GOSPEL OF BARNABAS.--We read in antiquity, _e.g._ in the _Decretum

Gelasii_, of an apocryphal Gospel of Barnabas (see APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE),

but we have no knowledge of its contents. There exists, however, in a

single MS. in Italian a longish gospel with this title, written from a

Mahommedan standpoint, but probably embodying materials partly Gnostic in

character and origin. The Italian MS. was found by the Deist, John Toland,

in a private collection at Amsterdam (see his _Nazarenus_, 1718);

subsequently it came into the possession of Prince Eugene of Savoy, and

finally was obtained with Eugene's library by the imperial library at

Vienna. It has been edited, with an English translation (1907) by (Rev.)

Lonsdale and Laura Ragg, who hold that it was the work of a Christian

renegade to Mahommedanism about the 13th-16th century. See also preliminary

notice in the _Journal of Theol. Studies_, vi. 424 ff. The old view held by

Toland and others that the Italian was a translation from the Arabic is

demonstrably wrong. The Arabic marginal notes are apparently partly pious

ejaculations, partly notes for the aid of Arabic students. The work is

highly imaginative and often grotesque, but it is pervaded by an unusually

high ethical enthusiasm.

(J. V. B.)

[1] His reference to the wide prevalence of circumcision beyond Israel (ix.

6) is perhaps simply an exaggeration, more or less conscious.

[Illustration: 1. _Scalpellum rostratum_, Darwin, Philippine Islands.

2. _Pollicipes cornucopiae_, Leach, European seas.

3. _Tubicinella trachealis_, Shaw, attached to whales.

4. _Acasta sulcata_, Lamk., in sponges, New South Wales; (4'), tergum;

(4"), scutum.

5. _Balanus tintinnabulum_, Linn., Atlantic.

5'. Section of _Balanus_, Linn.

6. _Coronula diadema_, Linn., attached to whales.]

BARNACLE, a name applied to Crustacea of the division _Cirripedia_ or

_Thyrostraca_. Originally, the name was given to the stalked barnacles

(_Lepadidae_ of C. Darwin), which attach themselves in great numbers to

drift-wood and other objects floating in the sea and are one of the chief

agents in the fouling of ships' bottoms during long voyages. The sessile

barnacles (_Balanidae_ of Darwin) or "acorn-shells" are found in myriads,

encrusting the rocks between tide-marks on all coasts. One of the most

extraordinary and persistent myths of medieval natural history, dating back

to the 12th century at least, was the cause of transferring to these

organisms the name of the barnack or bernacle goose (_Bernicla branta_).

This bird is a winter visitor to Britain, and its Arctic nesting-places

being then unknown, it was fabled to originate within the shell-like fruit

of a tree growing by the sea-shore. In some variants of the story this

shell is said to grow as a kind of mushroom on rotting timber in the sea,

and is obviously one of the barnacles of the genus _Lepas_. Even after the

scientific study of zoology had replaced the fabulous tales of medieval

writers, it was a long time before the true affinities of the barnacles

were appreciated, and they were at first classed with the Mollusca, some of

which they closely resemble in external appearance. It was not till Vaughan

Thompson demonstrated, in 1830, their development from a free-swimming and

typically Crustacean larva that it came to be recognized that, in Huxley's

graphic phrase, "a barnacle may be said to be a Crustacean fixed by its

head and kicking the food into its mouth with its legs." For a systematic

account of the barnacles and their allies, see the article THYROSTRACA.

(W. T. CA.)

BARNARD, LADY ANNE (1750-1825), author of the ballad "Auld Robin Gray," the

eldest daughter of James Lindsay, 5th earl of Balcarres, was born at

Balcarres House, Fife, on the 12th of December 1750. She was married in

1793 to Andrew Barnard, a son of the bishop of Limerick, for whom she

obtained from Henry Dundas (1st Viscount Melville) an appointment as

colonial secretary at the Cape of Good Hope. Thither the Barnards went in

March 1797, Lady Anne remaining at the Cape until January 1802. A

remarkable series of letters written by Lady Anne thence to Dundas, then

secretary for war and the colonies, was published in 1901 under the title

_South Africa a Century Ago_. In 1806, on the reconquest of the Cape by the

British, Barnard was reappointed colonial secretary, but Lady Anne did not

accompany him thither, where he died in 1807. The rest of her life was

passed in London, where she died on the 6th of May 1825. "Auld Robin Gray"

was written by her in 1772, to music by the Rev. William Leeves

(1748-1828), as he admitted in 1812. It was published anonymously in 1783,

Lady Anne only acknowledging the authorship of the words two years before

her death in a letter to Sir Walter Scott, who subsequently edited it for

the Bannatyne Club with two continuations.

See the memoir by W. H. Wilkins, together with the original text of "Auld

Robin Gray," prefixed to _South Africa a Century Ago_.

BARNARD, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS PORTER (1809-1889), American scientist and

educationalist, was born in Sheffield, Massachusetts, on the 5th of May

1809. In 1828 he graduated, second on the honour list, at Yale. He was then

in turn a tutor at Yale, a teacher (1831-1832) in the American Asylum for

the [v.03 p.0410] Deaf and Dumb at Hartford, Connecticut, and a teacher

(1832-1838) in the New York Institute for the Instruction of the Deaf and

Dumb. From 1838 to 1848 he was professor of mathematics and natural

philosophy, and from 1848 to 1854 was professor of chemistry and natural

history in the University of Alabama, for two years, also, filling the

chair of English literature. In 1854 he was ordained as deacon in the

Protestant Episcopal Church. In the same year he became professor of

mathematics and natural philosophy in the University of Mississippi, of

which institution he was chancellor from 1856 until the outbreak of the

Civil War, when, his sympathies being with the North, he resigned and went

to Washington. There for some time he was in charge of the map and chart

department of the United States Coast Survey. In 1864 he became the tenth

president of Columbia College (now Columbia University) in New York City,

which position he held until the year before his death, his service thus

being longer than that of any of his predecessors. During this period the

growth of the college was rapid; new departments were established; the

elective system was greatly extended; more adequate provision was made for

graduate study and original research, and the enrolment was increased from

about 150 to more than 1000 students. Barnard strove to have educational

privileges extended by the university to women as well as to men, and

Barnard College, for women (see COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY), established

immediately after his death, was named in his honour. He died in New York

City on the 27th of April 1889. Barnard was a versatile man, of catholic

training, a classical and English scholar, a mathematician, a physicist,

and a chemist, a good public speaker, and a vigorous but somewhat prolix

writer on various subjects, his annual reports to the Board of Trustees of

Columbia being particularly valuable as discussions of educational

problems. Besides being the editor-in-chief, in 1872, of _Johnson's

Universal Cyclopaedia_, he published a _Treatise on Arithmetic_ (1830); an

_Analytical Grammar with Symbolic Illustration_ (1836); _Letters on

Collegiate Government_ (1855); and _Recent Progress in Science_ (1869).

See John Fulton's _Memoirs of Frederick A. P. Barnard_ (New York, 1896).

BARNARD, GEORGE GREY (1863- ), American sculptor, was born at Bellefonte,

Pennsylvania, on the 24th of May 1863. He first studied at the Art

Institute, Chicago, and in 1883-1887 worked in P. T. Cavelier's _atelier_

at Paris. He lived in Paris for twelve years, returning to America in 1896;

and with his first exhibit at the Salon of 1894 he scored a great success.

His principal works include, "The Boy" (1885); "Cain" (1886), later

destroyed; "Brotherly Love," sometimes called "Two Friends" (1887); the

allegorical "Two Natures" (1894, in the Metropolitan Museum, New York

City); "The Hewer" (1902, at Cairo, Illinois); "Great God Pan" (in Central

Park, New York City); the "Rose Maiden"; the simple and graceful

"Maidenhood"; and sculptural decorations for the new Capitol building for

the state of Pennsylvania at Harrisburg.

BARNARD, HENRY (1811-1900), American educationalist, was born in Hartford,

Connecticut, on the 24th of January 1811. He graduated at Yale in 1830, and

in 1835 was admitted to the Connecticut bar. In 1837-1839 he was a member

of the Connecticut legislature, effecting in 1838 the passage of a bill,

framed and introduced by himself, which provided for "the better

supervision of the common schools" and established a board of

"commissioners of common schools" in the state. Of this board he was the

secretary from 1838 till its abolition in 1842, and during this time worked

indefatigably to reorganize and reform the common school system of the

state, thus earning a national reputation as an educational reformer. In

1843 he was appointed by the governor of Rhode Island agent to examine the

public schools of the state, and recommended improvements; and his work

resulted in the reorganization of the school system two years later. From

1845 to 1849 he was the first commissioner of public schools in the state,

and his administration was marked by a decided step in educational

progress. Returning to Connecticut, he was, from 1851 to 1855,

"superintendent of common schools," and principal of the State Normal

School at New Britain, Conn. From 1859 to 1860 he was chancellor of the

University of Wisconsin and agent of the board of regents of the normal

school fund; in 1866 he was president of St John's College, Annapolis,

Maryland; and from 1867 to 1870 he was the first United States commissioner

of education, and in this position he laid the foundation for the

subsequent useful work of the Bureau of Education. His chief service to the

cause of education, however, was rendered as the editor, from 1855 to 1881,

of the _American Journal of Education_, the thirty-one volumes of which are

a veritable encyclopaedia of education, one of the most valuable

compendiums of information on the subject ever brought together through the

agency of any one man. He also edited from 1838 to 1842, and again from

1851 to 1854, the _Connecticut Common School Journal_, and from 1846 to

1849 the _Journal of the Rhode Island Institute of Instruction_. He died at

Hartford, Conn., on the 5th of July 1900. Among American educational

reformers, Barnard is entitled to rank next to Horace Mann of

Massachusetts.

See a biographical sketch by A. D. Mayo in the _Report of the Commissioner

of Education for_ 1896-1897 (Washington, 1898), and W. S. Monroe's

_Educational Labours of Henry Barnard_ (Syracuse, 1893).

BARNARD, JOHN, English musician, was a minor canon of St Paul's in the

reign of Charles I. He was the first to publish a collection of English

cathedral music. It contains some of the finest 16th-century masterpieces,

ranging from the "_faux-bourdon_" style of Tallis's _Pieces and Responses_

to the most developed types of full anthem. The text, however, is not

trustworthy.

BARNARD CASTLE, a market-town in the Barnard Castle parliamentary division

of Durham, England, 17 m. W. of Darlington by a branch of the North Eastern

railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4421. It is beautifully situated on

the steep left bank of the Tees. A noteworthy building in the town is the

octagonal town-hall, dating from 1747. There are a few picturesque old

houses, and a fragment of an Augustinian convent. St Mary's church, in a

variety of styles from Norman onward, contains some curious monuments; but

the building of chief interest is the castle, which gives the town its

name, and is the principal scene of Sir Walter Scott's _Rokeby_. The

remains extend over a space of more than six acres. A remarkable building

known as the Bowes' Mansion and Museum, bequeathed in 1874 to the town by a

descendant of Sir George Bowes, contains a valuable collection of works of

art. In the vicinity of the town are Egglestone Abbey, beautifully situated

on the Yorkshire bank of the river, Rokeby Park on the same bank, at the

confluence of the Greta, and the massive 14th century castle of Raby to the

north-east. The principal manufacture is shoe-thread. The corn-market is

important.

