BAREGES, a town of south-western France, in the department of

Hautes-Pyrenees, in the valley of the Bastan, 25 m. S.S.W. of

Bagneres-de-Bigorre by road. The town, which is situated at an altitude of

4040 ft., is hardly inhabited in the winter. It is celebrated for its warm

sulphurous springs (75deg to 111deg F.), which first became generally known

in 1675 when they were visited by Madame de Maintenon and the duke of

Maine, son of Louis XIV. The waters, which are used for drinking and in

baths, are efficacious in the treatment of wounds and ulcers and in cases

of scrofula, gout, skin diseases, &c. There is a military hospital, founded

in 1760. The town was formerly much exposed to avalanches and floods, which

are now less frequent owing to the construction of embankments and

replanting of the hillsides. It is a centre for mountain excursions. The

light silk and wool fabric called _barege_ takes its name from the place,

where it was first made.

BAREILLY, or BARELI, a city and district of British India in the Bareilly

or Rohilkhand division of the United Provinces. The city is situated on the

Ramganga river, 812 m. N.W. from Calcutta by rail. Pop. (1901) 131,208. The

principal buildings are two mosques built in the 17th century; a modern

fort overlooking the cantonments; the railway station, which is an

important junction on the Oudh and Rohilkhand line; the palace of the nawab

of Rampur, and the government college. Bareilly is the headquarters of a

brigade in the 7th division of the eastern army corps. The chief

manufactures are furniture and upholstery. Bareilly college is a seat of

upper class learning for the surrounding districts. It is conducted by an

English staff, and its course includes the subjects for degrees in the

Calcutta University.

The district of Bareilly has an area of 1580 sq. m. It is a level country,

watered by many streams, the general slope being towards the south. The

soil is fertile and highly cultivated, groves of noble trees abound, and

the villages have a neat, prosperous look. A tract of forest jungle, called

the _tarai_, stretches along the extreme north of the district, and teems

with large game, such as tigers, bears, deer, wild pigs, &c. The river

Sarda or Gogra forms the eastern boundary of the district and is the

principal stream. Next in importance is the Ramganga, which receives as its

tributaries most of the hill torrents of the Kumaon mountains. The Deoha is

another great drainage artery and receives many minor streams. The Gomati

or Gumti also passes through the district. The population in 1901 was

1,090,117. The Mahommedans are chiefly the descendants of Yusafzai Afghans,

called the Rohilla Pathans, who settled in the country about the year 1720.

The Rohillas were formerly the ruling race of the tract of country called

Rohilkhand, and are men of a taller stature, a fairer complexion and a more

arrogant air than the general inhabitants of the district. Bishop Heber

described them as follows:--"The country is burdened with a crowd of lazy,

profligate, self-called sawars (cavaliers), who, though many of them are

not worth a rupee, conceive it derogatory to their gentility and Pathan

blood to apply themselves to any honest industry, and obtain for the most

part a precarious livelihood by sponging on the industrious tradesmen and

farmers, on whom they levy a sort of blackmail, or as hangers-on to the

wealthy and noble families yet remaining in the province. These men have no

visible means of maintenance, and no visible occupation except that of

lounging up and down with their swords and shields, like the ancient

Highlanders, whom in many respects they much resemble." The Rohillas, after

fifty years' precarious independence, were subjugated in 1774 by the

confederacy of British troops with the nawab of Oudh's army, which formed

so serious a charge against Warren Hastings. Their territory was in that

year annexed to Oudh. In 1801 the nawab of Oudh ceded it to the Company in

commutation of the subsidy money. During the Mutiny of 1857 the Rohillas

took a very active part against the English, but since then they have been

disarmed. Both before and after that year, however, the Bareilly

Mahommedans have distinguished themselves by fanatical tumults against the

Hindus. The district is irrigated from the Rohilkhand system of government

canals. There are no manufactures except for domestic use and little

external trade. Several lines of the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway pass

through the district.

BARENTIN, a town of northern France, in the department of Seine-Inferieure,

11 m. N.N.W. of Rouen by rail. Pop. (1906) 5245. The town is situated in

the valley of the Austreberthe, a small affluent of the Seine, here crossed

at a height of 100 ft. by a fine railway viaduct 540 yds. long. The

manufacture of cotton fabrics is the principal industry.

BARENTS, WILLEM (d. 1597), Dutch navigator, was born about the middle of

the 16th century. In 1594 he left Amsterdam with two ships to search for a

north-east passage to eastern Asia. He reached the west coast of Novaya

Zemlya, and followed it northward, being finally forced to turn back when

near its northern extremity. In the following year he commanded another

expedition of seven ships, which made for the strait between the Asiatic

coast and Vaygach Island, but was too late to find open water; while his

third journey equally failed of its object and resulted in his death. On

this occasion he had two ships, and on the outward journey sighted Bear

Island and Spitsbergen, where the ships separated. Barents' vessel, after

rounding the north of Novaya Zemlya, was beset by ice and he was compelled

to winter in the north; and as his ship was not released early in 1597, his

party left her in two open boats on the 13th of June and most of its

members escaped. Barents himself, however, died on the 30th of June 1597.

In 1871 the house in which he wintered was discovered, with many relics,

which are preserved at the Hague, and in 1875 part of his journal was

found.

See _The Three Voyages of Barents_, by Gerrit de Veer, translated by the

Hakluyt Society (1876) from de Veer's text (Amsterdam, 1598).

BARENTS SEA, that part of the Arctic Ocean which is demarcated by the north

coast of Europe, the islands of Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land and

Spitsbergen, and smaller intervening islands; it was named after the Dutch

navigator. Omitting the great inlet of the White Sea in the south, it

extends from about 67deg to 80deg N., and from 20deg to 60deg E. The

southern part, off the Murman coast of the Kola peninsula, is sometimes

called the Murman Sea.

