
bidden to walk in the light of it; it is the glory of Israel and is not to
be given to another.
iv. 5-v. 9. Consolation of Israel with the promise of deliverance and
lasting happiness and blessing to Jerusalem.
_Integrity_.--From the foregoing description it seems clear that the book
is derived from a plurality of authors. Most scholars, such as Fritzsche,
Hitzig, Kneucker, Hilgenfeld, Reuss, agree in assuming that i.-iii. 8 and
iii. 9-v. 9 are from distinct writers. But some critics have gone farther.
Thus Rothstein (Kautzsch, _Apok. und Pseud._ i. 213-215) holds that there
is no unity in iii. 9-v. 9, but that it is composed of two independent
writings--iii. 9-iv. 4 and iv. 5-v. 9. Marshall (Hastings' _Bible
Dictionary_, i. 251-254) gives a still more complex analysis. He finds in
it the work of four distinct writers: i. 1-14, i. 15-iii. 8, iii. 9-iv. 4,
iv. 5-v. 9. The evidence for a fourfold authorship is strong though not
convincing. In any case i.-iii. 8 and iii. 9-v. 9 must be ascribed to
different authors.
_Original Language_.--(1) Some scholars, as Ewald, Kneucker, Davidson,
Rothstein and Koenig, believe that the whole book was originally written in
Hebrew; (2) Fritzsche, Hilgenfeld, Reuss, Gifford, Schuerer, and Toy
advocate a Hebrew original of i.-iii. 8 and a Greek original of the rest;
(3) Marshall argues that i.-iii. 8 is translated from a Hebrew original,
iii. 9-iv. 4 from an Aramaic, and the rest from the Greek; (4) and lastly,
Bertholdt, Havernick and Noeldeke regard the Greek as the primitive text.
The last view must be put aside as unworkable. For the third no convincing
evidence has been adduced, nor does it seem likely that any can be. We have
therefore to decide between the two remaining theories. In any case we can
hardly err in admitting a Hebrew original of i.-iii. 8. For (1) we have
such Hebraisms as [Greek: hou ... ep' autoi] = [Hebrew: 'SHR ... `LYW] (ii.
26); [Greek: hou ... ekei] = [Hebrew: 'SHR ... SHM] (ii. 4, 13, 29; iii.
8); [Greek: hon ... to pneuma auton] = [Hebrew: 'SHR ... RWCHM] (ii. 7).
(2) We have meaningless expressions which are really mistranslations of the
Hebrew. It is noteworthy that these mistranslations are for the most part
found in Jeremiah--a fact which has rightly drawn scholars to the
conclusion that we owe the LXX of Baruch i.-iii. 8, and of Jeremiah to the
same translator. Thus in i. 9 we have [Greek: desmotes], "prisoner," where
the text had [Hebrew: MASGEIR] and the Greek should have been rendered
"locksmith." The same mistranslation is found in Jer. xxiv. 1, xxxvi.
(xxix.) 2. Next in ii. 4 we have [Greek: abaton], "wilderness," where the
text had [Hebrew: SHMH] and the translation should have [Greek: ekstasin].
The same misrendering is found several times in Jeremiah. Again [Greek:
ergazesthai] is used in i. 22, ii. 21, 22, 24 as a translation of [Hebrew:
`BD] in the sense of "serving," where [Greek: douleuein] ought to have been
the rendering. So also in Jer. xxxiv. (xxvii.) 11, xxxvii. (xxx.) 8, &c.
Again in [Greek: poleon Iouda kai exothen Ierousalem] the [Greek: exothen]
is a misrendering of [Hebrew: BCHWTSWT] as in Jer. xi. 6, xl. [v.03 p.0454]
(xxxiii.) 10, &c., where the translator should have given [Greek:
plateion].[2] For [Greek: bombesis] (ii. 29) [Hebrew: HMWN] we should have
[Greek: plethos]. (3) Finally there are passages where by re-translation we
discover that the translator either misread his text or had a corrupt text
before him. Thus [Greek: manna] in i. 10 is a corrupt translation of
[Hebrew: MNCHH] as elsewhere in a dozen passages of the LXX. In iii. 4
[Greek: tethnekoton] = [Hebrew: MEITEIY]--which the translator should have
read as [Hebrew: MTEIY] = [Greek: anthropon].
From the above instances, which could be multiplied, we have no hesitation
in postulating a Hebrew original of i.-iii. 8.
As regards iii. 9-v. 9 the case is different. This section is free from
such notable Hebraisms as we have just dealt with, and no convincing
grounds have been advanced to prove that it is a translation from a Semitic
original.