As part of the lordship of Gainford, Barnard Castle is said to have been

granted by William Rufus to Guy Baliol Bernard, son of Guy Baliol, who

built the castle, and called it after himself, Castle Bernard. To the men

of the town which grew up outside the castle walls he gave, about the

middle of the 12th century, a charter making them burgesses and granting

them the same privileges as the town of Richmond in Yorkshire. This charter

was confirmed by Bernard Baliol, son of the above Bernard. Other

confirmation charters were granted to the town by Hugh, John, and Alexander

Baliol. The castle and lordship remained in the hands of the Baliols until

John Baliol, king of Scotland, forfeited them with his other English

estates in 1296. Barnard Castle was then seized by Anthony, bishop of

Durham, as being within his palatinate of Durham. Edward I., however,

denied the bishop's rights and granted the castle and town to Guy

Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, whose descendants continued to hold them until

they passed to the crown by the marriage of Anne Nevill with Richard III.,

then duke of Gloucester. In 1630 Barnard Castle was sold to Sir Henry Vane,

and in the same year the castle is said to have been unroofed and

dismantled for the sake of the materials of which it was built. Tanning

leather was formerly one of the chief industries of the town. In 1614 an

act for "knights and burgesses to have place in parliament for the county

palatine and city of Durham and borough of Barnard [v.03 p.0411] Castle"

was brought into the House of Commons, but when the act was finally passed

for the county and city of Durham, Barnard Castle was not included.

BARNARDO, THOMAS JOHN (1845-1905), English philanthropist, and founder and

director of homes for destitute children, was born at Dublin, Ireland, in

1845. His father was of Spanish origin, his mother being an Englishwoman.

With the intention of qualifying for medical missionary work in China, he

studied medicine at the London hospital, and later at Paris and Edinburgh,

where he became a fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons. His medical work

in the east end of London during the epidemic of cholera in 1865 first drew

his attention to the great numbers of homeless and destitute children in

the cities of England. Encouraged by the support of the seventh earl of

Shaftesbury and the first Earl Cairns, he gave up his early ambition of

foreign missionary labour, and began what was to prove his life's work. The

first of the "Dr Barnardo's Homes" was opened in 1867 in Stepney Causeway,

London, where are still the headquarters of the institution. From that time

the work steadily increased until, at the time of the founder's death, in

1905, there were established 112 district "Homes," besides mission

branches, throughout the United Kingdom. The object for which these

institutions were started was to search for and to receive waifs and

strays, to feed, clothe, educate, and, where possible, to give an

industrial training suitable to each child. The principle adopted has been

that of free and immediate admission; there are no restrictions of age or

sex, religion or nationality; the physically robust and the incurably

diseased are alike received, the one necessary qualification being

destitution. The system under which the institution is carried on is

broadly as follows:--the infants and younger girls and boys are chiefly

"boarded out" in rural districts; girls above fourteen years of age are

sent to the industrial training homes, to be taught useful domestic

occupations; boys above seventeen years of age are first tested in labour

homes and then placed in employment at home, sent to sea or emigrated; boys

of between thirteen and seventeen years of age are trained for the various

trades for which they may be mentally or physically fitted. Besides the

various branches necessary for the foregoing work, there are also, among

others, the following institutions:--a rescue home for girls in danger, a

convalescent seaside home, and a hospital for sick waifs. In 1872 was

founded the girls' village home at Barkingside, near Ilford, with its own

church and sanatorium, and between sixty and seventy cottage homes, forming

a real "garden city"; and there Barnardo himself was buried. In 1901,

through the generosity of Mr E. H. Watts, a naval school was started at

North Elmham, near Norwich, to which boys are drafted from the homes to be

trained for the navy and the mercantile marine. Perhaps the most useful of

all the varied work instituted by Barnardo is the emigration system, by

which means thousands of boys and girls have been sent to British colonies,

chiefly to Canada, where there are distributing centres at Toronto and

Winnipeg, and an industrial farm of some 8000 acres near Russell in

Manitoba. The fact that in Canada less than 2% of the children sent out

proved failures confirmed Barnardo's conviction that "if the children of

the slums can be removed from their surroundings early enough, and can be

kept sufficiently long under training, heredity counts for little,

environment for almost everything." In 1899 the various institutions and

organizations were legally incorporated under the title of "The National

Association for the reclamation of Destitute Waif Children," but the

institution has always been familiarly known as "Dr Barnardo's Homes."

Barnardo laid great stress on the religious teaching of the children under

his care. Each child is brought up under the influence and teaching of the

denomination of the parents. The homes are divided into two sections for

religious teaching, Church of England and Nonconformists; children of

Jewish and Roman Catholic parentage are, where possible, handed over to the

care of the Jewish Board of Guardians in London, and to Roman Catholic

institutions, respectively. From the foundation of the homes in 1867 to the

date of Barnardo's death, nearly 60,000 children had been rescued, trained

and placed out in life. Barnardo died of angina pectoris in London on the

19th of September 1905. A national memorial was instituted to form a fund

of L250,000 to relieve the various institutions of all financial liability

and to place the entire work on a permanent basis. Dr William Baker,

formerly the chairman of the council, was selected to succeed the founder

of the homes as director. Barnardo was the author of many books dealing

with the charitable work to which he devoted his life.

His biography (1907) was written by his wife (the daughter of Mr William

Elmslie) and J. Marchant.

BARNAUL, a town of Asiatic Russia, government of Tomsk, standing in a plain

bounded by offshoots of the Altai Mountains, and on the Barnaulka river, at

its confluence with the Ob, in lat. 53deg 20' N. and long. 83deg 46' E.,

220 m. S. of Tomsk. It is the capital of the Altai mining districts, and

besides smelting furnaces possesses glassworks, a bell-foundry and a mint.

It has also a meteorological observatory, established in 1841, a mining

school and a museum with a rich collection of mineral and zoological

specimens. Barnaul was founded in 1730 by A. Demidov, to whose memory a

monument has been erected. Pop. (1900) 29,850.

BARNAVE, ANTOINE PIERRE JOSEPH MARIE (1761-1793), one of the greatest

orators of the first French Revolution, was born at Grenoble in Dauphine,

on the 22nd of October 1761. He was of a Protestant family. His father was

an advocate at the parlement of Grenoble, and his mother was a woman of

high birth, superior ability and noble character. He was educated by his

mother because, being a Protestant, he could not attend school, and he grew

up at once thoughtful and passionate, studious and social, handsome in

person and graceful in manners. He was brought up to the law, and at the

age of twenty-two made himself favourably known by a discourse pronounced

before the local parlement on the division of political powers. Dauphine

was one of the first of the provinces to feel the excitement of the coming

revolution; and Barnave was foremost to give voice to the general feeling,

in a pamphlet entitled _Esprit des edits enregistres militairement le 20

mai 1788_. He was immediately elected deputy, with his father, to the

states of Dauphine, and took a prominent part in their debates. A few

months later he was transferred to a wider field of action. The

states-general were convoked at Versailles for the 5th of May 1789, and

Barnave was chosen deputy of the _tiers etat_ for his native province. He

soon made an impression on the Assembly, became the friend of most of the

leaders of the popular party, and formed with Adrien Duport and Alexandre

Lameth (_q.v._) the group known during the Constituent Assembly as "the

triumvirate." He took part in the conference on the claims of the three

orders, drew up the first address to the king, and supported the proposal

of Sieyes that the Assembly should declare itself National. Until 1791 he

was one of the principal members of the club known later as the Jacobins,

of which he drew up the manifesto and first rules (see JACOBINS). Though a

passionate lover of liberty, he hoped to secure the freedom of France and

her monarchy at the same time. But he was almost unawares borne away by the

mighty currents of the time, and he took part in the attacks on the

monarchy, on the clergy, on church property, and on the provincial

parlements. With the one exception of Mirabeau, Barnave was the most

powerful orator of the Assembly. On several occasions he stood in

opposition to Mirabeau. After the fall of the Bastille he wished to save

the throne. He advocated the suspensory veto, and the establishment of

trial by jury in civil causes, but voted with the Left against the system

of two chambers. His conflict with Mirabeau on the question of assigning to

the king the right to make peace or war (from the 16th to the 23rd of May

1791) was one of the most striking scenes in the Assembly. In August 1790,

after a vehement debate, he fought a duel with J. A. M. de Cazales, in

which the latter was slightly wounded. About the close of October 1790

Barnave was called to the presidency of the Assembly. On the death of

Mirabeau a few months later, Barnave paid a high tribute to his worth and

public services, designating him the Shakespeare of oratory. On the arrest

of the king and the royal family at Varennes, while attempting to escape

from France, Barnave was [v.03 p.0412] one of the three appointed to

conduct them back to Paris. On the journey he was deeply affected by the

mournful fate of Marie-Antoinette, and resolved to do what he could to

alleviate their sufferings. In one of his most powerful speeches he

maintained the inviolability of the king's person. His public career came

to an end with the close of the Constituent Assembly, and he returned to

Grenoble at the beginning of 1792. His sympathy and relations with the

royal family, to whom he had submitted a plan for a counter-revolution, and

his desire to check the downward progress of the Revolution, brought on him

suspicion of treason. Denounced (15th of August 1792) in the Legislative

Assembly, he was arrested and imprisoned for ten months at Grenoble, then

transferred to Fort Barraux, and in November 1793 to Paris. The nobility of

his character was proof against the assaults of suffering. "Better to

suffer and to die," he said, "than lose one shade of my moral and political

character." On the 28th of November he appeared before the Revolutionary

Tribunal. He was condemned on the evidence of papers found at the Tuileries

and executed the next day, with Duport-Dutertre.

Barnave's _Oeuvres posthumes_ were published in 1842 by Berenger (de la

Drome) in 4 vols. See F. A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de l'assemblee

constituante_ (Paris, 1882).

BARNBY, SIR JOSEPH (1838-1896), English musical composer and conductor, son

of Thomas Barnby, an organist, was born at York on the 12th of August 1838.

He was a chorister at York minster from the age of seven, was educated at

the Royal Academy of Music under Cipriani Potter and Charles Lucas, and was

appointed in 1862 organist of St Andrew's, Wells Street, London, where he

raised the services to a high degree of excellence. He was conductor of

"Barnby's Choir" from 1864, and in 1871 was appointed, in succession to

Gounod, conductor of the Albert Hall Choral Society, a post he held till

his death. In 1875 he was precentor and director of music at Eton, and in

1892 became principal of the Guildhall School of Music, receiving the

honour of knighthood in July of that year. His works include an oratorio

_Rebekah_, _Ps. xcvii._, many services and anthems, and two hundred and

forty-six hymn-tunes (published in 1897 in one volume), as well as some

part-songs (among them the popular "Sweet and Low"), and some pieces for

the organ. As a conductor he possessed the qualities as well as the defects

of the typical north-countryman; if he was wanting in the higher kind of

imagination or ideality, he infused into those who sang under him something

of his own rectitude and precision. He was largely instrumental in

stimulating the love for Gounod's sacred music among the less educated part

of the London public, although he displayed little practical sympathy with

opera. On the other hand, he organized a remarkable concert performance of

_Parsifal_ at the Albert Hall in London in 1884. He conducted the Cardiff

Festivals of 1892 and 1895. He died in London on the 28th of January 1896,

and after a special service in St Paul's cathedral was buried in Norwood

Cemetery.

BARNES, ALBERT (1798-1870), American theologian, was born at Rome, New

York, on the 1st of December 1798. He graduated at Hamilton College,

Clinton, N.Y., in 1820, and at the Princeton Theological Seminary in 1823,

was ordained as a Presbyterian minister by the presbytery of Elizabethtown,

New Jersey, in 1825, and was the pastor successively of the Presbyterian

Church in Morristown, New Jersey (1825-1830) and of the First Presbyterian

Church of Philadelphia (1830-1867). He held a prominent place in the New

School branch of the Presbyterians, to which he adhered on the division of

the denomination in 1837; he had been tried (but not convicted) for heresy

in 1836, the charge being particularly against the views expressed by him

in _Notes_ on Romans (1835) of the imputation of the sin of Adam, original

sin and the atonement; the bitterness stirred up by this trial contributed

towards widening the breach between the conservative and the progressive

elements in the church. He was an eloquent preacher, but his reputation

rests chiefly on his expository works, which are said to have had a larger

circulation both in Europe and America than any others of their class. Of

the well-known _Notes on the New Testament_ it is said that more than a

million volumes had been issued by 1870. The _Notes_ on Job, the Psalms,

Isaiah and Daniel, found scarcely less acceptance. Displaying no original

critical power, their chief merit lies in the fact that they bring in a

popular (but not always accurate) form the results of the criticism of

others within the reach of general readers. Barnes was the author of

several other works of a practical and devotional kind, and a collection of

his _Theological Works_ was published in Philadelphia in 1875. He died in

Philadelphia on the 24th of December 1870.