BARERE DE VIEUZAC, BERTRAND (1755-1841), one of the most notorious members

of the French National Convention, was born at Tarbes in Gascony on the

10th of September 1755. The name of Barere de Vieuzac, by which he

continued to call himself long after the renunciation of feudal rights on

the famous 4th of August, was assumed from a small fief belonging to his

father, a lawyer at Vieuzac. He began to practise as an advocate at the

parlement of Toulouse in 1770, and soon earned a considerable reputation as

an orator; while his brilliant and flowing style as a writer of essays led

to his election as a member of the Academy of Floral Games of Toulouse in

1788. At the age of thirty he married. Four years later, in 1789, he was

elected deputy by the estates of Bigorre to the states-general, which met

in May. He had made his first visit to Paris in the preceding year. His

personal appearance, his manners, social qualities and liberal opinions,

gave him a good standing among the multitude of provincial deputies then

thronging into Paris. He [v.03 p.0398] attached himself at first to the

constitutional party; but he was less known as a speaker in the Assembly

than as a journalist. His paper, however, the _Point du Jour_, according to

Aulard, owes its reputation not so much to its own qualities as to the fact

that the painter David, in his famous picture of the "Oath in the Tennis

Court," has represented Barere kneeling in the corner and writing a report

of the proceedings as though for posterity. The reports of the debates of

the National Assembly in the _Point du Jour_, though not inaccurate, are as

a matter of fact very incomplete and very dry. After the flight of the king

to Varennes, Barere passed over to the republican party, though he

continued to keep in touch with the duke of Orleans, to whose natural

daughter, Pamela, he was tutor. Barere, however, appears to have been

wholly free from any guiding principle; conscience he had none, and his

conduct was regulated only by the determination to be on the side of the

strongest. After the close of the National Assembly he was nominated one of

the judges of the newly instituted court of cassation from October 1791 to

September 1792. In 1792 he was elected deputy to the National Convention

for the department of the Hautes-Pyrenees. At first he voted with the

Girondists, attacked Robespierre, "a pygmy who should not be set on a

pedestal," and at the trial of the king voted with the Mountain for the

king's death "without appeal and without delay." He closed his speech with

a sentence which became memorable: "the tree of liberty could not grow were

it not watered with the blood of kings." Appointed member of the Committee

of Public Safety on the 7th of April 1793, he busied himself with foreign

affairs; then, joining the party of Robespierre, whose resentment he had

averted by timely flatteries, he played an important part in the second

Committee of Public Safety--after the 17th of July 1793--and voted for the

death of the Girondists. He was thoroughly unscrupulous, stopping at

nothing to maintain the supremacy of the Mountain, and rendered it great

service by his rapid work, by the telling phases of his oratory, and by his

clear expositions of the problems of the day. On the 9th Thermidor (July

27th, 1794) Barere hesitated, then he drew up the report outlawing

Robespierre. In spite of this, in Germinal of the year III. (the 21st of

March to the 4th of April 1795), the Thermidorians decreed the accusation

of Barere and his colleagues of the Terror, Collot d'Herbois and

Billaud-Varenne, and he was sent to the Isle of Oleron. He was removed to

Saintes, and thence escaped to Bordeaux, where he lived in concealment for

several years. In 1795 he was elected member of the Council of Five

Hundred, but was not allowed to take his seat. Later he was used as a

secret agent by Napoleon I., for whom he carried on a diplomatic

correspondence. On the fall of Napoleon, Barere played the part of

royalist, but on the final restoration of the Bourbons in 1815 he was

banished for life from France as a regicide, and then withdrew to Brussels

and temporary oblivion. After the revolution of July 1830 he reappeared in

France, was reduced by a series of lawsuits to extreme indigence, accepted

a small pension assigned him by Louis Philippe (on whom he had heaped abuse

and railing), and died, the last survivor of the Committee of Public

Safety, on the 13th of January 1841. (See also FRENCH REVOLUTION.)

The _Memoires de B. Barere ... publies par MM. H. Carnot ... et David

(d'Angers) ... precedes d'une notice historique_ (Paris, 1824-1844) are

false, but contain valuable information; Carnot's _Notice_, which is very

good, was published separately in 1842. See F. A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de

la Constituante_ (Paris, 1882); _Les Orateurs de la Convention_ (2nd ed.,

Paris, 1905). Macaulay's essay on Barere, (_Edinburgh Review_, vol. 79) is

eloquent, but incorrect.

BARETTI, GIUSEPPE MARC' ANTONIO (1719-1789), Italian critic, was born at

Turin in 1719. He was intended by his father for the profession of law, but

at the age of sixteen fled from Turin and went to Guastalla, where he was

for some time employed in a mercantile house. His leisure hours he devoted

to literature and criticism, in which he became expert. For many years he

led a wandering life, supporting himself chiefly by his writings. At length

he arrived in London, where he remained for a considerable time. He

obtained an appointment as secretary to the Royal Academy of Painting, and

became acquainted with Johnson, Garrick and others of that society. He was

a frequent visitor at the Thrales'; and his name occurs repeatedly in

Boswell's _Life_. In 1769 he was tried for murder, having had the

misfortune to inflict a mortal wound with his fruit knife on a man who had

assaulted him on the street. Johnson among others gave evidence in his

favour at the trial, which resulted in Baretti's acquittal. He died in May

1789. His first work of any importance was the _Italian Library_ (London,

1757), a useful catalogue of the lives and works of many Italian authors.