_Date._--The dates of the various constituents of the book are quite
uncertain. Ewald, followed by Gifford and Marshall, assigns i.-iii. 8 to
the period after the conquest of Jerusalem by Ptolemy I. in 320 B.C.; Reuss
to some decades later; and Fritzsche, Schrade, Keil and Toy to the time of
the Maccabees. Hitzig, Kneucker and Schuerer assume that it was written
after A.D. 70. Ryle and James (_Pss. of Solomon_, pp. lxxii.-lxxvii.) hold
that iv. 31-v. 9 is dependent on the Greek version of Ps. xi., and that,
accordingly, Baruch was reduced to its present form after A.D. 70. The most
probable of the above dates appears to be that maintained by Fritzsche,
that is, if we understand by the Maccabean times the early decades of the
2nd cent. B.C. For during the palmy days of the Maccabean dynasty the
Twelve tribes were supposed to be in Palestine. The idea that the Jewish
Kingdom embraced once again the entire nation easily arose when the
Maccabees extended their dominion northwards over Samaria and Galilee and
eastwards beyond the Jordan. This belief displaced the older one that the
nine and a half tribes were still in captivity. With the downfall of the
Maccabean dynasty, however, the older idea revived in the 1st cent. A.D. To
the beginnings of the 2nd cent. A.D. the view of the dead given in ii. 17
would point, where it is said that those whose spirits had been taken from
their bodies would not give glory unto the Lord. The statement as to the
desolate condition of the Temple in ii. 26^a is with Kneucker to be
rejected as an interpolation.
_Canonicity._--The Book of Baruch was never accepted as canonical by the
Palestinian Jews (Baba Batra 14^b), though the _Apostolic Constitutions_,
v. 10, state that it was read in public worship on the 10th day of the
month Gorpiaeus, but this statement can hardly be correct. It was in
general use in the church till its canonicity was rejected by the
Protestant churches and accepted by the Roman church at the council of
Trent.
_Literature. Versions and Editions_.--The versions are the two Latin, a
Syriac, and an Arabic. The Latin one in the Vulgate belongs to a time prior
to Jerome, and is tolerably literal. Another, somewhat later, was first
published by Jos. Maria Caro in 1688, and was reprinted by Sabatier, side
by side with the ante-Hieronymian one, in his _Bibliorum Sacrorum Latinae
Versiones Antiquae_. It is founded upon the preceding one, and is less
literal. The Syriac and Arabic versions, printed in the London Polyglot,
are literal. The Hexaplar-Syriac version made by Paul, bishop of Tella, in
the beginning of the 7th century has been published by Ceriani.
The most convenient editions of the Greek text are Tischendorf's in the
second volume of his Septuagint, and Swete's in vol. iii.; Fritzsche's in
_Libri Apocryphi Veteris Testamenti Graece_ (1871). The best editions of
the book are Kneucker's _Das Buch Baruch_ (1879); Gifford's in the
_Speaker's Apoc._ ii. See also the articles in the _Encyc. Biblica_,
_Hastings' Bible Dictionary_; Schuerer, _History of Jewish People_.
APOCALYPSE OF BARUCH. The discovery of this long lost apocalypse was due to
Ceriani. This apocalypse has survived only in the Syriac version of which
Ceriani discovered a 6th century MS. in the Milan library. Of this he
published a Latin translation in 1866 (_Monumenta Sacra_, I. ii. 73-98),
which Fritzsche reproduced in 1871 (_Libri Apocryphi V. T._, pp.654-699),
and the text in 1871 (_Mon. Sacra._ V. ii. 113-180), and subsequently in
photo-lithographic facsimile in 1883. Chaps. lxxviii.-lxxxvi., indeed, of
this book have long been known. These constitute Baruch's epistle to the
nine and a half tribes in captivity, and have been published in Syriac and
Latin in the London and Paris Polyglots, and in Syriac alone from one MS.
in Lagarde's _Libri V. T. Apocryphi Syr._ (1861); and by Charles from ten
MSS. (_Apocalypse of Baruch_, 1896, pp. 124-167). The entire book was
translated into English by the last-named writer (_op. cit._ pp. 1-167),
and into German by Ryssel (Kautzsch's _Apok. und Pseud._, 1900, ii. pp.
413-446).
The Syriac is translated from the Greek; for Greek words are occasionally
transliterated, and passages can be explained only on the hypothesis that
the wrong alternative meanings of certain Greek words were followed by the
translator. The Greek in turn is derived from the Hebrew, for
unintelligible expressions in the Syriac can be explained and the text
restored by retranslation into Hebrew. Thus in xxi. 9, 11, 12, xxiv. 2,
lxii. 7 we have an unintelligible antithesis, "those who sin and those who
are justified." The source of the error can be discovered by retranslation.
The Syriac in these passages is a stock rendering of [Greek: dikaiousthai],
and this in turn of [Hebrew: TSDQ]. But [Hebrew: TSDQ] means not only
[Greek: dikaiousthai] but also [Greek: dikaios einai], and this is the very
meaning required by the context in the above passages: "those who sin and
those who are righteous."[3] Again xliv. 12 the text reads: "the new world
which does not turn to corruption those who depart _on its beginning_ and
has no mercy on those who depart to torment." Here "on its beginning" is
set over antithetically against "to torment," whereas the context requires
"to its blessedness." The words "on its beginning"--[Hebrew: KR'SHW], a
corruption of [Hebrew: B'SHRW]--"to its blessedness." Again in lvi. 6 it is
said that the fall of man brought grief, anguish, pain, trouble and
_boasting_ into the world. The term "boasting" in this connexion cannot be
right. The word = [Greek: kauchema] = [Hebrew: THLH](?), corrupt for
[Hebrew: MCHLH], "disease." A further ground for inferring a Hebrew
original is to be found in the fact that paronomasiae not infrequently
discover themselves in the course of retranslation into Hebrew. One
instance will suffice. In xlviii. 35, "Honour will be turned into shame,
strength humiliated into contempt ... and beauty will become a scorn"
contains three such:
[Hebrew: KBWD YHPK LQLWN `Z YWRD 'L BWZ WWPY YHYH LDWPY]
(see Charles, _Apoc. Bar._ pp. xliv.-liii). The necessity of postulating a
Hebrew original was first shown by the present writer, and has since been
maintained by Wellhausen (_Skizzen u. Vorarbeiten_, vi. 234), by Ryssel
(_Apok. und Pseudepig. A. T._, 1900, ii. 411), and Ginzberg (_Jewish
Encyclopaedia_, ii. 555).