BARNES, BARNABE (1569?-1609), English poet, fourth son of Dr Richard

Barnes, bishop of Durham, was born in Yorkshire, perhaps at Stonegrave, a

living of his father's, in 1568 or 1569. In 1586 he was entered at

Brasenose College, Oxford, where Giovanni Florio was his servitor, and in

1591 went to France with the earl of Essex, who was then serving against

the prince of Parma. On his return he published _Parthenophil and

Parthenophe, Sonnettes, Madrigals, Elegies and Odes_ (ent. on Stationers'

Register 1593), dedicated to his "dearest friend," William Percy, who

contributed a sonnet to the eulogies prefixed to a later work, _Offices_.

_Parthenophil_ was possibly printed for private circulation, and the copy

in the duke of Devonshire's library is believed to be unique. Barnes was

well acquainted with the work of contemporary French sonneteers, to whom he

is largely indebted, and he borrows his title, apparently, from a

Neapolitan writer of Latin verse, Hieronymus Angerianus. It is possible to

outline a story from this series of love lyrics, but the incidents are

slight, and in this case, as in other Elizabethan sonnet-cycles, it is

difficult to dogmatize as to what is the expression of a real personal

experience, and what is intellectual exercise in imitation of Petrarch.

_Parthenophil_ abounds in passages of great freshness and beauty, although

its elaborate conceits are sometimes over-ingenious and strained. Barnes

took the part of Gabriel Harvey and even experimented in classical metres.

This partisanship is sufficient to account for the abuse of Thomas Nashe,

who accused him, apparently on no proof at all, of stealing a nobleman's

chain at Windsor, and of other things. Barnes's second work, _A Divine

Centurie of Spirituall Sonnetts_, appeared in 1595. He also wrote two

plays:--_The Divil's Charter_ (1607), a tragedy dealing with the life of

Pope Alexander VI., which was played before the king; and _The Battle of

Evesham_ (or Hexham), of which the MS., traced to the beginning of the 18th

century, is lost. In 1606 he dedicated to King James _Offices enabling

privat Persons for the speciall service of all good Princes and Policies_,

a prose treatise containing, among other things, descriptions of Queen

Elizabeth and of the earl of Essex. Barnes was buried at Durham in December

1609.

His _Parthenophil_ and _Spirituall Sonnetts_ were edited by Dr A. B.

Grosart in a limited issue in 1875; _Parthenophil_ was included by Prof. E.

Arber in vol. v. of _An English Garner_; see also the new edition of _An

English Garner_ (_Elizabethan Sonnets_, ed. S. Lee, 1904, pp. lxxv. et

seq.). Professor E. Dowden contributed a sympathetic criticism of Barnes to

_The Academy_ of Sept. 2, 1876.

BARNES, SIR EDWARD (1776-1838), British soldier, entered the 47th regiment

in 1792, and quickly rose to field rank. He was promoted lieutenant-colonel

in 1807, and colonel in 1810, and two years later went to the Peninsula to

serve on Wellington's staff. His services in this capacity gained him

further promotion, and as a major-general he led a brigade at Vittoria and

in the Pyrenean battles. He had the cross and three clasps for his

Peninsula service. As adjutant-general he served in the campaign of 1815

and was wounded at Waterloo. Already a K.C.B., he now received the Austrian

order of Maria Theresa, and the Russian order of St Anne. In 1819 began his

connexion with Ceylon, of which island he was governor from 1824 to 1831.

He directed the construction of the great military road between Colombo and

Kandy, and of many other lines of communication, made the first census of

the population, and introduced coffee cultivation on the West Indian system

(1824). In 1831 he received the G.C.B., and from 1831 to 1853 he was

commander-in-chief in India, with the local rank of general. On his return

home, after two unsuccessful attempts to secure the seat, he became M.P.

for Sudbury in 1837, but he died in the following [v.03 p.0413] year. Sir

Edward Barnes' portrait was painted, for Ceylon, by John Wood, and a

memorial statue was erected in Colombo.

BARNES, JOSHUA (1654-1712), English scholar, was born in London on the 10th

of January 1654. Educated at Christ's Hospital and at Emmanuel College,

Cambridge, he was in 1695 chosen regius professor of Greek, a language

which he wrote and spoke with the utmost facility. One of his first

publications was entitled _Gerania; a New Discovery of a Little Sort of

People, anciently discoursed of, called Pygmies_ (1675), a whimsical sketch

to which Swift's _Voyage to Lilliput_ possibly owes something. Among his

other works are a _History of that Most Victorious Monarch Edward III._

(1688), in which he introduces long and elaborate speeches into the

narrative; editions of Euripides (1694) and of Homer (1711), also one of

Anacreon (1705) which contains titles of Greek verses of his own which he

hoped to publish. He died on the 3rd of August 1712, at Hemingford, near St

Ives, Hunts.

BARNES, ROBERT (1495-1540), English reformer and martyr, born about 1495,

was educated at Cambridge, where he was a member, and afterwards prior of

the convent of Austin Friars, and graduated D.D. in 1523. He was apparently

one of the Cambridge men who were wont to gather at the White Horse Tavern

for Bible-reading and theological discussion early in the third decade of

the 16th century. In 1526, he was brought before the vice-chancellor for

preaching a heterodox sermon, and was subsequently examined by Wolsey and

four other bishops. He was condemned to abjure or be burnt; and preferring

the former alternative, was committed to the Fleet prison and afterwards to

the Austin Friars in London. He escaped thence to Antwerp in 1528, and also

visited Wittenberg, where he made Luther's acquaintance. He also came

across Stephen Vaughan, an agent of Thomas Cromwell and an advanced

reformer, who recommended him to Cromwell: "Look well," he wrote, "upon Dr

Barnes' book. It is such a piece of work as I have not yet seen any like

it. I think he shall seal it with his blood" (_Letters and Papers of Henry

VIII._ v. 593). In 1531 Barnes returned to England, and became one of the

chief intermediaries between the English government and Lutheran Germany.

In 1535 he was sent to Germany, in the hope of inducing Lutheran divines to

approve of Henry's divorce from Catherine of Aragon, and four years later

he was employed in negotiations connected with Anne of Cleves's marriage.

The policy was Cromwell's, but Henry VIII. had already in 1538 refused to

adopt Lutheran theology, and the statute of Six Articles (1539), followed

by the king's disgust with Anne of Cleves (1540), brought the agents of

that policy to ruin. An attack upon Bishop Gardiner by Barnes in a sermon

at St Paul's Cross was the signal for a bitter struggle between the

Protestant and reactionary parties in Henry's council, which raged during

the spring of 1540. Barnes was forced to apologize and recant; and Gardiner

delivered a series of sermons at St Paul's Cross to counteract Barnes'

invective. But a month or so later Cromwell was made earl of Essex,

Gardiner's friend, Bishop Sampson, was sent to the Tower, and Barnes

reverted to Lutheranism. It was a delusive victory. In July, Cromwell was

attainted, Anne of Cleves was divorced and Barnes was burnt (30th July

1540). He also had an act of attainder passed against him, a somewhat novel

distinction for a heretic, which illustrates the way in which Henry VIII.

employed secular machinery for ecclesiastical purposes, and regarded heresy

as an offence against the state rather than against the church. Barnes was

one of six executed on the same day: two, William Jerome and Thomas

Gerrard, were, like himself, burnt for heresy under the Six Articles;

three, Thomas Abel, Richard Fetherstone and Edward Powell, were hanged for

treason in denying the royal supremacy. Both Lutherans and Catholics on the

continent were shocked. Luther published Barnes' confession with a preface

of his own as _Bekenntnis des Glaubens_ (1540), which is included in

Walch's edition of Luther's _Werke_ xxi. 186.

See _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._ vols. iv.-xv. _passim_;

Wriothesley's _Chronicle_; Foxe's _Acts and Monuments_, ed. G. Townsend

Burnet's _Hist. of the Ref._, ed. Pocock; Dixon's _Hist. of the Church_;

Gairdner's _Church in the XVIth Century_; Pollard's _Henry VIII. and

Cranmer_; Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, 3rd ed.

(A. F. P.)

BARNES, THOMAS (1785-1841), British journalist, was born about 1785.

Educated at Christ's Hospital and Pembroke College, Cambridge, he came to

London and soon joined the famous literary circle of which Hunt, Lamb and

Hazlitt were prominent members. Upon the retirement of Dr Stoddart in 1817

he was appointed editor of _The Times_, a position which he held until his

death, when he was succeeded by Delane. Lord Lyndhurst gave expression to a

very widely-held opinion when he described him as "the most powerful man in

the country." He died on the 7th of May 1841.

BARNES, WILLIAM (1800-1886), the Dorsetshire poet, was born on the 22nd of

February 1800, at Rushay, near Pentridge in Dorset, the son of John Barnes

and Grace Scott, of the farmer class. He was a delicate child, in direct

contrast to a strong race of forebears, and inherited from his mother a

refined, retiring disposition and a love for books. He went to school at

Sturminster Newton, where he was considered the clever boy of the school;

and when a solicitor named Dashwood applied to the master for a

quick-witted boy to join him as pupil, Barnes was selected for the post. He

worked with the village parson in his spare hours at classics and studied

music under the organist. In 1818 he left Sturminster for the office of one

Coombs at Dorchester, where he continued his evening education with another

kindly clergyman. He also made great progress in the art of wood-engraving,

and with the money he received for a series of blocks for a work called

_Walks about Dorchester_, he printed and published his first book, _Orra, a

Lapland Tale_, in 1822. In the same year he became engaged to Julia Miles,

the daughter of an excise officer. In 1823 he took a school at Mere in

Wiltshire, and four years later married and settled in Chantry House, a

fine old Tudor mansion in that town. The school grew in numbers, and Barnes

occupied all his spare time in assiduous study, reading during these years

authors so diverse in character as Herodotus, Sallust, Ovid, Petrarch,

Buffon and Burns. He also began to write poetry, and printed many of his

verses in the _Dorset County Chronicle_. His chief studies, however, were

philological; and in 1829 he published _An Etymological Glossary of English

Words of Foreign Derivation_. In 1832 a strolling company of actors visited

Mere, and Barnes wrote a farce, _The Honest Thief_, which they produced,

and a comedy which was played at Wincanton. Barnes also wrote a number of

educational books, such as _Elements of Perspective, Outlines of

Geography_, and in 1833 first began his poems in the Dorsetshire dialect,

among them the two eclogues "The 'Lotments" and "A Bit o' Sly Coorten," in

the pages of the local paper. In 1835 he left Mere, and returned to

Dorchester, where he started another school, removing in 1837 into larger

quarters. In 1844 he published _Poems of Rural Life in the Dorset Dialect_.