The _Lettere famigliari_, giving an account of his travels through Spain,

Portugal and France during the years 1761-1765, were well received, and

when afterwards published in English (4 vols., 1770), were highly commended

by Johnson. While in Italy on his travels Baretti set on foot a journal of

literary criticism, to which he gave the title of _Frusta letteraria_, the

literary scourge. It was published under considerable difficulties and was

soon discontinued. The criticisms on contemporary writers were sometimes

just, but are frequently disfigured by undue vehemence and coarseness.

Among his other numerous works may be mentioned a useful _Dictionary and

Grammar of the Italian Language_, and a dissertation on Shakespeare and

Voltaire. His collected works were published at Milan in 1838.

BARFLEUR, a small seaport of north-western France, overlooking the Bay of

the Seine, in the department of Manche, 22 1/2 m. N.N.E. of Valognes by

rail. Pop. (1906) 1069. In the middle ages Barfleur was one of the chief

ports of embarkation for England. In 1120 the "White Ship," carrying Prince

William, only son of Henry I., went down outside the harbour. About 2 m. to

the north is Cape Barfleur, with a lighthouse 233 ft. high.

BARFURUSH, a town of Persia, in the province of Mazandaran in 36deg 32' N.,

and 52deg 42' E., and on the left bank of the river Bawul [Babul], which is

here crossed by a bridge of eight arches, about 15 m. distant from the

southern shore of the Caspian Sea, where the small town of Meshed i Sar

serves as a port. It is the commercial capital of Mazandaran, and 26 m.

distant from Sari and 90 m. from Teheran. Pop. about 50,000. Built in a low

and swampy country and approached by deep and almost impassable roads,

Barfurush would not seem at all favourably situated for the seat of an

extensive inland trade; it is, however, peopled entirely by merchants and

tradesmen, and is wholly indebted for its present size and importance to

its commercial prosperity. The principal articles of its trade are rice and

cotton, some sugar cane (_nai shakar_), flax (_Kat[=u]n_) and hemp

(_Kanab_) are also grown. The town is of peculiar structure and aspect,

being placed in the midst of a forest of tall trees, by which the buildings

are so separated from one another, and so concealed, that, except in the

bazars, it has no appearance of a populous town. The streets are broad and

neat, though generally unpaved, and kept in good order. No ruins are to be

seen as in other Persian towns; the houses are comfortable, in good repair,

roofed with tiles and enclosed by substantial walls. There are no public

buildings of any importance, and the only places of interest are the

bazars, which extend fully a mile in length, and consist of substantially

built ranges of shops covered with roofs of wood and tiles, and well stored

with commodities. There are about ten commodious caravanserais and a number

of colleges (_medresseh_), the place being as much celebrated for learning

as for commerce. On an island in a small lake east of the town is a garden,

called Bagh i Shah (garden of the Shah), with ruined palaces and baths. At

Meshed i Sar, the port, or roadstead of Barfurush, the steamers of the

Caucasus and Mercury Company call weekly, and a brisk shipping trade is

carried on between it and other Caspian ports.

Barfurush was formerly called M[=a]mat[=i]r. The present name is from a

settlement called Barfurush-deh, which was added to the old city A.D. 1012.

(A. H.-S.)

BARGAIN[1] AND SALE, in English law, a contract whereby property, real or

personal, is transferred from one person--called the bargainer--to

another--called the bargainee--for a [v.03 p.0399] valuable consideration;

but the term is more particularly used to describe a mode of conveyance of

lands. The disabilities under which a feudal owner very frequently lay gave

rise to the practice of conveying land by other methods than that of

feoffment with livery of seisin, that is, a handing over of the feudal

possession. That of "bargain and sale" was one. Where a man bargained and

sold his land to another for pecuniary consideration, which might be merely

nominal, and need not necessarily be actually paid, equity held the

bargainer to be seised of the land to the use of the bargainee. The Statute

of Uses (1535), by converting the bargainee's interest into a legal estate,

had an effect contrary to the intention of its framers. It made bargain and

sale an easy means of secret or private conveyance, a policy to which the

law was opposed. To remedy this defect, a statute (called the Statute of

Enrolments) was passed in the same year, which provided that every

conveyance by bargain and sale of freehold lands should be enrolled in a

court of record or with the _custos rotulorum_ of the county within six

months of its date. The Statute of Enrolments applied only to estates of

inheritance or for life, so that a bargain and sale of an estate for years

might be made without enrolment. This in turn was the foundation of another

mode of conveyance, namely, lease and release, which took the place of the

deed of bargain and sale, so far as regards freehold. Bargain and sale of

copyhold estates, which operates at common law, is still a mode of

conveyance in England in the case of a sale by executors, where a testator

has directed a sale of his estate to be made, instead of devising it to

trustees upon trust to sell.

See also CONVEYANCING.

[1] From O. Fr. _bargaigne_, a word of doubtful origin, appearing in many

Romance languages, cf. Ital. _bargagno_; it is connected with Late Lat.

_barcaniare_, to traffic, possibly derived from _barca_, a barge.

BARGE (Med. Lat. _barca_, possibly connected with Lat. _baris_, Gr. [Greek:

baris], a boat used on the Nile), formerly a small sailing vessel, but now

generally a flat-bottomed boat used for carrying goods on inland

navigations. On canals barges are usually towed, but are sometimes fitted

with some kind of engine; the men in charge of them are known as bargees.

On tidal rivers barges are often provided with masts and sails ("sailing

barges"), or in default of being towed, they drift with the current, guided

by a long oar or oars ("dumb-barges"). Barges used for unloading, or

loading, the cargo of ships in harbours are sometimes called "lighters"

(from the verb "to light" = to relieve of a load). A state barge was a

heavy, often highly ornamented vessel used for carrying passengers on

occasions of state ceremonials. The college barges at Oxford are houseboats

moored in the river for the use of members of the college rowing clubs. In

New England the word barge frequently means a vehicle, usually covered,

with seats down the side, used for picnic parties or the conveyance of

passengers to or from piers or railway stations.