_Different Elements in the Book and their Dates_.--As there are undoubtedly
conflicting elements in the book, it is possible to assume either a
diversity of authorship or a diversity of sources. The latter view is
advocated by Ryssel and Ginzberg, the former by Kabisch, de Faye, R. H.
Charles and Beer (Herzog's _Realenc._, art. "_Pseudepigraphen des Alten
Testaments_," p. 250). A short summary may here be given of the grounds on
which the present writer has postulated a diversity of authorship. If the
letter to the tribes in captivity (lxxviii.-lxxxvi.) be disregarded, the
book falls into seven sections separated by fasts, save in one case (after
xxxv.) where the text is probably defective. These sections, which are of
unequal length, are--(1) i.-v. 6; (2) v. 7-viii.; (3) ix.-xii. 4; (4) xii.
5-xx.; (5) xxi.-xxxv.; (6) xxxvi.-xlvi.; (7) xlvii.-lxxvii. These treat of
the Messiah and the Messianic kingdom, the woes of Israel in the past and
the destruction of Jerusalem in the present, as well as of theological
questions relating to original sin, free will, works, the number of the
saved, the nature of the resurrection body, &c. The views expressed on
several of the above subjects are often conflicting. In one class of
passages there is everywhere manifest a vigorous optimism as to Israel's
ultimate well-being on earth, and the blessedness of the chosen people in
the Messianic kingdom is sketched in glowing and sensuous colours (xxix.,
xxxix.-xl., lxiii.-lxxiv.). Over against these passages stand others of a
hopelessly pessimistic character, wherein, alike as to Israel's [v.03
p.0455] present and future destiny on earth, there is written nothing save
"lamentation, and mourning, and woe." The world is a scene of corruption,
its evils are irremediable, its end is nigh, and the advent of the new and
spiritual world at hand. The first to draw attention to the composite
elements in this book was Kabisch (_Jahrbuecher f. protest. Theol._, 1891,
pp. 66-107). This critic regarded xxiv. 3-xxix., xxxvi.-xl. and
liii.-lxxiv. as independent sources written before the fall of Jerusalem,
A.D. 70, and his groundwork, which consists of the rest of his book, with
the exception of a few verses, as composed after that date. All these
elements were put together by a Christian contemporary of Papias. Many of
these conclusions were arrived at independently by a French scholar, De
Faye (_Les Apocalypses juives_, 1892, pp. 25-28, 76-103, 192-204). The
present writer (_Apocalypse of Baruch_, 1896, pp. liii.-lxvii.), after
submitting the book to a fresh study, has come to the following
conclusions:--The book is of Pharisaic authorship and composed of six
independent writings--A^1, A^2, A^3, B^1, B^2, B^3. The first three were
composed when Jerusalem was still standing and the Messiah and the
Messianic kingdom were expected: A^1, a mutilated apocalypse = xxvii.-xxx.
1; A^2, the Cedar and Vine Vision = xxxvi.-xl.; A^3, the Cloud Vision =
liii.-lxxiv. The last three were written after A.D. 70, and probably before
90. Thus B^3 = lxxxv. was written by a Jew in exile, who, despairing of a
national restoration, looked only for a spiritual recompense in heaven. The
rest of the book is derived from B^1 and B^2, written in Palestine after
A.D. 70. These writings belong to very different types of thought. In B^1
the earthly Jerusalem is to be rebuilt, but not so in B^2; in the former
the exiles are to be restored, but not in the latter; in the former a
Messianic kingdom without a Messiah is expected, but no earthly blessedness
of any kind in the latter, &c. B^1 = i.-ix. 1, xxxii. 2-4, xliii.-xliv. 7,
xlv.-xlvi., lxxvii.-lxxxii., lxxxiv., lxxxvi.-lxxxvii. B^2 = ix.-xxv., xxx.
2-xxxv., xli.-xlii., xliv. 8-15, xlvii.-lii., lxxv.-lxxvi., lxxxiii. The
final editor of the work wrote in the name of Baruch the son of Neriah.
The above critical analyses were attacked and rejected by Clemen (_Stud.
und Krit._, 1898, 211 sqq.). He fails, however, in many cases to recognize
the difficulties at issue, and those which cannot be ignored he sets down
to the conflicting apocalyptic traditions, on which the author was obliged
to draw for his subject-matter. Though Ryssel (Kautzsch, _Apok. u. Pseud.
des A. T._ ii. 409) has followed Clemen, neither has given any real
explanation of the disorder of the book as it stands at present. Beer (_op.
cit._) agrees that xxxvi.-xl. and liii.-lxx. are of different authorship
from the rest of the book and belong to the earlier date.