Three years later Barnes took holy orders, and was appointed to the cure of

Whitcombe, 3 m. from Dorchester. He had been for some years upon the books

of St John's College, Cambridge, and took the degree of B.D. in 1850. He

resigned Whitcombe in 1852, finding the work too hard in connexion with his

mastership; and in June of that year he sustained a severe bereavement by

the death of his wife. Continuing his studies in the science of language,

he published his _Philological Grammar_ in 1854, drawing examples from more

than sixty languages. For the copyright of this erudite work he received

L5. The second series of dialect poems, _Hwomely Rhymes_, appeared in 1859

(2nd ed. 1863). _Hwomely Rhymes_ contained some of his best-known pieces,

and in the year of its publication he first began to give readings from his

works. As their reputation grew he travelled all over the country,

delighting large audiences with his quaint humour and natural pathos. In

1861 he was awarded a civil list pension of L70 a year, and in the next

year published _Tiw_, the most striking of his philological studies, in

which the Teutonic roots in the English language are discussed. Barnes had

a horror of Latin forms in English, and would have substituted English

compounds for many Latin forms in common use. In 1862 he broke up his

school, and [v.03 p.0414] removed to the rectory of Winterborne Came, to

which he was presented by his old friend, Captain Seymour Dawson Damer.

Here he worked continuously at verse and prose, contributing largely to the

magazines. A new series of _Poems of Rural Life in the Dorset Dialect_

appeared in 1862, and he was persuaded in 1868 to publish a series of

_Poems of Rural Life in Common English_, which was less successful than his

dialect poems. These latter were collected into a single volume in 1879,

and on the 7th of October 1886 Barnes died at Winterborne Came. His poetry

is essentially English in character; no other writer has given quite so

simple and sincere a picture of the homely life and labour of rural

England. His work is full of humour and the clean, manly joy of life; and

its rusticity is singularly allied to a literary sense and to high

technical finish. He is indeed the Victorian Theocritus; and, as English

country life is slowly swept away before the advance of the railway and the

telegraph, he will be more and more read for his warm-hearted and fragrant

record of rustic love and piety. His original and suggestive books on the

English language, which are valuable in spite of their eccentricities,

include:--_Se Gefylsta: an Anglo-Saxon Delectus_ (1849); _A Grammar and

Glossary of the Dorset Dialect_ (1864); _An Outline of English

Speech-Craft_ (1878); and _A Glossary of the Dorset Dialect_ (Dorchester,

1886).

See _The Life of William Barnes, Poet and Philologist_ (1887), by his

daughter, Lucy E. Baxter, who is known as a writer on art by the pseudonym

of Leader Scott; and a notice by Thomas Hardy in the _Athenaeum_ (16th of

October 1886).

BARNET, a residential district in the mid or St Albans parliamentary

division of Hertfordshire, England; 10 m. N. of London, served by the main

line and branches of the Great Northern railway. The three chief divisions

are as follows:--(1) CHIPPING or HIGH BARNET, a market town and urban

district (Barnet), pop. (1901) 7876. The second epithet designates its

position on a hill, but the first is given it from the market granted to

the abbots of St Albans to be kept there, by Henry II. Near the town, round

a point marked by an obelisk, was fought in 1471 the decisive battle

between the houses of York and Lancaster, in which the earl of Warwick fell

and the Lancastrians were totally defeated. The town is on the Great North

Road, on which it was formerly an important coaching station. A large

annual horse and cattle fair is held. (2) EAST BARNET, 2 m. S.E. of

Chipping Barnet, has an ancient parish church retaining Norman portions,

though enlarged in modern times. Pop. of East Barnet Valley urban district,

10,094. (3) NEW BARNET lies 1 m. E. by S. from Chipping Barnet.

FRIERN BARNET, in the Enfield parliamentary division of Middlesex, lies 3

m. S. of Chipping Barnet. Pop. of urban district, 11,566. The prefix

recalls the former lordship of the manor possessed by the friary of St John

of Jerusalem in Clerkenwell, London. Friern Barnet adjoins Finchley on the

north and Whetstone on the south, the whole district being residential.

BARNETT, JOHN (1802-1890), English musical composer, son of a Prussian

named Bernhard Beer, who changed his name on settling in England as a

jeweller, was born at Bedford, and at the age of eleven sang on the Lyceum

stage in London. His good voice led to his being given a musical education,

and he soon began writing songs and lighter pieces for the stage. In 1834

he published a collection of _Lyrical Illustrations of the Modern Poets_,

His _Mountain Sylph_--with which his name is chiefly connected--received a

warm welcome when produced at the Lyceum on August 25, 1834, as the first

modern English opera: and it was followed by another opera _Fair Rosamund_

in 1837, and by _Farinelli_ in 1839. He had a large connexion as a

singing-master at Cheltenham, and published _Systems and Singing-masters_

(1842) and _School for the Voice_ (1844). He died on the 16th of April

1890.

His nephew, JOHN FRANCIS BARNETT (1837- ), son of John's brother, Joseph

Alfred, also a professor of music, carried on the traditions of the family

as a composer and teacher. He obtained a queen's scholarship at the Royal

Academy of Music, and developed into an accomplished pianist, visiting

Germany to study in 1857 and playing at a Gewandhaus concert at Leipzig in

1860. He came into notice as a composer with his symphony in A minor

(1864), and followed this with a number of compositions for orchestra,

strings or pianoforte. His cantata _The Ancient Mariner_ was brought out at

Birmingham in 1867, and another, _Paradise and the Peri_, in 1870, both

with great success. In 1873 his most important work, the oratorio _The

Raising of Lazarus_, was written, and in 1876 produced at Hereford. Many

other cantatas, pianoforte pieces, &c. were composed by him, and

successfully brought out; and he took an active part as a professor in the

work of the Guildhall School of Music and Royal College of Music.

BARNETT, SAMUEL AUGUSTUS (1844- ), English clergyman and social reformer,

was born at Bristol on the 8th of February 1844, the son of Francis

Augustus Barnett, an iron manufacturer. After leaving Wadham College,

Oxford, in 1866, he visited the United States. Next year he was ordained to

the curacy of St Mary's, Bryanston Square, and took priest's orders in

1868. In 1872 he became vicar of St Jude's, Commercial Street, Whitechapel,

and in the next year married Henrietta Octavia Rowland, who had been a

co-worker with Miss Octavia Hill and was no less ardent a philanthropist

than her husband. Mr and Mrs Barnett worked hard for the poor of their

parish, opening evening schools for adults, providing them with music and

reasonable entertainment, and serving on the board of guardians and on the

managing committees of schools. Mr Barnett did much to discourage outdoor

relief, as tending to the pauperization of the neighbourhood. At the same

time the conditions of indoor relief were improved, and the various

charities were co-ordinated, by co-operation with the Charity Organization

Society and the parish board of guardians. In 1875 Arnold Toynbee paid a

visit, the first of many, to Whitechapel, and Mr Barnett, who kept in

constant touch with Oxford, formed in 1877 a small committee, over which he

presided himself, to consider the organization of university extension in

London, his chief assistants being Leonard Montefiore, a young Oxford man,

and Frederick Rogers, a member of the vellum binders' trade union. The

committee received influential support, and in October four courses of

lectures, one by Dr S. R. Gardiner on English history, were given in

Whitechapel. The Barnetts were also associated with the building of model

dwellings, with the establishment of the children's country holiday fund

and the annual loan exhibitions of fine art at the Whitechapel gallery. In

1884 an article by Mr Barnett in the _Nineteenth Century_ discussed the

question of university settlements. This resulted in July in the formation

of the University Settlements Association, and when Toynbee Hall was built

shortly afterwards Mr Barnett became its warden. He was a select preacher

at Oxford in 1895-1897, and at Cambridge in 1900; he received a canonry in

Bristol cathedral in 1893, but retained his wardenship of Toynbee Hall,

while relinquishing the living of St Jude's. In June 1906 he was preferred

to a canonry at Westminster, and when in December he resigned the

wardenship of Toynbee Hall the position of president was created so that he

might retain his connexion with the institution. Among Canon Barnett's

works is _Practicable Socialism_ (1888, 2nd ed. 1894), written in

conjunction with his wife.

BARNFIELD, RICHARD (1574-1627), English poet, was born at Norbury,

Staffordshire, and baptized on the 13th of June 1574. His obscure though

close relationship with Shakespeare has long made him interesting to

students and has attracted of late years further attention from the

circumstance that important discoveries regarding his life have been made.

Until recently nothing whatever was known about the facts of Barnfield's

career, whose very existence had been doubted. It was, however, discovered

by the late Dr A. B. Grosart that the poet was the son of Richard Barnfield

(or Barnefield) and Maria Skrymsher, his wife, who were married in April

1572. They resided in the parish of Norbury, in Staffordshire, on the

borders of Salop, where the poet was baptized on the 13th of June 1574. The

mother died in giving birth to a daughter early in 1581, and her unmarried

sister, Elizabeth Skrymsher, seems to have devoted herself to the care of

the children. In November 1589 Barnfield matriculated at Brasenose College,

Oxford, and took his degree in [v.03 p.0415] February 1592. He "performed

the exercise for his master's gown," but seems to have left the university

abruptly, without proceeding to the M.A. It is conjectured that he came up

to London in 1593, and became acquainted with Watson, Drayton, and perhaps

with Spenser. The death of Sir Philip Sidney had occurred while Barnfield

was still a school-boy, but it seems to have strongly affected his

imagination and to have inspired some of his earliest verses. In November

1594, in his twenty-first year, Barnfield published anonymously his first

work, _The Affectionate Shepherd_, dedicated with familiar devotion to

Penelope, Lady Rich. This was a sort of florid romance, in two books of

six-line stanza, in the manner of Lodge and Shakespeare, dealing at large

with "the complaint of Daphnis for the love of Ganymede." As the author

expressly admitted later, it was an expansion or paraphrase of Virgil's

second eclogue--

"Formosum pastor Corydon ardebat Alexin."