BARGEBOARD (probably from Med. Lat. _bargus_, or _barcus_, a scaffold, and

not from the now obsolete synonym "vergeboard"), the boards fastened to the

projecting gables of a roof to give strength to the same and to mask or

hide the horizontal timbers of the roof to which they were attached.

Bargeboards are sometimes moulded only or carved, but as a rule the lower

edges were cusped and had tracery in the spandrels besides being otherwise

elaborated. The richest example is one at Ockwells in Berkshire, England,

which is moulded and carved as if it were intended for internal work.

BARGHEST, BARGUEST or BARGEST, the name given in the north of England,

especially in Yorkshire, to a monstrous goblin-dog with huge teeth and

claws. The spectre-hound under various names is familiar in folk-lore. The

Demon of Tedworth, the Black Dog of Winchester and the Padfoot of Wakefield

all shared the characteristics of the Barghest of York. In Wales its

counterpart was Gwyllgi, "the Dog of Darkness," a frightful apparition of a

mastiff with baleful breath and blazing red eyes. In Lancashire the

spectre-hound is called Trash or Striker. In Cambridgeshire and on the

Norfolk coast it is known as Shuck or Shock. In the Isle of Man it is

styled Mauthe Doog. It is mentioned by Sir Walter Scott in "The Lay of the

Last Minstrel"--

"For he was speechless, ghastly, wan

Like him of whom the story ran

Who spoke the spectre hound in Man."

A Welsh variant is the _Cwn Annwn_, or "dogs of hell." The barghest was

essentially a nocturnal spectre, and its appearance was regarded as a

portent of death. Its Welsh form is confined to the sea-coast parishes, and

on the Norfolk coast the creature is supposed to be amphibious, coming out

of the sea by night and travelling about the lonely lanes. The derivation

of the word barghest is disputed. "Ghost" in the north of England is

pronounced "guest," and the name is thought to be _burh-ghest_,

"town-ghost." Others explain it as German _Berg-geist_, "mountain demon,"

or _Bar-geist_, "bear-demon," in allusion to its alleged appearance at

times as a bear. The barghest has a kinsman in the _Rongeur d'Os_ of Norman

folklore. A belief in the spectre-hound still lingers in the wild parts of

the north country of England, and in Nidderdale, Yorkshire, nurses frighten

children with its name.

See Wirt Sikes, _British Goblins_ (1880); _Notes and Queries_, first

series, ii. 51; Joseph Ritson, _Fairy Tales_ (Lond. 1831), p. 58;

_Lancashire Folklore_ (1867); Joseph Lucas, _Studies in Nidderdale_

(Pateley Bridge, 1882).

BARHAM, RICHARD HARRIS (1788-1845), English humourist, better known by his

_nom de plume_ of THOMAS INGOLDSBY, was born at Canterbury on the 6th of

December 1788. At seven years of age he lost his father, who left him a

small estate, part of which was the manor of Tappington, so frequently

mentioned in the _Legends_. At nine he was sent to St Paul's school, but

his studies were interrupted by an accident which shattered his arm and

partially crippled it for life. Thus deprived of the power of bodily

activity, he became a great reader and diligent student. In 1807 he entered

Brasenose College, Oxford, intending at first to study for the profession

of the law. Circumstances, however, induced him to change his mind and to

enter the church. In 1813 he was ordained and took a country curacy; he

married in the following year, and in 1821 removed to London on obtaining

the appointment of minor canon of St Paul's cathedral. Three years later he

became one of the priests in ordinary of the King's Chapel Royal, and was

appointed to a city living. In 1826 he first contributed to _Blackwood's

Magazine_; and on the establishment of _Bentley's Miscellany_ in 1837 he

began to furnish the series of grotesque metrical tales known as _The

Ingoldsby Legends_. These became very popular, were published in a

collected form and have since passed through numerous editions. In variety

and whimsicality of rhymes these verses have hardly a rival since the days

of _Hudibras_. But beneath this obvious popular quality there lies a store

of solid antiquarian learning, the fruit of patient enthusiastic research,

in out-of-the-way old books, which few readers who laugh over his pages

detect. His life was grave, dignified and highly honoured. His sound

judgment and his kind heart made him the trusted counsellor, the valued

friend and the frequent peacemaker; and he was intolerant of all that was

mean and base and false. In politics he was a Tory of the old school; yet

he was the lifelong friend of the liberal Sydney Smith, whom in many

respects he singularly resembled. Theodore Hook was one of his most

intimate friends. Barham was a contributor to the _Edinburgh Review_ and

the _Literary Gazette_; he wrote articles for Gorton's _Biographical

Dictionary_; and a novel, _My Cousin Nicholas_ (1834). He retained vigour

and freshness of heart and mind to the last, and his last verses ("As I

laye a-thynkynge") show no signs of decay. He died in London after a long,

painful illness, on the 17th of June 1845.

A short memoir, by his son, was prefixed to a new edition of _Ingoldsby_ in

1847, and a fuller _Life and Letters_, from the same hand, was published in

2 vols. in 1870.