_Relation to 4 Ezra._--The affinities of this book and 4 Ezra are so
numerous (see Charles, _op. cit._ 170-171) that Ewald and Ryle assumed
identity of authorship. But their points of divergence are so weighty (see
_op. cit._ pp. lxix.-lxxi.) that this view cannot be sustained. Three
courses still remain open. If we assume that both works are composite, we
shall perforce admit that some of the constituents of 4 Ezra are older than
the latest of Baruch, and that other constituents of Baruch are decidedly
older than the remaining ones of 4 Ezra. On the other hand, if we assume
unity of authorship, it seems impossible to arrive at finality on the
chronological relations of these two works. Langen, Hilgenfeld, Wieseler,
Staehelin, Renan, Hausrath, Drummond, Dillmann, Rosenthal, Gunkel, have
maintained on various grounds the priority of 4 Ezra; and Schuerer,
Bissell, Thomson, Deane, Kabisch, De Faye, Wellhausen, and Ryssel the
priority of Baruch on grounds no less convincing.
_Relation to Rabbinical Literature._--A very close relation subsists
between our book and rabbinical literature. Indeed in some instances the
parallels are so close that they are almost word for word. The description
of the destruction of Jerusalem by angels in vi.-viii. is found also in the
Pesikta Rabbati 26 (ed. Friedmann 131a). By means of this passage we are,
as Ginzberg has shown, able to correct the corrupt reading "the holy Ephod"
(vi. 7), [Hebrew: 'PWD HQWDSH] into "the holy Ark," _i.e._ [Hebrew: 'RWN
HQWDSH]. What might be taken as poetic fancies in our text are recounted as
historical facts in rabbinical literature. Thus the words (x. 18):
"And ye priests, take ye the keys of the sanctuary,
And cast them into the height of heaven,
And give them to the Lord and say:
'Guard Thine own house; for lo we are found unfaithful stewards,'"
are given in various accounts of the fall of Jerusalem. (See Ta'anith, 29a;
Pesi[k.]t. R., _loc. cit._; _Yalqu[t.] Shim'oni_ on Is. xxi; _Aboth_ of
Rabbi Nathan vii.). Even the statement that the bodies of Sennacherib's
soldiers were burned while their garments and armour remained unconsumed
has its parallel in _Sanh_. 94a.
_Integrity of the Book._--In lxxvii. 19 it is said that Baruch wrote two
epistles, one to the nine and a half tribes and the other to the two and a
half at Babylon. The former is found in lxxviii.-lxxxvi.; the latter is
lost, but is probably preserved either wholly or in part in the Book of
Baruch, iii. 9-iv. 29 (see Charles, _op. cit._ pp. lxv.-lxvii). On the
other hand, it is not necessary to infer from lxxv. that an account of
Baruch's assumption was to be looked for in the book.
AUTHORITIES.--The literature is fully cited in Schuerer, _Gesch._ iii.
223-232, and R. H. Charles, _Apocalypse of Baruch_, pp. xxx.-xliii.
Ginzberg's article in the _Jewish Encyclopaedia_, ii. 551-556, is a fresh
and valuable contribution.
REST OF THE WORDS OF BARUCH. This book was undoubtedly written originally
by a Jew but was subsequently revised by a Christian, as has been shown by
Kohler in the _Jewish Quarterly Review_ (1893), pp. 407-409. It passed
under a double name in the Abyssinian Church, where it was known both as
"the Rest of the Words of Baruch" and "the Rest of the Words of Jeremiah."
Its Greek name is the latter--[Greek: ta paraleipomena Hieremiou
prophetou]. It has been preserved in Greek, Ethiopic, Armenian and
Slavonic. The Greek was first printed at Venice in 1609, next by Ceriani in
1868 in his _Mon. Sacra_, v. 11-18; by Harris, _The Rest of the Words of
Baruch_, in 1889; and Bassiliev, _Anec. Graeco-Byzantina_, i. 308 sqq.
(1893). The book begins like the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch with an
account of the removal of the sacred vessels of the Temple before its
capture by the Chaldees. Baruch remains in Jerusalem and Jeremiah
accompanies the Exiles to Babylon. After 66 years' exile Jeremiah brings
back the Jews to Jerusalem, but refuses to admit such as had brought with
them heathen wives. Then follows a vision of Jeremiah which is Christian.
Harris regards the book in its present form as an eirenicon addressed to
the Jews by a Christian after the rebellion of Bar Cochba (Barcochebas) and
written about 136. Though the original work was dependent on the Apocalypse
of Baruch it cannot have been written much before the close of the 1st
cent. A.D. Its _terminus ad quem_ is at present indeterminable.
(R. H. C.)
[1] Toy (_Jewish Enc_. ii. 556) thinks that the "them" in ii. 4, 5 may be a
scribal slip and that we have here not the confession of the Palestinian
remnant and that of the Exiles, but simply a juxtaposition of two forms of
confession.
[2] In ii. 25 we have the word [Greek: apostole] with the extraordinary
meaning of "plague" as in Jer. xxxix. (xxxii.) 36.
[3] Ryssel has adopted Charles's restoration of the text in these passages
and practically also in xliv. 12. but without acknowledgment.
BARUGO, a town on the north coast of the province of Leyte, island of
Leyte, Philippine Islands, on Carigara Bay. Pop. (1903) 12,360. It exports
large quantities of hemp and copra, and imports rice, petroleum, and
cotton-goods.
BARWANI, a native state of India, in the Bhopawar agency in central India.