This poem of Barnfield's was the most extraordinary specimen hitherto

produced in England of the licence introduced from Italy at the

Renaissance. Although the poem was successful, it did not pass without

censure from the moral point of view. Into the conventional outlines of

_The Affectionate Shepherd_ the young poet has poured all his fancy, all

his epithets, and all his coloured touches of nature. If we are not

repelled by the absurd subject, we have to admit that none of the immediate

imitators of _Venus and Adonis_ has equalled the juvenile Barnfield in the

picturesqueness of his "fine ruff-footed doves," his "speckled flower

call'd sops-in-wine," or his desire "by the bright glimmering of the starry

light, to catch the long-bill'd woodcock." Two months later, in January

1595, Barnfield published his second volume, _Cynthia, with certain

Sonnets_, and this time signed the preface, which was dedicated, in terms

which imply close personal relations, to William Stanley, the new earl of

Derby. This is a book of extreme interest; it exemplifies the earliest

study both of Spenser and Shakespeare. "Cynthia" itself, a panegyric on

Queen Elizabeth, is written in the Spenserian stanza, of which it is

probably the earliest example extant outside _The Faerie Queene_. This is

followed by a sequence of twenty sonnets, which have the extraordinary

interest that, while preceding the publication of Shakespeare's sonnets by

fourteen years, they are closer to them in manner than are any others of

the Elizabethan age. They celebrate, with extravagant ardour, the charms of

a young man whose initials seem to have been J. U. or J. V., and of whom

nothing else seems known. These sonnets, which preceded even the _Amoretti_

of Spenser, are of unusual merit as poetry, and would rank as high in

quality as in date of publication if their subject-matter were not so

preposterous. They show the influence of Drayton's _Idea_, which had

appeared a few months before; in that collection also, it is to be

observed, there had appeared amatory sonnets addressed to a young man. If

editors would courageously alter the gender of the pronouns, several of

Barnfield's glowing sonnets might take their place at once in our

anthologies. Before the publication of his volume, however, he had repented

of his heresies, and had become enamoured of a "lass" named Eliza (or

Elizabeth), whom he celebrates with effusion in an "Ode." This is probably

the lady whom he presently married, and as we find him a grandfather in

1626 it is unlikely that the wedding was long delayed. In 1598 Barnfield

published his third volume, _The Encomion of Lady Pecunia_, a poem in

praise of money, followed by a sort of continuation, in the same six-line

stanza, called "The Complaint of Poetry for the Death of Liberality." In

this volume there is already a decline in poetic quality. But an appendix

of "Poems in diverse Humours" to this volume of 1598 presents some very

interesting features. Here appears what seems to be the absolutely earliest

praise of Shakespeare in a piece entitled "A Remembrance of some English

Poets," in which the still unrecognized author of _Venus and Adonis_ is

celebrated by the side of Spenser, Daniel and Drayton. Here also are the

sonnet, "If Music and sweet Poetry agree," and the beautiful ode beginning

"As it fell upon a day," which were until recently attributed to

Shakespeare himself. In the next year, 1599, _The Passionate Pilgrim_ was

published, with the words "By W. Shakespeare" on the title-page. It was

long supposed that this attribution was correct, but Barnfield claimed one

of the two pieces just mentioned, not only in 1598, but again in 1605. It

is certain that both are his, and possibly other things in _The Passionate

Pilgrim_ also; Shakespeare's share in the twenty poems of that miscellany

being doubtless confined to the five short pieces which have been

definitely identified as his. In the opinion of the present writer the

sonnet beginning "Sweet Cytherea" has unmistakably the stamp of Barnfield,

and is probably a gloss on the first rapturous perusal of _Venus and

Adonis_; the same is to be said of "Scarce had the sun," which is _aut

Barnfield, aut diabolus_. One or two other contributions to _The Passionate

Pilgrim_ may be conjectured, with less confidence, to be Barnfield's. It

has been stated that the poet was now studying the law at Gray's Inn, but

for this the writer is unable to discover the authority, except that

several members of that society are mentioned in the course of the volume

of 1598. In all probability Barnfield now married and withdrew to his

estate of Dorlestone (or Darlaston), in the county of Stafford, a house

romantically situated on the river Trent, where he henceforth resided as a

country gentleman. In 1605 he reprinted his _Lady Pecunia_, and this was

his latest appearance as a man of letters. His son Robert Barnfield and his

cousin Elinor Skrymsher were his executors when his will was proved at

Lichfield; his wife, therefore, doubtless predeceased him. Barnfield died

at Dorlestone Hall, and was buried in the neighbouring parish church of St

Michael's, Stone, on the 6th of March 1627. The labours of Dr Grosart and

of Professor Arber have thrown much light on the circumstances of

Barnfield's career. He has taken of late years a far more prominent place

than ever before in the history of English literature. This is due partly

to the remarkable merit of his graceful, melodious and highly-coloured

verse, which was practically unknown until it was privately printed in 1876

(ed. Grosart, Roxburghe Club), and at length given to the public in 1882

(ed. Arber, _English Scholars' Library_). It is also due to the mysterious

personal relation of Barnfield to Shakespeare, a relation not easy to prove

in detail, as it is built up on a great variety of small indications. It

is, however, obvious that Barnfield warmly admired Shakespeare, whose

earliest imitator he may be said to have been, and that between 1595 and

1600 the younger poet was so close to the elder that the compositions of

the former could be confused with those of the latter. Barnfield died, as a

poet, in his twenty-fifth year. Up to that time he had displayed a talent

which, if he had pursued it, might have placed him very high among the

English poets. As it is, he will always interest a certain number of

readers as being, in his languid "Italianate" way, a sort of ineffectual

Meleager in the rich Elizabethan anthology.

Besides the editions already cited, _The Affectionate Shepherd_ was edited

by Mr J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps for the Percy Society (_Early English

Poetry_, vol. xx.); _The Encomion of Pecunia_ and some other poems by J.

Boswell (Roxburghe Club, 1816); and by J. P. Collier in _Illustrations of

Old English Literature_ (vol. i., 1866).

(E. G.)

BARNIM, the name of a district between the Spree, the Oder and the Havel,

which was added to the mark of Brandenburg during the 13th century. In the

15th century it was divided into upper and lower Barnim, and these names

are now borne by two circles (_Kreise_) in the kingdom of Prussia.

BARNIM, the name of thirteen dukes who ruled over various divisions of the

duchy of Pomerania. The following are the most important:--

BARNIM I. (_c._ 1209-1278), called the _Good_, was the son of Bogislaus

II., duke of Pomerania-Stettin, and succeeded to this duchy on his father's

death in 1220. After he became of age he was engaged in a long struggle

with external enemies, and in 1250 was compelled to recognize the supremacy

of the margrave of Brandenburg. Having in 1264 united the whole of

Pomerania under his rule, Barnim devoted his energies to improving its

internal condition. He introduced German settlers and customs into the

duchy, founded many towns, and was extremely generous towards

ecclesiastical foundations. He died on the 13th or 14th of November 1278.

BARNIM III. (_c._ 1303-1368), called the _Great_, was the son of Otto I.,

duke of Pomerania-Stettin, and took a prominent part in the defence and

government of the duchy before his father's [v.03 p.0416] death in 1344. A

long and intermittent struggle with the representatives of the emperor

Louis IV., who had invested his own son Louis with the mark of Brandenburg,

enabled him to gain military experience and distinction. A victory gained

by him in August 1332 was mainly instrumental in freeing Pomerania for a

time from the vexatious claim of Brandenburg to supremacy over the duchy,

which moreover he extended by conquest. Barnim assisted the emperor Charles

IV. in his struggle with the family of Wittelsbach. He died on the 24th of

August 1368.

BARNIM XI. (1501-1573), son of Bogislaus X., duke of Pomerania, became duke

on his father's death in 1523. He ruled for a time in common with his elder

brother George; and after George's death in 1531 he shared the duchy with

his nephew Philip I., retaining for himself the duchy of Pomerania-Stettin.

The earlier years of his rule were troubled by a quarrel with the margrave

of Brandenburg, who wished to annex Pomerania. In 1529, however, a treaty

was made which freed Pomerania from the supremacy of Brandenburg on

condition that if the ducal family became extinct the duchy should revert

to Brandenburg. Barnim adopted the doctrines of Martin Luther, and joined

the league of Schmalkalden, but took no part in the subsequent war. But as

this attitude left him without supporters he was obliged to submit to the

emperor Charles V., to pay a heavy fine, and to accept the _Interim_,

issued from Augsburg in May 1548. In 1569 Barnim handed over his duchy to

his grand-nephew, John Frederick, and died at Stettin on the 2nd of June

1573.

BARNSLEY (BLACK, or properly BLEAK BARNSLEY), a market town and municipal

borough in the Barnsley parliamentary division of the West Riding of

Yorkshire, England, 15 m. N. of Sheffield. Pop. (1891) 35,427; (1901)

41,086. It is served by the Midland, Great Central, Lancashire & Yorkshire,

Great Northern, and Hull & Barnsley railways. It is in the parish of

Silkstone, which gives name to important collieries. It is situated on

rising ground west of the river Dearne, and, though it loses in attraction

owing to its numerous factories, its neighbourhood has considerable natural

beauty. Among the principal buildings and institutions are several

churches, of which the oldest, the parish church of St Mary, was built in

1821 on an early site; court house, public hall, institute and free

library. Among several educational institutions, the free grammar school

dates from 1665; and a philosophical society was founded in 1828. A

monument was erected in 1905 to prominent members of the Yorkshire Miners'

Association. The park was presented in 1862 by the widow of Joseph Locke,

M.P. The manufacture of iron and steel, and the weaving of linen and other

cloth, are the two principal industries; but there are also bleachfields,

printfields, dyeworks, sawmills, cornmills and malt-houses; and the

manufacture of glass, needles and wire is carried on. There are large

coalfields in the neighbourhood, which, indeed, extend under the town. Coal

and coke are largely exported to London and Hull. In the vicinity, Monk

Bretton Priory, a Cluniac foundation of 1157, retains a Perpendicular

gatehouse, some Decorated domestic remains, and fragments of the church.

Wentworth Castle, built in 1730 by Thomas, earl of Strafford, stands in a

singularly beautiful park, and contains a fine collection of portraits of

historical interest. Besides the communications afforded by railway,

Barnsley has the advantage of connexion with the Aire and Calder Navigation

system of canals. The borough is under a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen

councillors. Area, 2385 acres.

At the time of the Domesday survey Ilbert de Lacy held Barnsley by gift of

William the Conqueror as part of the honour of Pontefract, and the

overlordship remained in his family until the reign of Stephen, when it was

granted by Henry de Lacy to the monks of Pontefract. Henry III. in 1249

granted the prior and convent of Pontefract a market every Wednesday at

Barnsley, and a fair on the vigil and feast of St Michael and two following

days, and Henry VIII. in 1512 granted them a new fair on the day of the

Conversion of St Paul and two following days. The monastery evidently also

held another fair there called St Ellen's fair, for in 1583 Queen Elizabeth

granted this fair and St Paul's fair and the market "lately belonging to

the dissolved monastery of Pontefract" to one Henry Burdett, and Ralph and

Henry his sons for their lives. Besides these charters and others granting

land in Barnsley to the monks of Pontefract there is very little history of

the town, since it was not until after the introduction of the linen

manufacture in 1744 that it became really important. Before that time the

chief industry had been wire-drawing, but this trade began to decrease

about the end of the 18th century, just as the linen trade was becoming

important. In 1869 Barnsley was incorporated.

See Rowland Jackson, _The History of the Town and Township of Barnsley_

(1858); _Victoria County History--Yorkshire_.

BARNSTABLE, a seaport township and the county-seat of the county of the

same name, in Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop. (1900) 4364, of whom 391 were

foreign-born; (1910, U.S. census) 4676. Barnstable is served by the New

York, New Haven & Hartford Railway. It is situated between Cape Cod Bay on

the N. and Nantucket Sound on the S., extending across Cape Cod. The soil

of the township, unlike that of other parts of the county, is well adapted

to agriculture, and the principal industry is the growing of vegetables and

the supplying of milk and poultry for its several villages, nearly all of

which are summer resorts. At Hyannis is a state normal school (1897;

co-educational). Cranberries are raised in large quantities, and there are

oyster and other shell fisheries. In the 17th century the mackerel and

whale fisheries were the basis of economic life; the latter gave way later

to the cod and other fisheries, but the fishing industry is now relatively

unimportant. Much of the county is a region of sands, salt-marshes,

beach-grass and scattered woods. From 1865 to 1895 the county diminished

20.1% in population. Barnstable was settled and incorporated in 1639

(county created 1685), and includes among its natives James Otis and Lemuel

Shaw.

See F. Freeman, _The History of Cape Cod: the Annals of Barnstable County_

(2 vols., Boston, 1858, 1862; and other impressions 1860 to 1869).

BARNSTAPLE, a seaport, market town and municipal borough, in the Barnstaple

parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on the river Taw, near the

north coast. Pop. (1901) 14,137. It is served by the London &

South-Western, the Great Western, and the Lynton & Barnstaple railways. The

Taw is here crossed by a stone bridge of sixteen arches, said to have been

built in the 12th or 13th century. The town manufactures lace, gloves,

sail-cloth and fishing-nets, and has extensive potteries, tanneries,

sawmills and foundries, while shipbuilding is also carried on. The harbour

admits only small coasting vessels. The public buildings and institutions

include a guildhall (1826), a free grammar school and a large market-place.

The poet John Gay was born in the vicinity, and received his education at

the grammar school, which at an earlier period had numbered Bishop Jewel

among its pupils. It was founded in the 14th century, in connexion with a

chantry. There are also some curious Jacobean almshouses. The borough is

under a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area, 2236 acres.

Barnstaple (Berdestaple, Barnstapol, Barstaple, also Barum) ranks among the

most ancient of royal boroughs. As early as Domesday, where it is several

times mentioned, there were forty burgesses within the town and nine

without, who rendered 40s. Tradition claims that King Athelstan threw up

defensive earthworks here, but the existing castle is attributed to Joel of

Totnes, who held the manor during the reign of William the Conqueror, and

also founded a Cluniac priory, dedicated to St Mary Magdalene. From this

date the borough and priory grew up side by side, but each preserving its

independent privileges and rights of government until the dissolution of

the latter in 1535. In Edward II.'s reign the burgesses petitioned for the

restoration of rights bestowed by a pretended charter from Athelstan. The

existence of this charter was denied, but the desired privileges were

conceded, including the right to elect a mayor. The earliest authenticated

charter is that of Henry I., which was confirmed in a charter of Henry II.