BAR HARBOR, a well-known summer resort of Hancock county, Maine, U.S.A., an

unincorporated village, in the township of Eden, on Frenchman's Bay, on the

E. side of Mount Desert Island, about 45 m. S.E. of Bangor. Pop. of the

township (1900) 4379; (1910) 4441; of the village (1910), about 2000,

greatly increased during the summer season. Bar Harbor is served by the

Maine Central railway and by steamship lines to New York, Boston, Portland

and other ports. The summer climate is cool, usually too cool for

sea-bathing, but there is a [v.03 p.0400] large open-air salt water

swimming bath. Rugged mountains from 1000 to 1500 ft. in height, a coast

with deep indentations and lined with bold cliffs, a sea dotted with rocky

islets, clear lakes, sparkling rivulets, deep gorges, and wooded glens are

features of the attractive scenery here and in the vicinity. Several fine

hotels and a number of costly residences occupy a plateau along the shore

and the hillsides farther back. The Kebo Valley Club has fine golf links

here; and since 1900 an annual horse show and fair has been held at Robin

Hood Park at the foot of Newport Mountain. Bar Harbor is usually a summer

rendezvous of the North Atlantic Squadron of the United States Navy. The

name Bar Harbor, which displaced East Eden, was suggested by the bar which

appears at low water between it and Bar Island. Although the first summer

hotel was built here in 1855, Bar Harbor's development as a summer resort

began about 1870, after some artists had visited the place, and made it

widely known through their pictures. (See MOUNT DESERT.)

BAR-HEBRAEUS or ABU'L-FARAJ, a maphri[=a]n or catholicus of the Jacobite

(Monophysite) Church in the 13th century, and (in Dr. Wright's words) "one

of the most learned and versatile men that Syria ever produced." Perhaps no

more industrious compiler of knowledge ever lived. Simple and uncritical in

his modes of thought, and apparently devoid of any striking originality, he

collected in his numerous and elaborate treatises the results of such

research in theology, philosophy, science and history as was in his time

possible in Syria. Most of his works were written in Syriac, but some few

in Arabic, which had long before his time supplanted Syriac as a living

speech.

The son of a physician of Jewish descent, Bar-Hebraeus was born in 1226 at

Mala[t.]iah on the upper Euphrates. His youth was passed in the troublous

times of the Mongol advance into western Asia, and his father eventually

retired to Antioch, where Bar-Hebraeus completed his education. In 1246 he

was ordained at Tripolis as Jacobite bishop of G[=u]b[=a]s near Mala[t.]ia,

and a year later was transferred to the neighbouring diocese of

La[k.]abh[=i]n, whence in 1253 he passed to be bishop of Aleppo. Deposed

almost immediately by an ecclesiastical superior on account of disputes

about the patriarchate, he was restored to his see in 1258, and in 1264 was

promoted by the patriarch Ignatius III. to be maphri[=a]n--the next rank

below that of patriarch--an office which he held till his death at

Mar[=a]gha in 1286. He seems to have been a model of devotion to his

ecclesiastical duties and to have won the respect of all parties in his

diocese.

It is mainly as an historian that Bar-Hebraeus interests the modern

student. His great historical work--the Syriac _Chronicle_--is made up of

three parts. The first[1] is a history of secular events from the Creation

to his own time, and in its later portions gives valuable information

regarding the history of south-east Europe and western Asia. A compendium

in Arabic of this secular history was made by Bar-Hebraeus under the title

_al-Mukhta[s.]ar fi'd-Duwal_ (Compendious History of the Dynasties). The

second and third parts[2] of the _Chronicle_ deal with the history of the

Church, the second being mainly concerned with the patriarchate of Antioch,

and the third with the eastern branch of the Syrian Church. Of special

value to theologians is the _Au[s.]ar R[=a]z[=e]_ (Storehouse of Secrets),

a critical and doctrinal commentary on the text of the Scriptures. Of this

many portions have been edited by various scholars, and a valuable study of

the work, together with a biography and estimate of its author, has been

published by J. Goettsberger (_Barhebraeus und seine Scholien zur heiligen

Schrift_, Freiburg i. B., 1900).

A full list of Bar-Hebraeus's other works, and of editions of such of them

as have been published, will be found in W. Wright's _Syriac Literature_,

pp. 268-281. The more important of them are:--(1) _K[)e]th[=a]bh[=a]

dhe-Bh[=a]bh[=a]th[=a]_ (Book of the Pupils of the Eyes), a treatise on

logic or dialectics; (2) _[H.][=e]wath H[=e]khm[)e]th[=a]_ (Butter of

Wisdom), an exposition of the whole philosophy of Aristotle; (3)

_Sull[=a][k.][=a] Haun[=a]n[=a]y[=a]_ (Ascent of the Mind), a treatise on

astronomy and cosmography, edited and translated by F. Nau (Paris, 1899);

(4) various medical works; (5) _K[)e]th[=a]bh[=a] dh[)e]-[S.]em[h.][=e]_

(Book of Ravs), a treatise on grammar; (6) ethical works; (7) poems; (8)

_K[)e]th[=a]bh[=a] dh[)e]-Thunn[=a]y[=e] M[)e]gha[h.][h.][)e]kh[=a]n[=e]_

(Book of Entertaining Stories), edited and translated by E. A. W. Budge

(London, 1897).

(N. M.)

[1] Imperfectly edited and translated by Bruns and Kirsch in 1789. There is

now a better edition by Bedjan (Paris, 1890).

[2] Edited and translated by Abbeloos and Lamy (Paris and Louvain,

1872-1873).

BARI, a tribe of Nilotic negroes, living on the banks of the upper Nile

some 200 m. N. of Albert Nyanza. They have as neighbours the Dinka to the

north, the Madi to the south, and the Galla to the east. The men are tall

and thin, the women fat and under middle height. Their colour is a deep

dead brown. The men and unmarried girls go practically naked, the married

women wearing a goatskin dyed red. The body is ornamented with red clay and

the lower incisors are often extracted. Their sole wealth is cattle and

their chief food milk and blood; meat is only eaten when a cow happens to

die. They live in round grass huts with conical roofs. Twins are considered

unlucky, the mother is divorced by her husband and her family must refund

part of the marriage-price. The dead are buried in the hut; a square grave

is dug in which the body is arranged in a sitting position with the hands

tied behind the back. The most important men in the country are the

rainmakers, who are reverenced even more than the chiefs, and, indeed, are

famous among the surrounding tribes. The Bari warriors have been much

recruited for the Egyptian army and were formerly used as slave-hunters by

the Arab traders.