It lies in the Satpura mountains, south of the Nerbudda. Area, 1178 sq. m.;
pop. (1901) 76,136. Many of the inhabitants are Bhils. The chief, whose
title is Rana, is a Rajput of the Sisodhyia clan, connected with the
Udaipur family. Though the family lost most of its possessions during the
Mahratta invasion in the 14th century, it never became tributary to any
Malwa chief. The forests are under an English official. The town of Barwani
is situated near the left bank of the Nerbudda. The population in 1901 was
6277.
BARYATINSKY, ALEXANDER IVANOVICH, PRINCE (1814-1879), Russian soldier and
governor of the Caucasus, was privately educated, entered the school of the
ensigns of the Guard in his seventeenth year and, on the 8th of November
1833, received his commission of cornet in the Life Guards of the
cesarevich Alexander. In 1835 he served with great gallantry in the
Caucasus, and on his return to St Petersburg was rewarded with a gold sword
"for valour." On the first of January 1836 he was attached to the suite of
Alexander, and in 1845 was again ordered off to the Caucasus and again most
brilliantly distinguished himself, especially in the attack on Shamyl's
stronghold, for which he received the order of St George. In 1846 he
assisted [v.03 p.0456] Fieldmarshal Paskievich to suppress the Cracow
rising. From 1848 to 1856 he took a leading part in all the chief military
events in the Caucasus, his most notable exploits being his victory at
Mezeninsk in 1850 and his operations against Shamyl at Chechen. His
energetic and at the same time systematic tactics inaugurated a new era of
mountain warfare. On the 6th of January 1853 he was appointed
adjutant-general and, on July 5th of the same year, chief of the staff. In
1854 he took part in the brilliant Kuruk Dere campaign. On the 1st of
January 1856 he became commander-in-chief of the Caucasian army, and,
subsequently, governor of the Caucasus. As an administrator he showed
himself fully worthy of his high reputation. Within three years of his
appointment, the whole of the eastern Caucasus was subdued and the long
elusive Shamyl was taken captive. Baryatinsky also conquered many of the
tribes of the western Caucasus dwelling between the rivers Laba and
Byelaya. For these fresh services he was created a fieldmarshal. But his
health was now entirely broken by his strenuous labours, and on the 6th of
December 1862 he was, at his own request, relieved of his post. He spent
the last days of his life abroad and died at Geneva, after forty-eight
years of active service.
See A. L. Zisserman, _Fieldmarshal Prince A. I. Baryatinski_ (Russ.)
(Moscow, 1888-1891).
BARYE, ANTOINE LOUIS (1796-1875), French sculptor, was born in Paris on the
24th of September 1796. Like many of the sculptors of the Renaissance he
began life as a goldsmith. After studying under Bosio, the sculptor, and
Gros, the painter, he was in 1818 admitted to the Ecole des Beaux Arts. But
it was not till 1823, when he was working for Fauconnier, the goldsmith,
that he discovered his real bent from watching the wild beasts in the
Jardin des Plantes, making vigorous studies of them in pencil drawings
worthy of Delacroix and then modelling them in sculpture on a large or
small scale. In 1831 he exhibited his "Tiger devouring a Crocodile," and in
1832 had mastered a style of his own in the "Lion and Snake." Thenceforward
Barye, though engaged in a perpetual struggle with want, exhibited year
after year these studies of animals--admirable groups which reveal him as
inspired by a spirit of true romance and a feeling for the beauty of the
antique, as in "Theseus and the Minotaur" (1847), "Lapitha and Centaur"
(1848), and numerous minor works now very highly valued. Barye was no less
successful in sculpture on a small scale, and excelled in representing
animals in their most familiar attitudes. As examples of his larger work we
may mention the Lion of the Column of July, of which the plaster model was
cast in 1839, various lions and tigers in the gardens of the Tuileries, and
the four groups--War, Peace, Strength, and Order (1854). In 1852 he cast
his bronze "Jaguar devouring a Hare." The fame he deserved came too late to
the sculptor. He was made professor at the museum in 1854, and was elected
to the Academy of Fine Arts in 1868. He died on the 25th of June 1875. The
mass of admirable work left to us by Barye entitles him to be regarded as
the greatest artist of animal life of the French school, and as the creator
of a new class of art which has attracted such men as Fremiet, Peter, Cain,
and Gardet, who are regarded with justice as his worthiest followers.
AUTHORITIES.--Emile Lame, _Les Sculpteurs d'animaux; M. Barye_ (Paris,
1856); Gustave Planche, "M. Barye," _Revue des deux mondes_ (July 1851);
Theophile Silvestre, _Histoires des artistes vivants_ (Paris, 1856); Arsene
Alexandre, "A. L. Barye," _Les Artistes celebres_, ed. E. Muntz (Paris,
1889) (with a bibliog.); Charles DeKay, _Life and Works of A. L. Barye_
(1889), published by the Barye Monument Assoc. of New York; Jules Claretie,
_Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains_ (1882); Roger Ballu, _L'Oeuvre de
Barye_ (1890); Charles Sprague Smith, _Barbizon Days_ (1903).
(H. FR.)
BARYTES, a widely distributed mineral composed of barium sulphate (BaSO_4).