The later charter states that the burgesses should have customs similar to

those granted to London, and further charters confirmed the same right. A

charter of Queen Mary in 1556 added some new privileges, and specified that

the common council should consist of a mayor, two aldermen [v.03 p.0417]

and twenty-four chief burgesses. James I., by a charter dated 1610,

increased the number of chief burgesses to twenty-five and instituted a

recorder, a clerk of the market, justices of the peace and other officers.

This charter was confirmed in 1611 and 1689, and held force until the

Municipal Corporations Act of 1835, which established six aldermen and

eighteen councillors. The borough sent two members to parliament in 1295,

and so continued to do until the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885, when

the representation was merged in that of the county. Barnstaple was once

famous for its woollen trade, now entirely declined, and as early as the

reign of Edward III. was an important naval port, with an extensive

shipping trade. That this prosperity was not altogether uninterrupted is

testified by the fact that, at the time of the Armada, the mayor pleaded

inability to contribute three ships, on account of injuries to trade

consequent on the war with Spain. The Friday market and the annual four

days' fair in September are held by immemorial prescription.

See J. B. Gribble, _Memorials of Barnstaple_ (Barnstaple, 1830).

BARNUM, PHINEAS TAYLOR (1810-1891), American showman, was born in Bethel,

Connecticut, on the 5th of July 1810, his father being an inn- and

store-keeper. Barnum first started as a store-keeper, and was also

concerned in the lottery mania then prevailing in the United States. After

failing in business, he started in 1829 a weekly paper, _The Herald of

Freedom_, in Danbury; after several libel suits and a prosecution which

resulted in imprisonment, he moved to New York in 1834, and in 1835 began

his career as a showman, with his purchase and exploitation of a coloured

woman, Joyce Heth, reputed to have been the nurse of George Washington, and

to be over a hundred and sixty years old. With this woman and a small

company he made well-advertised and successful tours in America till 1839,

though Joyce Heth died in 1836, when her age was proved to be not more than

seventy. After a period of failure, he purchased Scudder's American Museum,

New York, in 1841; to this he added considerably, and it became one of the

most popular shows in the United States. He made a special hit by the

exhibition, in 1842, of Charles Stratton, the celebrated "General Tom

Thumb" (see DWARF). In 1844 Barnum toured with the dwarf in England. A

remarkable instance of his enterprise was the engagement of Jenny Lind to

sing in America at $1000 a night for one hundred and fifty nights, all

expenses being paid by the _entrepreneur_. The tour began in 1850. Barnum

retired from the show business in 1855, but had to settle with his

creditors in 1857, and began his old career again as showman and museum

proprietor. In 1871 he established the "Greatest Show on Earth," a

travelling amalgamation of circus, menagerie and museum of "freaks," &c.

This show, incorporated in the name of "Barnum, Bailey & Hutchinson," and

later as "Barnum & Bailey's" toured all over the world. In 1907 the

business was sold to Ringling Brothers. Barnum wrote several books, such as

_The Humbugs of the World_ (1865), _Struggles and Triumphs_ (1869), and his

_Autobiography_ (1854, and later editions). He died on the 7th of April

1891.

BAROCCHIO (or BAROZZI), GIACOMO, called DA VIGNOLA (1507-1573), Italian

architect, was born at Vignola in the Modenese territory on the 1st of

October 1507. His early work was conducted at Bologna, Piacenza, Assisi and

Perugia, until he was summoned to Rome as papal architect under Pope Julius

III. In 1564 he succeeded Michelangelo as the architect of St Peter's, and

executed various portions of that fabric, besides a variety of works in

Rome. The designs for the Escorial were also supplied by him. He is the

author of an excellent work on the _Five Orders of Architecture_ (Rome,

1563), and another work on _Practical Perspective_ (Rome, 1583). To his

extensive acquirements and exquisite taste were superadded an amenity of

manners and a noble generosity that won the affection and admiration of all

who knew him. He died in Rome on the 7th of July 1573. He was an eminent

upholder of the classic style at a period when the style known as _baroque_

was corrupting the architecture of Italy. The term _baroque_ owes its

origin to the Spanish word _barrueco_ or _berrueco_, an imperfectly round

pearl, and is not derived from the architect Barocchio, whose name so much

resembles it. Yet it is curious that it was much used to describe a debased

form of architecture encouraged by the Jesuits whose church in Rome was

built by Barocchio.

BAROCCI (or BAROCCIO), FEDERIGO (1528-1612), Italian painter, was born at

Urbino, where the genius of Raphael inspired him. In his early youth he

travelled to Rome, where he painted in fresco and was warmly commended by

Michelangelo. He then returned to Urbino, where, with the exception of some

short visits to Rome, he continued to reside till his death. He acquired

great fame by his paintings of religious subjects, in the style of which he

to some extent imitated Correggio. His own followers were very numerous,

but according to Lanzi (_Hist. of Painting_) carried their master's

peculiarities to excess. Barocci also etched from his own designs a few

prints, which are highly finished, and executed with great softness and

delicacy.

BARODA, a native state of India, within the Gujarat province of Bombay, but

in direct relations with the governor-general. It consists of four isolated

divisions, each of which is interlaced in the most intricate fashion with

British territory or with other native states. Three of these

divisions--Kadi, Baroda and Nausari--are in Gujarat proper; the fourth,

Amreli with Okhamandal, is in the peninsula of Kathiawar. The total area

covers 8099 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 1,952,692, showing a decrease

of 19% in the decade, compared with an increase of 11% in the preceding

decade. This decrease was due partly to the famines of 1896-1897 and

1900-1901, partly to the epidemics of cholera and fever which accompanied

them, and partly to the plague which attacked the state in as great measure

as the surrounding presidency.

The princes of Baroda were one of the chief branches of the Mahratta

confederacy, which in the 18th century spread devastation and terror over

India. About 1721 one Pilaji gaekwar carved a fertile slice of territory

out of Gujarat, and afterwards received the title of "Leader of the Royal

Troops" from the peshwa. During the last thirty-two years of the century

the house fell a prey to one of those bitter and unappeasable family feuds

which are the ruin of great Indian families. In 1800 the inheritance

descended to a prince feeble in body and almost idiotic in mind. British

troops were sent in defence of the hereditary ruler against all claimants;

a treaty was signed in 1802, by which his independence of the peshwa and

his dependence on British government were secured. Three years later these

and various other engagements were consolidated into a systematic plan for

the administration of the Baroda territory, under a prince with a revenue

of three-quarters of a million sterling, perfectly independent in all

internal matters, but practically kept on his throne by subsidiary British

troops. For some time the history of the gaekwars was very much the same as

that of most territorial houses in India: an occasional able minister, more

rarely an able prince; but, on the other hand, a long dreary list of

incompetent heads, venal advisers and taskmasters oppressive to the people.

At last a fierce family feud came to a climax. In 1873 an English committee

of inquiry was appointed to investigate various complaints of oppression

against the gaekwar, Malhar Rao, who had recently succeeded to the throne

after being for a long time kept in prison by his brother, the former

gaekwar. No real reform resulted, and in 1874 an attempt at poisoning the

British resident led to the gaekwar being formally accused of the crime and

tried by a mixed commission. The result of the trial (1875) was a failure

to obtain a unanimous verdict on the charge of poisoning; the viceroy, Lord

Northbrook, however, decided to depose Malhar Rao on the ground of gross

misgovernment, the widow of his brother and predecessor, Khande Rao, being

permitted to adopt an heir from among the descendants of the founder of the

family. This heir, by name Sayaji Rao, then a boy of twelve years in the

humble home of a Deccani cultivator, was educated by an English tutor, the

administration being meanwhile placed for eight years under the charge of

Sir T. Madhava Rao, formerly diwan of Travancore, one of the ablest and

most enlightened of Indian statesmen. The result was a conspicuous success.

The gaekwar showed himself a model prince, and his territories [v.03

p.0418] became as well governed and prosperous as a British district. He

repeatedly visited Europe in company with his wife. In 1887 the

queen-empress conferred upon him at Windsor the insignia of G.C.S.I., and

in 1892 upon his wife the Imperial order of the crown of India.

The gross revenue of the state is more than a million sterling. In 1901 the

state currency of Babashai rupees was withdrawn, and the British rupee was

introduced. The regular military force consists of a field battery, with

several regiments of cavalry and battalions of infantry. In addition, there

is an irregular force of horse and foot. Compulsory education has been

carried on experimentally since 1893 in the Amreli division with apparent

success, the compulsory age being 7 to 12 for boys and 7 to 10 for girls.

Special measures are also adopted for the education of low castes and

aboriginal tribes. There is a female training college under a Christian

lady superintendent. The Kala Bhavan, or technical school, has departments

for drawing, carpentry, dyeing, weaving and agriculture. There is also a

state museum under a European director, and a state library. Portions of

the state are crossed by the Bombay & Baroda and the Rajputana railways. In

addition, the state has constructed three railways of its own, on three

different gauges. Other railways are in contemplation. The state possesses

a cotton mill.

The city of Baroda is situated on the river Viswamitri, a station on the

Bombay & Baroda railway, 245 m. N. of Bombay by rail. Pop. (1901) 103,790.

The whole aspect of the city has been changed by the construction of

handsome public buildings, the laying-out of parks and the widening of the

streets. An excellent water-supply is provided from the Ajwa lake. The

cantonments, garrisoned by a native infantry regiment, are under British

jurisdiction, and have a population of 4000. The city contains a college

and many schools. The chief hospitals are called after the countess of

Dufferin, Sayaji Rao and Jamnabai, the widow of Khande Rao.

See _Baroda Gazetteer_, 1908.

BAROMETER (from Gr. [Greek: baros], pressure, and [Greek: metron],

measure), an instrument by which the weight or pressure of the atmosphere

is measured. The ordinary or mercurial barometer consists of a tube about

36 in. long, hermetically closed at the upper end and containing mercury.

In the "cistern barometer" the tube is placed with its open end in a basin

of mercury, and the atmospheric pressure is measured by the difference of

the heights of the mercury in the tube and the cistern. In the "siphon

barometer" the cistern is dispensed with, the tube being bent round upon

itself at its lower end; the reading is taken of the difference in the

levels of the mercury in the two limbs. The "aneroid" barometer (from the

Gr. [Greek: a-] privative, and [Greek: neros], wet) employs no liquid, but

depends upon the changes in volume experienced by an exhausted metallic

chamber under varying pressures. "Baroscopes" simply indicate variations in

the atmospheric pressure, without supplying quantitative data. "Barographs"

are barometers which automatically record any variations in pressure.

[Sidenote: Historical.]

Philosophers prior to Galileo had endeavoured to explain the action of a

suction pump by postulating a principle that "Nature abhorred a vacuum."

When Galileo observed that a common suction pump could not raise water to a

greater height than about 32 ft. he considered that the "abhorrence" was

limited to 32 ft., and commended the matter to the attention of his pupil

Evangelista Torricelli. Torricelli perceived a ready explanation of the

observed phenomenon if only it could be proved that the atmosphere had

weight, and the pressure which it exerted was equal to that of a 32-ft.

column of water. He proved this to be the correct explanation by reasoning

as follows:--If the atmosphere supports 32 feet of water, then it should

also support a column of about 2-1/2 ft. of mercury, for this liquid is

about 13-1/2 times heavier than water. This he proved in the following

manner. He selected a glass tube about a quarter of an inch in diameter and

4 ft. long, and hermetically sealed one of its ends; he then filled it with

mercury and, applying his finger to the open end, inverted it in a basin

containing mercury. The mercury instantly sank to nearly 30 in. above the

surface of the mercury in the basin, leaving in the top of the tube an

apparent vacuum, which is now called the _Torricellian vacuum_; this

experiment is sometimes known as the _Torricellian experiment_.