See Sir Samuel Baker, _The Albert N'yanza_ (London, 1866); Friedrich

Muller, _Die Sprache der Bari_ (Vienna, 1864); G. Casati, _Ten Years in

Equatoria_ (London, 1891); W. Junker, _Travels in Africa_ (English ed.,

1890-1892); R. C. Owen, _Bari Grammar_ (1908).

BARI (anc. _Barium_), a seaport and archiepiscopal see of Apulia, Italy,

capital of the province of Bari, situated on a small peninsula projecting

into the Adriatic, 69 m. N.W. of Brindisi by rail. Pop. (1901) 77,478. The

town consists of two parts, the closely built old town on the peninsula to

the N., and the new town to the S., which is laid out on a rectangular

plan. The former contains the cathedral of S. Sabino, begun in 1035 but not

completed till 1171: the exterior preserves in the main the fine original

architecture (notably the dome and campanile), but the interior has been

modernized. Not far off is the church of S. Nicola, founded in 1087 to

receive the relics of this saint, which were brought from Myra in Lycia,

and now lie beneath the altar in the crypt. The facade is fine, and the

interior, divided into three naves by columns, with galleries over the

aisles, has fortunately not been restored; the vaulting of the crypt has,

however, been covered with modern stucco. The church is one of the four

Palatine churches of Apulia (the others being the cathedrals of Acquaviva

and Altamura, and the church of Monte S. Angelo sul Gargano). Adjacent is

the small church of S. Gregorio, belonging also to the 11th century. The

castle, built in 1169, and strengthened in 1233, lies on the W. side of the

old town: it is now used as a prison. The old harbour lies on the E. side

of the peninsula, and the new on the W. In the new town is the Ateneo,

containing the provincial museum, with a large collection of vases found in

the district, in which the pre-Hellenic specimens are especially important

(M. Mayer in _Roemische Mitteilungen_, 1897, 201; 1899, 13; 1904, 188,

276). Bari is the seat of the command of the IX. army corps, and the most

important commercial town in Apulia. It manufactures olive oil, soap,

carbon sulphide and playing-cards, and has a large iron foundry.

Barium does not seem to have been a place of great importance in early

antiquity; only bronze coins struck by it have been found. In Roman times

it was the point of junction between the coast road and the Via Traiana;

there was also a branch road to Tarentum from Barium. Its harbour,

mentioned as early as 181 B.C., was probably the principal one of the

district in ancient times, as at present, and was the centre of a fishery.

But its greatest importance dates from the time when it became, in 852, a

seat of the Saracen power, and in 885, the residence of the Byzantine

governor. In 1071 it was captured by Robert Guiscard. In 1095 Peter the

Hermit preached the first crusade there. In 1156 it was razed to the

ground, and has several times suffered destruction. In the 14th century it

became an [v.03 p.0401] independent duchy, and in 1558 was left by Bona

Sforza to Philip II. of Spain and Naples.

(T. AS.)

BARILI, a town of the province of Cebu, island of Cebu, Philippine Islands,

on the Barili river, 2 m. from its mouth and about 35 m. S.W. of Cebu, the

capital. Pop. (1903) 31,617. It has a relatively cool and healthful

climate. Its people are agriculturists and raise Indian corn, sibucao,

hemp, cacao and coffee. The language is Cebu-Visayan.