Its most striking feature and the one from which it derives its name
barytes, barite (from the Greek [Greek: barus] heavy) or heavy spar, is its
weight. Its specific gravity of 4.5 is about twice as great as that of salt
and of many other colourless, transparent and glassy minerals not unlike
barytes in general appearance. The mineral is usually found in a state of
considerable chemical purity, though small amounts of strontium and calcium
sulphates may isomorphously replace the barium sulphate: ammonium sulphate
is also sometimes present, whilst clay, silica, bituminous matter, &c., may
be enclosed as impurities.
[Illustration]
Crystals of barytes are orthorhombic and isomorphous with the strontium and
lead sulphates (celestite and anglesite); they are usually very perfectly
developed and present great variety of form. The simplest are rhomb-shaped
tables (fig. 1) bounded by the two faces of the basal pinacoid (_c_) and
the four faces of the prism (_m_); the angle between the prism-faces (_mm_)
is 78deg 23', whilst that between _c_ and _m_ is 90deg. The mineral has a
very perfect cleavage parallel to the faces _c_ and _m_, and the cleavage
surfaces are perfectly smooth and bright. The crystals of prismatic habit
represented in figs. 2 and 3 are bounded by the domes _d_ and _f_ and the
basal pinacoid _c_; fig. 4 is a plan of a still more complex crystal.
Twinning is represented only by twin-lamellae, which are parallel to the
planes _m_ and _f_ and are of secondary origin, having been produced by
pressure.
Crystals of barytes may be transparent and colourless, or white and opaque,
or of a yellow, brown, bluish or greenish colour. Well developed crystals
are extremely common, but the mineral occurs also in a granular, earthy, or
stalactitic condition. It is known as cawk in the Derbyshire lead mines.
The "crested" or "cock's comb" barytes occurs as rounded aggregations of
thin lamellar crystals.
Barytes is of common occurrence in metalliferous veins, especially those
which yield ores of lead and silver; some of the largest and most perfect
crystals of colourless barytes were obtained from the lead mines near
Dufton in Westmorland. It is found also in beds of iron ore, and the
haematite mines of the Cleator Moor district in west Cumberland have
yielded many extremely fine crystals, specimens of which may be seen in all
mineral collections. In the neighbourhood of Nottingham, and other places
in the Midlands, barytes forms a cementing material in the Triassic
sandstones; amber-coloured crystals of the same mineral are found in the
fuller's earth at Nutfield in Surrey; and the septarian nodules in London
Clay contain crystals of barytes as well as of calcite. Crystals are found
as a rarity in the amygdaloidal cavities of igneous rocks.
Artificially prepared crystals of barytes may be obtained by allowing a
solution of a soluble barium salt to diffuse slowly into a solution of a
soluble sulphate. Barium chloride is present in some natural waters, and
when this is the case the interaction of sulphates results in a deposition
of barytes, as has occurred in the pipes and water-boxes of the
Newcastle-on-Tyne coal mines.
Commercially, barytes is used in the preparation of barium compounds, as a
body for certain kinds of paper and cloth, and as a white pigment
("permanent white"). The finely powdered and washed mineral is too
crystalline and consequently of insufficient opacity to be used alone as a
paint, and is therefore mixed with "white lead," of which material it is
also used as an adulterant.
(L. J. S.)
[Illustration]
BARYTOCALCITE, a rare mineral found only at Alston Moor in Cumberland,
where it occurs as diverging groups of white transparent crystals lining
cavities in the Mountain Limestone. [v.03 p.0457] The crystals belong to
the monoclinic system and are usually prismatic or blade-shaped in habit.
The hardness is 4, and the sp. gr. 3.65. There are perfect cleavages
parallel to the prism faces inclined at an angle of 73deg 6', and a less
perfect cleavage parallel to the basal plane, the angle between which and
the prism faces is 77deg 6'; the angles between these three cleavages thus
approximate to the angles (74deg 55') between the three cleavages of
calcite, and there are other points of superficial resemblance between
these two minerals. Chemically, barytocalcite is a double salt of barium
and calcium carbonates, BaCa(CO_3)_2, thus differing from the orthorhombic
bromlite (_q.v._) which is an isomorphous mixture of the two carbonates.
(L. J. S.)
BARYTONE, or BARITONE (Ital. _baritono_, from Gr. [Greek: barutonos], deep
sounding), a musical term for the male voice whose range lies between those
of the tenor and of the bass--a high bass rather than a low tenor; also the
name of an obsolete stringed instrument like the viola da Gamba, and of the
small Bb or C saxhorn.
BASALT, in petrology, one of the oldest rock names, supposed to be derived
from an Ethiopian word _basal_, signifying a stone which yields iron;
according to Pliny, the first basalts were obtained in Ethiopia. In current
usage the term includes a large variety of types of igneous rock belonging
to the basic subdivision, dark in colour weathering to brown, and
comparatively rich in magnesia and iron. Some basalts are in large measure
glassy (tachylites), and many are very fine grained and compact; but it is
more usual for them to exhibit porphyritic structure, showing larger
crystals of olivine, augite or felspar in a finely crystalline groundmass.
Olivine and augite are the commonest porphyritic minerals in basalts, the
former green or yellowish (and weathering to green or brown serpentine),
the latter pitch-black. Porphyritic plagioclase felspars, however, are also
very common, and may be one or two inches in length, though usually not
exceeding a quarter of an inch; when fresh they are dark grey with smooth
lustrous cleavage surfaces; when decomposed they become turbid, and assume
grey or greenish shades. Basaltic lavas are frequently spongy or pumiceous,
especially near their surfaces; and, in course of time, the steam cavities
become filled with secondary minerals such as calcite, chlorite and
zeolites. Another characteristic of this group of rocks is the perfection
with which many of them show prismatic or columnar jointing, a structure
often called "basaltic jointing."