Torricelli's views rapidly gained ground, notwithstanding the objections of

certain philosophers. Valuable confirmation was afforded by the variation

of the barometric column at different elevations. Rene Descartes and Blaise

Pascal predicted a fall in the height when the barometer was carried to the

top of a mountain, since, the pressure of the atmosphere being diminished,

it necessarily followed that the column of mercury sustained by the

atmosphere would be diminished also. This was experimentally observed by

Pascal's brother-in-law, Florin Perier (1605-1672), who measured the height

of the mercury column at various altitudes on the Puy de Dome. Pascal

himself tried the experiment at several towers in Paris,--Notre Dame, St

Jacques de la Boucherie, &c. The results of his researches were embodied in

his treatises _De l'equilibre des liqueurs_ and _De la pesanteur de la

masse d'air_, which were written before 1651, but were not published till

1663 after his death. Corroboration was also afforded by Marin Mersenne and

Christiaan Huygens. It was not long before it was discovered that the

height of the column varied at the same place, and that a rise or fall was

accompanied by meteorological changes. The instrument thus came to be used

as a means of predicting the weather, and it was frequently known as the

_weather-glass_. The relation of the barometric pressure to the weather is

mentioned by Robert Boyle, who expressed the opinion that it is exceedingly

difficult to draw any correct conclusions. Edmund Halley, Leibnitz, Jean

Andre Deluc (1727-1817) and many others investigated this subject, giving

rules for predicting the weather and attempting explanations for the

phenomena. Since the height of the barometric column varies with the

elevation of the station at which it is observed, it follows that

observations of the barometer afford a means for measuring altitudes. The

early experiments of Pascal were developed by Edmund Halley, Edme Mariotte,

J. Cassini, D. Bernoulli, and more especially by Deluc in his _Recherches

sur les modifications de l'atmosphere_ (1772), which contains a full

account of the early history of the barometer and its applications. More

highly mathematical investigations have been given by Laplace, and also by

Richard Ruhlmann (_Barometrischen Hohenmessung._, Leipzig, 1870). The

modern aspects of the relation between atmospheric pressure and the weather

and altitudes are treated in the article METEOROLOGY.

Many attempts have been made by which the variation in the height of the

mercury column could be magnified, and so more exact measurements taken. It

is not possible to enumerate in this article the many devices which have

been proposed; and the reader is referred to Charles Hutton's _Mathematical

and Philosophical Dictionary_ (1815), William Ellis's paper on the history

of the barometer in the _Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological

Society_, vol. xii. (1886), and E. Gerland and F. Traumueller's _Geschichte

der physikalischen Experimentierkunst_ (1899). Descartes suggested a method

which Huygens put into practice. The barometer tube was expanded into a

cylindrical vessel at the top, and into this chamber a fine tube partly

filled with water was inserted. A slight motion of the mercury occasioned a

larger displacement of the water, and hence the changes in the barometric

pressure were more readily detected and estimated. But the instrument

failed as all water-barometers do, for the gases dissolved in the water

coupled with its high vapour tension destroy its efficacy. The substitution

of methyl salicylate for the water has been attended with success. Its low

vapour tension (Sir William Ramsay and Sydney Young give no value below

70deg C.), its low specific gravity (1.18 at 10deg C.), its freedom from

viscosity, have contributed to its successful use. In the form patented by

C. O. Bartrum it is claimed that readings to .001 of an inch of mercury can

be taken without the use of a vernier.

The diagonal barometer, in which the upper part of the tube is inclined to

the lower part, was suggested by Bernardo Ramazzini (1633-1714), and also

by Sir Samuel Morland (or Moreland). This form has many defects, and even

when the [v.03 p.0419] tube is bent through 45deg the readings are only

increased in the ratio of 7 to 5. The wheel barometer of Dr R. Hooke, and

the steel-yard barometer, endeavour to magnify the oscillation of the

mercury column by means of a float resting on the surface of the mercury in

the cistern; the motion of the float due to any alteration in the level of

the mercury being rendered apparent by a change in the position of the

wheel or steel-yard. The pendant barometer of G. Amontons, invented in

1695, consists of a funnel-shaped tube, which is hung vertically with the

wide end downwards and closed in at the upper end. The tube contains

mercury which adjusts itself in the tube so that the length of the column

balances the atmospheric pressure. The instability of this instrument is

obvious, for any jar would cause the mercury to leave the tube.

[Illustration: FIG. 1. Siphon Barometer.]

The _Siphon Barometer_ (fig. 1) consists of a tube bent in the form of a

siphon, and is of the same diameter throughout. A graduated scale passes

along the whole length of the tube, and the height of the barometer is

ascertained by taking the difference of the readings of the upper and lower

limbs respectively. This instrument may also be read by bringing the

zero-point of the graduated scale to the level of the surface of the lower

limb by means of a screw, and reading off the height at once from the

surface of the upper limb. This barometer requires no correction for errors

of capillarity or capacity. Since, however, impurities are contracted by

the mercury in the lower limb, which is usually in open contact with the

air, the satisfactory working of the instrument comes soon to be seriously

interfered with.

[Illustration: FIG. 2. Cistern Barometer.]

Fig. 2 shows the _Cistern Barometer_ in its essential and simplest form.

This barometer is subject to two kinds of error, the one arising from

capillarity, and the other from changes in the level of the surface of the

cistern as the mercury rises and falls in the tube, the latter being

technically called the _error of capacity_. If a glass tube of small bore

be plunged into a vessel containing mercury, it will be observed that the

level of the mercury in the tube is not in the line of that of the mercury

in the vessel, but somewhat below it, and that the surface is convex. The

capillary depression is inversely proportional to the diameter of the tube.

In standard barometers, the tube is about an inch in diameter, and the

error due to capillarity is less than .001 of an inch. Since capillarity

depresses the height of the column, cistern barometers require an addition

to be made to the observed height, in order to give the true pressure, the

amount depending, of course, on the diameter of the tube.

The error of capacity arises in this way. The height of the barometer is

the perpendicular distance between the surface of the mercury in the

cistern and the upper surface of the mercurial column. Now, when the

barometer falls from 30 to 29 inches, an inch of mercury must flow out of

the tube and pass into the cistern, thus raising the cistern level; and, on

the other hand, when the barometer rises, mercury must flow out of the

cistern into the tube, thus lowering the level of the mercury in the

cistern. Since the scales of barometers are usually engraved on their brass

cases, which are fixed (and, consequently, the zero-point from which the

scale is graduated is also fixed), it follows that, from the incessant

changes in the level of the cistern, the readings would be sometimes too

high and sometimes too low, if no provision were made against this source

of error.

[Sidenote: Fortin's Barometer.]

A simple way of correcting the error of capacity is--to ascertain (1) the

neutral point of the instrument, or that height at which the zero of the

scale is exactly at the height of the surface of the cistern, and (2) the

rate of error as the barometer rises or falls above this point, and then

apply a correction proportional to this rate. The instrument in which the

error of capacity is satisfactorily (indeed, entirely) got rid of is

_Fortin's Barometer_. Fig. 3 shows how this is effected. The upper part of

the cistern is formed of a glass cylinder, through which the level of the

mercury may be seen. The bottom is made like a bag, of flexible leather,

against which a screw works. At the top of the interior of the cistern is a

small piece of ivory, the point of which coincides with the zero of the

scale. By means of the screw, which acts on the flexible cistern bottom,

the level of the mercury can be raised or depressed so as to bring the

ivory point exactly to the surface of the mercury in the cistern. In some

barometers the cistern is fixed, and the ivory point is brought to the

level of the mercury in the cistern by raising or depressing the scale.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Fortin's Barometer.]

In constructing the best barometers three materials are employed,

viz.:--(1) brass, for the case, on which the scale is engraved; (2) glass,

for the tube containing the mercury; and (3) the mercury itself. It is

evident that if the coefficient of expansion of mercury and brass were the

same, the height of the mercury as indicated by the brass scale would be

the true height of the mercurial column. But this is not the case, the

coefficient of expansion for mercury being considerably greater than that

for brass. The result is that if a barometer stand at 30 in. when the

temperature of the whole instrument, mercury and brass, is 32deg, it will

no longer stand at 30 in. if the temperature be raised to 69deg; in fact,

it will then stand at 30.1 in. [Sidenote: Corrections of the barometer

reading.] This increase in the height of the column by the tenth of an inch

is not due to any increase of pressure, but altogether to the greater

expansion of the mercury at the higher temperature, as compared with the

expansion of the brass case with the engraved scale by which the height is

measured. In order, therefore, to compare with each other with exactness

barometric observations made at different temperatures, it is necessary to

reduce them to the heights at which they would stand at some uniform

temperature. The temperature to which such observations are reduced is

32deg Fahr. or 0deg cent.

If English units be used (Fahrenheit degrees and inches), this correction

is given by the formula

.09T - 2.56

x = -H ------------,

1000

in the centigrade-centimetre system the correction is .0001614 HT (H being

the observed height and T the observed temperature). Devices have been

invented which determine these corrections mechanically, and hence obviate

the necessity of applying the above formula, or of referring to tables in

which these corrections for any height of the column and any temperature

are given.

The standard temperature of the English yard being 62deg and not 32deg, it

will be found in working out the corrections from the above formula that

the temperature of no correction is not 32deg but 28.5deg. If the scale be

engraved on the glass tube, or if the instrument be furnished with a glass

scale or with a wooden scale, different corrections are required. These may

be worked out from the above formula by substituting for the coefficient of

the expansion of brass that of glass, which is assumed to be 0.00000498, or

that of wood, which is assumed to be 0. Wood, however, should not be used,

its expansion with temperature being unsteady, as well as uncertain.

If the brass scale be attached to a wooden frame and be free to move up and

down the frame, as is the case with many siphon barometers, the corrections

for brass scales are to be used, since the zero-point of the scale is

brought to the level of the lower limb; but if the brass scale be _fixed_

to a wooden frame, the corrections for brass scales are only applicable

provided the zero of the scale be fixed at (or nearly at) the zero line of

the column, and be free to expand upwards. In siphon barometers, with which

an observation is made from two readings on the scale, the [v.03 p.0420]

scale must be free to expand in one direction. Again, if only the upper

part of the scale, say from 27 to 31 in., be screwed to a wooden frame, it

is evident that not the corrections for brass scales, but those for wooden

scales must be used. No account need be taken of the expansion of the glass

tube containing the mercury, it being evident that no correction for this

expansion is required in the case of any barometer the height of which is

measured from the surface of the mercury in the cistern.

[Sidenote: Position of barometer.]

In fixing a barometer for observation, it is indispensable that it be hung

in a perpendicular position, seeing that it is the _perpendicular distance_

between the surface of the mercury in the cistern and the top of the column

which is the true height of the barometer. The surface of the mercury

column is convex, and in noting the height of the barometer, it is not the

chord of the curve, but its tangent which is taken. This is done by setting

the straight lower edge of the vernier, an appendage with which the

barometer is furnished, as a tangent to the curve. The vernier is made to

slide up and down the scale, and by it the height of the barometer may be

read true to 0.002 or even to 0.001 in.

It is essential that the barometer is at the temperature shown by the

attached thermometer. No observation can be regarded as good if the

thermometer indicates a temperature differing from that of the whole

instrument by more than a degree. For every degree of temperature the

attached thermometer differs from the barometer, the observation will be

faulty to the extent of about 0.003 in., which in discussions of diurnal

range, &c., is a serious amount.