BARING, the name of a family of English financiers and bankers. The firm of

Baring Brothers was founded by FRANCIS BARING (1740-1810), whose father,

John Baring, son of a Lutheran minister at Bremen, had come to England from

Germany, and started a cloth manufactory at Larkbear, near Exeter. Francis

Baring was born at Larkbear, and in due course was placed in a London

commercial firm. In 1770, in conjunction with his brother John, Francis

Baring established a banking-house in London, and before he died in 1810

had so developed the business that he was regarded as the first merchant in

Europe. He was for many years a director of the East India Company, and

chairman in 1792-1793, receiving a baronetcy for his services. From

1784-1806 he sat almost continuously in parliament as a Whig. He left five

sons, of whom the eldest, SIR THOMAS BARING (1772-1848), was a well-known

art-patron and collector. The control of the business passed to his second

son, ALEXANDER (1774-1848), better known as LORD ASHBURTON, who had already

been highly successful in extending the firm's operations in America, where

his marriage with the daughter of William Bingham, a wealthy resident of

Philadelphia and United States senator, secured him considerable influence

with the American commercial community. From 1806-1835 he represented

various constituencies in parliament where he strongly opposed reform. In

1834 he became president of the Board of Trade and master of the mint in

Sir Robert Peel's first administration, and the following year was raised

to the peerage as Baron Ashburton. His business capacity and intimate

acquaintance with American customs and institutions caused his appointment

in 1842 as commissioner to the United States to negotiate the settlement of

the north-eastern boundary question and other matters in dispute between

the two countries, and he concluded in that year at Washington the treaty,

commonly known as the Ashburton treaty, by which the frontier between Maine

and Canada was fixed. After his death in 1848 the affairs of the house were

managed by THOMAS BARING (1799-1873), the son of Sir Thomas Baring. Thomas

Baring represented Huntingdon in parliament from 1844 till his death. His

elder brother, Sir FRANCIS THORNHILL BARING (1796-1866), sat for Portsmouth

from 1826-1865. From 1839-1841 he was chancellor of the exchequer, and from

1849-1852 first lord of the admiralty. In 1866 he was created BARON

NORTHBROOK, the barony being converted in 1876 into an earldom in favour of

his eldest son Thomas George Baring (1826-1904). The latter, the 1st EARL

OF NORTHBROOK, was occupied almost entirely with public affairs, and filled

at different times many important official positions. He is best remembered

as viceroy of India, which office he held from 1872-1876, but his last

public position was first lord of the admiralty (1880-1885). With the death

of Thomas Baring, Edward Charles Baring (1828-1897), son of Henry Baring,

M.P., and grandson of Sir Francis Baring, became head of the firm of Baring

Brothers, and in 1885 was raised to the peerage as BARON REVELSTOKE. The

house of Baring then stood at the height of its prosperity. During the

following years a large amount of English capital was advanced to the

Argentine Republic, Barings undertaking the loans and guaranteeing the

interest. Through the continued default of the Argentine government,

Barings became seriously involved, their heavy obligations precipitating a

general financial crisis. Towards the end of 1890 it became known that the

firm was on the eve of suspending payment, with liabilities amounting to

L21,000,000. The prompt action of the Bank of England, which in conjunction

with the leading joint-stock banks of the United Kingdom took over these

liabilities, averted further disaster, and the firm of Baring Brothers was

subsequently reorganized as a limited company with a capital of L1,000,000.

Besides those already referred to, various other members of the Baring

family have achieved public distinction, notably Charles Baring

(1807-1879), bishop of Durham, and Evelyn Baring, 1st Earl of Cromer

(_q.v._).

BARING-GOULD, SABINE (1834- ), English novelist, was born at Exeter on the

28th of January 1834. After graduating at Clare College, Cambridge, he

spent some years in travel, and became in 1864 curate of Horbury,

Yorkshire; then perpetual curate of Dalton, in the same county, in 1867;

and in 1871 rector of East Mersea, Essex. On his father's death in 1872 he

inherited the estate of Lew Trenchard, North Devon, where his family had

been settled for nearly three centuries, and he exchanged his Essex living

for the rectory of Lew Trenchard in 1881. He had a ready pen, and began

publishing books on one subject or another--fiction, travel, history,

folk-lore, religion, mythology, from 1854 onwards. His novel _Mehalah_

(1880), the scene of which is laid on the east coast of England, was an

excellent story, and among many others may be mentioned _John Herring_

(1883), a tale of the west country; _Court Royal_ (1886); _Red Spider_

(1887); _The Pennycomequicks_ (1889); _Cheap Jack Zita_ (1893); and _Broom

Squire_ (1896), a Sussex tale. His contributions to the study of

topography, antiquities and folk-lore, while popularly written, were also

full of serious research and real learning, notably his _Book of

Were-wolves_ (1865), _Curious Myths of the Middle Ages_ (1866), _Curious

Survivals_ (1892). He produced at the same time many volumes of sermons and

popular theology, and edited (1871-1873) _The Sacristy_, a quarterly review

of ecclesiastical art and literature.

Living the life of the rapidly disappearing English "squarson," and full of

cultivated interests, especially in humanizing the local village mind, and

investigating and recording the good things of old-time, his many-sided

activities were shown in every direction and his literary facility made his

work known far and wide. His familiarity with the country-side and his

interest in folk-lore were of special utility in recovering and preserving

for publication a large mass of English popular song, and in assisting the

new English movement for studying and appreciating the old national

ballad-music.

BARINGO, a lake of British East Africa, some 30 m. N. of the equator in the

eastern rift-valley. It is one of a chain of lakes which stud the floor of

the valley and has an elevation of 3325 ft. above the sea. It is about 16

m. long by 9 broad and has an irregular outline, the northern shore being

deeply indented. Its waters are brackish. Fed by several small streams it

has no outlet. The largest of the rivers which enter it, the Tigrish and

the Nyuki, run north through a flat marshy country which extends south of

the lake. This district, inhabited by the negro tribe of Njamusi, was by

the first explorers called Njemps. It is a fertile grain-growing region

containing two considerable villages. The Njamusi are peaceful

agriculturists who show marked friendliness to Europeans. N. of the lake

rise the Karosi hills; to the E. the land rises in terraces to the edge of

the Laikipia escarpment. A characteristic of the country in the

neighbourhood of the lake are the "hills" of the termites (white ants).

They are hollow columns 10 to 12 ft. high and from 1 ft. to 18 in. broad.

The greater kudu, almost unknown elsewhere in East Africa, inhabits the

flanks of the Laikipia escarpment to the east of the lake and comes to the

foot-hills around Baringo to feed.

The existence of Lake Baringo was first reported in Europe by Ludwig Krapf

and J. Rebmann, German missionaries stationed at Mombasa, about 1850; in

J. H. Speke's map of the Nile sources (1863) Baringo is confused with

Kavirondo Gulf of Victoria Nyanza; it figures in Sir H. M. Stanley's map

(1877) as a large sheet of water N.E. of Victoria Nyanza. Joseph Thomson,

in his journey through the Masai country in 1883, was the first white man

to see the lake and to correct the exaggerated notions as to its size.

Native tradition, however, asserts that the lake formerly covered a much

larger area.

BARISAL, a town of British India, headquarters of Backergunje district in

Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated on a river of the same name. Pop. (1901)

18,978. It is an important centre of river trade, on the steamer route

through the Sundarbans [v.03 p.0402] from Calcutta to the Brahmaputra. It

contains a first grade college and several schools. There are a public

library, established by subscription in 1858; and a students' union, for

helping the sick and poor and promoting the intellectual and physical

improvement of boys. Barisal has given its name to a curious physical

phenomenon, known as the "Barisal guns," the cause of which has not been

satisfactorily explained. These are noises, like the report of cannon,

frequently heard in the channels of the delta of the Brahmaputra, at the

rising of the tide.