The minerals of basaltic rocks have a fairly uniform character throughout
the whole group. In microscopic section the olivine is pale green or
colourless, and is very frequently more or less altered to serpentine. The
secondary mineral begins to form upon the surfaces and along the cracks of
the olivine, gradually producing a mesh-work in the interstices of which
small kernels of olivine remain; and when the process is completed the mesh
structure persists in the resulting pseudomorph, giving a clear indication
as to its history. The augite is mostly brown, often with a purplish tinge,
hardly at all dichroic, but frequently showing zonal or hour-glass
structure, and various types of twinning. It weathers to chlorite, uralite,
calcite, &c. The plagioclase felspar, if fresh, is transparent and appears
simple in ordinary light, but when polarized breaks up into a series of
bars of different colours owing to its complex twinned structure.
Practically all varieties of this mineral from anorthite to albite are
known to occur in basalt, but by far the commonest species are bytownite
and labradorite. Weathering destroys the limpid character of the fresh
mineral, producing turbid pseudomorphs containing epidote, calcite, white
micas, kaolin, &c. When these minerals occur as phenocrysts their
crystalline outlines may be very perfect (though, especially in the
olivine, corrosion and partial resorption may give rise to rounded or
irregular forms).
In the groundmass, or second generation of crystal, not only are the
ingredients smaller, but their crystals are less perfect; yet in many
basalts small lath-shaped felspars and minute prisms of augite, densely
crowded together, form the matrix. With these there may be a greater or
less amount of brown, isotropic glass. Olivine rarely occurs as an
ingredient of the groundmass. In the vitreous basalts sometimes very few
crystallized minerals are observable; the greater part of the rock is a
dark brown glassy material, almost opaque even in the thinnest sections,
and generally charged with black grains of magnetite, skeleton crystals of
augite or felspar, spherulites, perlitic cracks, or steam vesicles. In
other basaltic rocks no glassy material appears, but the whole mass is
thoroughly crystallized; rocks of this nature are generally known to
British petrologists as dolerites (_q.v._). Till recent years it was widely
believed by continental geologists that the pre-Tertiary basalts differed
so fundamentally from their Tertiary and recent representatives that they
were entitled to be regarded as a distinct class. For the older rocks the
names anamesite, diabase porphyrite, _diabas-mandel-stein_, or melaphyre
were used, and are still favoured by many writers, to indicate varieties
and states of more or less altered basalts and dolerites, though no longer
held to differ in any essential respects from the better preserved basalts.
Still older is the term _trap_, which is derived from a Swedish word
meaning "a stair," for in many places superposed sheets of basalt weather
with well-marked step-like or terraced features. This designation is still
used as a general term for the whole suite of basaltic rocks by many
geologists and travellers (_e.g._ trap-dikes, the "traps" of the Deccan).
In the early years of the 19th century a great controversy convulsed the
geological world as to the origin of the older basalts or "floetz-traps."
Werner, the Saxon mineralogist, and his school held them to be of aqueous
origin, the chemical precipitates deposited in primeval seas, but Hutton
and a number of French geologists maintained that they were really volcanic
rocks emitted by craters now extinct (see GEOLOGY: _Historical_).
Of the less common minerals of basalt, a few may be mentioned. Black
hornblende, dark brown in thin sections, and often corroded, is not
uncommon, especially in intrusive basalts. Hypersthene occurs also, usually
replacing olivine. Black mica (biotite) is not infrequently to be seen.
Sapphire, garnet and zircon are rare. Minerals of the felspathoid group
occur in a large number of basaltic rocks; nepheline and leucite are the
most common, but hauyne is occasionally present. If nepheline entirely
replaces felspar, the rock is known as nepheline-basalt; if the replacement
is only partial the term nepheline-basanite is used. Similarly there are
leucite-basalts and leucite-basanites. The nepheline is in small six-sized
prisms, and usually cannot be detected with the unaided eye. Even with the
help of the microscope nepheline basalts are not always easy to determine,
as the crystals may be exceedingly small and imperfect, and they readily
decompose into analcite and zeolites. In some cases only the presence of an
anisotropic substance, with weak double refraction and readily attacked by
acids (the so-called "nephelinitoid"), can be made out. This substance may
be imperfectly crystallized nepheline, or a peculiar glass which is rich in
soda. Most nepheline basalts are fine grained, very dark coloured rocks,
and belong to the Tertiary period. They are fairly common in some parts of
Germany and occur also in Tripoli, Asia Minor, Montana, Cape Verde Islands,
&c. Leucite-basalts contain small rounded crystals of leucite in place of
plagioclase felspar. Rocks of this group are well known in the Eifel, and
other volcanic districts in Germany, also in Bohemia, Italy, Java, Montana,
Celebes, &c. The minerals hauyne, nosean, sodalite and melilite tend to
occur with some frequency in nepheline and leucite-basalts, though rare in
ordinary basalts. Melilite, a lime-alumina-silicate, is characteristic of
certain very basic rocks, the melilite-basalts. It is pale yellow or
colourless in thin sections, and yields peculiar and characteristic dark
blue polarization colours. This rare group of rocks is known to occur in
Bohemia, Swabia and South Africa. Perofskite, in small dark brown cubic
crystals, is a constant accessory in these rocks. The augite is usually
violet coloured, and shows zonal and hour-glass structures. Green augite
may occur in the nepheline-basalts, and aegerine (soda-iron-augite) is
occasionally found in them.