Before being used, barometers should be thoroughly examined as to the state

of the mercury, the size of cistern (so as to admit of low readings), and

their agreement with some known standard instrument at different points of

the scale. The pressure of the atmosphere is not expressed by the weight of

the mercury sustained in the tube by it, but by the perpendicular height of

the column. Thus, when the height of the column is 30 in., it is not said

that the atmospheric pressure is 14.7 lb on the square inch, or the weight

of the mercury filling a tube at that height whose transverse section

equals a square inch, but that it is 30 in., meaning that the pressure will

sustain a column of mercury of that height.

It is essential in gasometry to fix upon some standard pressure to which

all measurements can be reduced. The height of the standard mercury column

commonly used is 76 cms. (29.922 in.) of pure mercury at 0deg; this is near

the average height of the barometer. Since the actual _force_ exerted by

the atmosphere varies with the intensity of gravity, and therefore with the

position on the earth's surface, a place must be specified in defining the

standard pressure. This may be avoided by expressing the force as the

pressure in dynes due to a column of mercury, one square centimetre in

section, which is supported by the atmosphere. If H cms. be the height at

0deg, and _g_ the value of gravity, the pressure is 13.596 H_g_ dynes

(13.596 being the density of mercury). At Greenwich, where _g_ = 981.17,

the standard pressure at 0deg is 1,013,800 dynes. At Paris the pressure is

1,013,600 dynes. The closeness of this unit to a mega-dyne (a million

dynes) has led to the suggestion that a mega-dyne per square centimetre

should be adopted as the standard pressure, and it has been adopted by some

modern writers on account of its convenience of calculation and

independence of locality.

[Sidenote: Barometric readings.]

The height of the barometer is expressed in English inches in England and

America, but the metric system is used in all scientific work excepting in

meteorology. In France and most European countries, the height is given in

millimetres, a millimetre being the thousandth part of a metre, which

equals 39.37079 English inches. Up to 1869 the barometer was given in

half-lines in Russia, which, equalling the twentieth of an English inch,

were readily reduced to English inches by dividing by 20. The metric

barometric scale is now used in Russia. In a few European countries the

French or Paris line, equalling 0.088814 in., is sometimes used. The

English measure of length being a standard at 62deg Fahr., the old French

measure at 61.2deg, and the metric scale at 32deg, it is necessary, before

comparing observations made with the three barometers, to reduce them to

the same temperature, so as to neutralize the inequalities arising from the

expansion of the scales by heat.

[Sidenote: Sympiezometer.]

The sympiezometer was invented in 1818 by Adie of Edinburgh. It is a

revived form of Hooke's marine barometer. It consists of a glass tube, with

a small chamber at the top and an open cistern below. The upper part of the

tube is filled with air, and the lower part and cistern with glycerin. When

atmospheric pressure is increased, the air is compressed by the rising of

the fluid; but when it is diminished the fluid falls, and the contained air

expands. To correct for the error arising from the increased pressure of

the contained air when its temperature varies, a thermometer and

sliding-scale are added, so that the instrument may be adjusted to the

temperature at each observation. It is a sensitive instrument, and well

suited for rough purposes at sea and for travelling, but not for exact

observation. It has long been superseded by the _Aneroid_, which far

exceeds it in handiness.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Aneroid Barometer.]

_Aneroid Barometer._--Much obscurity surrounds the invention of barometers

in which variations in pressure are rendered apparent by the alteration in

the volume of an elastic chamber. The credit of the invention is usually

given to Lucien Vidie, who patented his instrument in 1845, but similar

instruments were in use much earlier. Thus in 1799 Nicolas Jacques Conte

(1755-1805), director of the aerostatical school at Meudon, and a man of

many parts--a chemist, mechanician and painter,--devised an instrument in

which the lid of the metal chamber was supported by internal springs; this

instrument was employed during the Egyptian campaign for measuring the

altitudes of the war-balloons. Although Vidie patented his device in 1845,

the commercial manufacture of aneroids only followed after E. Bourdon's

patent of the metallic manometer in 1849, when Bourdon and Richard placed

about 10,000 aneroids on the market. The production was stopped by an

action taken by Vidie against Bourdon for infringing the former's patent,

and in 1858 Vidie obtained 25,000 francs (L1000) damages.

Fig. 4 represents the internal construction, as seen when the face is

removed, but with the hand still attached, of an aneroid which differs only

slightly from Vidie's form. _a_ is a flat circular metallic box, having its

upper and under surfaces corrugated in concentric circles. This box or

chamber being partially exhausted of air, through the short tube _b_, which

is subsequently made air-tight by soldering, constitutes a spring, which is

affected by every variation of pressure in the external atmosphere, the

corrugations on its surface increasing its elasticity. At the centre of the

upper surface of the exhausted chamber there is a solid cylindrical

projection _x_, to the top of which the principal lever _cde_ is attached.

This lever rests partly on a spiral spring at _d_; it is also supported by

two vertical pins, with perfect freedom of motion. The end _e_ of the lever

is attached to a second or small lever _f_, from which a chain _g_ extends

to _h_, where it works on a drum attached to the axis of the hand,

connected with a hair spring at _h_, changing the motion from vertical to

horizontal, and regulating the hand, the attachments of which are made to

the metallic plate _i_. The motion originates in the corrugated elastic box

_a_, the surface of which is depressed or elevated as the weight of the

atmosphere is increased or diminished, and this motion is communicated

through the levers to the axis of [v.03 p.0421] the hand at _h_. The spiral

spring on which the lever rests at _d_ is intended to compensate for the

effects of alterations of temperature. The actual movement at the centre of

the exhausted box, whence the indications emanate, is very slight, but by

the action of the levers is multiplied 657 times at the point of the hand,

so that a movement of the 220th part of an inch in the box carries the

point of the hand through three inches on the dial. The effect of this

combination is to multiply the smallest degrees of atmospheric pressure, so

as to render them sensible on the index. Vidie's instrument has been

improved by Vaudet and Hulot. Eugene Bourdon's aneroid depends on the same

principle. The aneroid requires, however, to be repeatedly compared with a

mercurial barometer, being liable to changes from the elasticity of the

metal chamber changing, or from changes in the system of levers which work

the pointer. Though aneroids are constructed showing great accuracy in

their indications, yet none can lay any claim to the exactness of mercurial

barometers. The mechanism is liable to get fouled and otherwise go out of

order, so that they may change 0.300 in. in a few weeks, or even indicate

pressure so inaccurately and so irregularly that no confidence can be

placed in them for even a few days, if the means of comparing them with a

mercurial barometer be not at hand.

[Sidenote: Barographs.]

The mercurial barometer can be made self-registering by concentrating the

rays from a source of light by a lens, so that they strike the top of the

mercurial column, and having a sheet of sensitized paper attached to a

frame and placed behind a screen, with a narrow vertical slit in the line

of the rays. The mercury being opaque throws a part of the paper in the

shade, while above the mercury the rays from the lamp pass unobstructed to

the paper. The paper being carried steadily round on a drum at a given rate

per hour, the height of the column of mercury is photographed continuously

on the paper. From the photograph the height of the barometer at any

instant may be taken. The principle of the aneroid barometer has been

applied to the construction of barographs. The lever attached to the

collapsible chamber terminates in an ink-fed style which records the

pressure of the atmosphere on a moving ribbon. In all continuously

registering barometers, however, it is necessary, as a check, to make

eye-observations with a mercury standard barometer hanging near the

registering barometer from four to eight times daily.

See Marvin, _Barometers and the Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure_

(1901); and C. Abbe, _Meteorological Apparatus_ (1888). Reference may also

be made to B. Stewart and W. W. H. Gee, _Practical Physics_ (vol. i. 1901),

for the construction of standard barometers, their corrections and method

of reading.

BAROMETRIC LIGHT, the luminous glow emitted by mercury in a barometer tube

when shaken. It was first observed by Jean Picard, and formed the subject

of many experiments at the hands of Francis Hawksbee. The latter showed

that the Torricellian vacuum was not essential to the phenomenon, for the

same glow was apparent when mercury was shaken with air only partially

rarefied. The glow is an effect of the electricity generated by the

friction of the mercury and the air in the barometer tube.

BARON, MICHEL (1653-1729), French actor (whose family name originally was

Boyron), was born in Paris, the son of a leading actor (d. 1655) and of a

talented actress (d. 1662). At the age of twelve he joined the company of

children known as the _Petits Comediens Dauphins_, of which he was the

brightest star. Moliere was delighted with his talent, and with the king's

permission secured him for his own company. In consequence of a

misunderstanding with Moliere's wife, the actor withdrew from the

dramatist's company, but rejoined it in 1670, reappearing as Domitien in

Corneille's _Tite et Berenice_, and in his _Psyche_. He remained in this

company until Moliere's death. He then became a member of the company at

the Hotel de Bourgogne, and from this time until his retirement in 1691 was

undisputed master of the French stage, creating many of the leading roles

in Racine's tragedies, besides those in two of his own comedies, _L'Homme a

bonnes fortunes_ (1686), and _La Coquette_ (1687). He also wrote _Les

Enlevements_ (1685), _Le Debauche_ (1689), and translated and acted two

plays of Terence. In 1720 Baron reappeared at the Palais Royal, and his

activity on the stage was renewed in a multitude of parts. He died on the

22nd of December 1729.

His son ETIENNE MICHEL BARON (1676-1711) was also a fine actor, and left a

son and two daughters who all played at the Comedie Francaise.

See George Monval, _Un Comedien amateur d'art_ (1893); also the Abbe

d'Allamial's _Lettres a mylord XXX. sur Baron et la demoiselle Lecouvreur_,

in F. G. J. S. Andrieux's _Collection des memoires sur l'art dramatique_

(1822).

BARON. This word, of uncertain origin, was introduced into England at the

Conquest to denote "the man" (_i.e._ one who had done him "homage") of a

great lord, and more especially of the king. All who held "in chief"

(_i.e._ directly) of the king were alike _barones regis_, bound to perform

a stipulated service, and members, in theory at least, of his council.

Great nobles, whether earls or not, also spoke of their tenants as

"barons," where lesser magnates spoke of their "men" (_homines_). This was

especially the case in earldoms of a palatine character, such as Chester,

where the earl's barons were a well-recognized body, the Venables family,

"barons of Kinderton," continuing in existence down to 1679. In the

palatinate of Durham also, the bishop had his barons, among whom the

Hiltons of Hilton Castle were usually styled "Barons of Hilton" till

extinct in 1746. Other families to whom the title was accorded,

independently of peerage dignity and on somewhat uncertain grounds, were

"the barons of Greystock," "the barons of Stafford," and the Cornwalls,

"barons of Burford." Fantosme makes Henry II. speak of "mes baruns de

Lundres"; John's charter granting permission to elect a mayor speaks of

"our barons of our city of London," and a London document even speaks of

"the greater barons of the city." The aldermen seem to have been loosely

deemed equivalent to barons and were actually assessed to the poll-tax as

such under Richard II. In Ireland the palatine character of the great

lordships made the title not uncommon (_e.g._ the barons of Galtrim, the

barons of Slane, the barons of the Naas).

As all those who held direct of the crown by military service (for those

who held "by serjeanty" appear to have been classed apart), from earls

downwards, were alike "barons," the great difference in their position and

importance must have led, from an early date, to their being roughly

divided into "greater" and "lesser" barons, and indeed, under Henry II.,

the _Dialogus de Scaccario_ already distinguishes their holdings as

"greater" or "lesser" baronies. Within a century of the Conquest, as we

learn from Becket's case (1164), there arose the practice of sending to the

greater barons a special summons to the council, while the lesser barons,

it is stipulated in Magna Carta (1215), were to be summoned only through

the sheriffs. Thus was introduced a definite distinction, which eventually

had the effect of restricting to the greater barons the rights and

privileges of peerage.