The distribution of basalts is world-wide; and in some places [v.03 p.0458]
they occur in immense masses, and cover great areas. In Washington, Oregon,
and Idaho many thousands of square miles are occupied by basaltic-lava
flows. In the Sandwich Islands and Iceland they are the prevalent lavas;
and the well-known columnar jointed basalts of Skye, Staffa, and Antrim
(Giant's Causeway) form a southward extension of the Icelandic volcanic
province, with which they are connected by the similar rocks of the Faeroe
Islands. In the Deccan in India great basaltic lava fields are known; and
Etna and Vesuvius emit basaltic rocks. In older geological periods they
were not less common; for example, in the Carboniferous in Scotland.
(J. S. F.)
BASCOM, JOHN (1827- ), American educationalist and philosophical writer,
was born at Genoa, New York, on the 1st of May 1827. He graduated at
Williams College in 1849 and at the Andover Theological Seminary in 1855,
was professor of rhetoric at Williams College from 1855 to 1874, and was
president of the University of Wisconsin and professor of mental and moral
philosophy there from 1874 to 1887. In 1887-1891 and in 1901-1903 he was
lecturer in sociology, and in 1891-1901 professor of economics in Williams
College. He retired in 1903. Among his publications may be mentioned:
_Aesthetics_ (1862); _Philosophy of Rhetoric_ (1865); _Science, Philosophy
and Religion_ (1871); _Philosophy of English Literature_ (1874);
_Philosophy of Religions_ (1876); _Problems in Philosophy_ (1885); _The New
Theology_ (1891); _Social Theory_ (1895); _Evolution and Religion_ (1896);
_Growth of Nationality in the United States_ (1899); and _God and His
Goodness_ (1901).
BASE. (1) (Fr. _bas_, Late Lat. _bassus_, low; cf. Gr. [Greek: bathus]) an
adjective meaning low or deep, and so mean, worthless, or wicked. This
sense of the word has sometimes affected the next, which is really
distinct. (2) (Gr. [Greek: basis], strictly "stepping," and so a foundation
or pedestal) a term for a foundation or starting point, used in various
senses; in sports, _e.g._ hockey and baseball; in geometry, the line or
face on which a figure or solid stands; in crystallography, _e.g._ "basal
plane"; in surveying, in the "base line," an accurately measured distance
between the points from which the survey is conducted; in heraldry, in the
phrase "in base," applied to any figure or emblem placed in the lowest part
of a shield.
In chemistry the term denotes a substance which combines with an acid to
form a salt. In inorganic chemistry such compounds are almost invariably
oxides or hydroxides, and water in eliminated during the combination; but
in organic chemistry many compounds exist, especially ammonia derivatives,
which directly combine with acids. Chemical bases are consequently
antithetical to acids; and an acid is neutralized by a base with the
production of a salt. They reverse certain colour reactions of acids,
_e.g._ turn red litmus blue; this is termed an "alkaline reaction."
In architecture the "base" is the lowest member of a column or shaft. In
Egyptian and Greek architecture it is the raised slab in stone or cement on
which the primitive timber column was placed, to keep it dry. Afterwards it
was always reproduced in Egypt, even although the column, being in stone,
no longer required it; a custom probably retained because, being of a much
larger circumference than the lower part of the column, it gave increased
stability. In Assyrian architecture, where it served to carry wooden posts
or columns, it took the form of a large torus moulding with enrichments. In
Persian architecture the base was much higher than in any other style, and
was elaborately carved. In primitive Greek work the base consisted of the
stone plinth as found in Crete and Tiryns, and of three small steps at
Mycenae. In archaic Greek work it has already disappeared in the Doric
order, but in the Ionic and Corinthian orders it is more or less richly
moulded, the most elaborate examples being those found in the temple of
Apollo at Branchidae in Milesia. For the contour of the mouldings see
ORDERS. The Roman orders all have the favourite design known as the Attic
base. Romanesque bases were rude but vigorous copies of the old classic
base, and were often decorated with projections or spurs (Fr. _griffes_) at
the angles of the square dies, thus connecting them with the square base.
In the Early English style, these spurs followed the conventional design of
the period, and about the same time the mouldings were deeply sunk and
occasionally cut downwards, so that they would have held water if used
externally. Later, the base becomes less bold in treatment, but much more
complex in its contours, and in the 15th century is given an unusual height
with two stages, the lower one constituting a kind of plinth, which is
sometimes known as the ground table, or the base course.
A BASE COURT (Fr. _basse cour_, _i.e._ the lower court), is the first open
space within the gates of a castle. It was used for exercising cavalry, and
keeping live stock during a siege. (See ENCEINTE).
THE BASE OF A WALL or GROUND TABLE, in architecture, is the mouldings round
a building just above ground; they mostly consist of similar members to
those above described and run round the buttresses. The flat band between
the plinth and upper mouldings is frequently panelled and carved with
shields, as in Henry VII. Chapel at Westminster.