BARIUM (symbol Ba, atomic weight 137.37 [O=16]), one of the metallic

chemical elements included in the group of the alkaline earths. It takes

its name from the Greek [Greek: barus] (heavy) on account of its presence

in barytes or heavy spar which was first investigated in 1602 by V.

Casciorolus, a shoemaker of Bologna, who found that after ignition with

combustible substances it became phosphorescent, and on this account it was

frequently called Bolognian phosphorus. In 1774 K. W. Scheele, in examining

a specimen of pyrolusite, found a new substance to be present in the

mineral, for on treatment with sulphuric acid it gave an insoluble salt

which was afterwards shown to be identical with that contained in heavy

spar. Barium occurs chiefly in the form of barytes or heavy spar, BaSO_4,

and witherite, BaCO_3, and to a less extent in baryto-calcite,

baryto-celestine, and various complex silicates. The metal is difficult to

isolate, and until recently it may be doubted whether the pure metal had

been obtained. Sir H. Davy tried to electrolyse baryta, but was

unsuccessful; later attempts were made by him using barium chloride in the

presence of mercury. In this way he obtained an amalgam, from which on

distilling off the mercury the barium was obtained as a silver white

residue. R. Bunsen in 1854 electrolysed a thick paste of barium chloride

and dilute hydrochloric acid in the presence of mercury, at 100deg C.,

obtaining a barium amalgam, from which the mercury was separated by a

process of distillation. A. N. Guntz (_Comptes rendus_, 1901, 133, p. 872)

electrolyses a saturated solution of barium chloride using a mercury

cathode and obtains a 3% barium amalgam; this amalgam is transferred to an

iron boat in a wide porcelain tube and the tube slowly heated electrically,

a good yield of pure barium being obtained at about 1000deg C. The metal

when freshly cut possesses a silver white lustre, is a little harder than

lead, and is extremely easily oxidized on exposure; it is soluble in liquid

ammonia, and readily attacks both water and alcohol.

Three oxides of barium are known, namely, the monoxide, BaO, the dioxide,

BaO_2, and a suboxide, obtained by heating BaO with magnesium in a vacuum

to 1100deg (Guntz, _loc. cit._, 1906, p. 359). The monoxide is formed when

the metal burns in air, but is usually prepared by the ignition of the

nitrate, oxygen and oxides of nitrogen being liberated. It can also be

obtained by the ignition of an intimate mixture of the carbonate and

carbon, and in small quantities by the ignition of the iodate. It is a

greyish coloured solid, which combines very energetically with water to

form the hydroxide, much heat being evolved during the combination; on

heating to redness in a current of oxygen it combines with the oxygen to

form the dioxide, which at higher temperatures breaks up again into the

monoxide and oxygen.

Barium hydroxide, Ba(OH)_2, is a white powder that can be obtained by

slaking the monoxide with the requisite quantity of water, but it is

usually made on the large scale by heating heavy spar with small coal

whereby a crude barium sulphide is obtained. This sulphide is then heated

in a current of moist carbon dioxide, barium carbonate being formed, BaS +

H_2O + CO_2 = BaCO_3 + H_2S, and finally the carbonate is decomposed by a

current of superheated steam, BaCO_3 + H_2O = Ba(OH)_2 + CO_2, leaving a

residue of the hydroxide. It is a white powder moderately soluble in cold

water, readily soluble in hot water, the solution possessing an alkaline

reaction and absorbing carbon dioxide readily. The solution, known as

_baryta-water_, finds an extensive application in practical chemistry,

being used in gas-analysis for the determination of the amount of carbon

dioxide in the atmosphere; and also being used in organic chemistry as a

hydrolysing agent for the decomposition of complex ureides and substituted

aceto-acetic esters, while E. Fischer has used it as a condensing agent in

the preparation of [alpha]- and [beta]-acrose from acrolein dibromide. A

saturated solution of the hydroxide deposits on cooling a hydrated form

Ba(OH)_2 . 8H_2O, as colourless quadratic prisms, which on exposure to air

lose seven molecules of water of crystallization.

Barium dioxide, BaO_2, can be prepared as shown above, or in the hydrated

condition by the addition of excess of baryta-water to hydrogen peroxide

solution, when it is precipitated in the crystalline condition as BaO_2 .

8H_2O. These crystals on heating to 130deg C. lose the water of

crystallization and leave a residue of the anhydrous peroxide. In the Brin

process for the manufacture of oxygen, barium dioxide is obtained as an

intermediate product by heating barium monoxide with air under pressure. It

is a grey coloured powder which is readily decomposed by dilute acids with

the production of hydrogen peroxide.

Barium chloride, BaCl_2 . 2H_2O, can be obtained by dissolving witherite in

dilute hydrochloric acid, and also from heavy spar by ignition in a

reverberatory furnace with a mixture of coal, limestone and calcium

chloride, the barium chloride being extracted from the fused mass by water,

leaving a residue of insoluble calcium sulphide. The chloride crystallizes

in colourless rhombic tables of specific gravity 3.0 and is readily soluble

in water, but is almost insoluble in concentrated hydrochloric acid and in

absolute alcohol. It can be obtained in the anhydrous condition by heating

it gently to about 120deg C. It has a bitter taste and is a strong poison.

Barium bromide is prepared by saturating baryta-water or by decomposing

barium carbonate with hydrobromic acid. It crystallizes as BaBr_2 . 2H_2O

isomorphous with barium chloride. Barium bromate, Ba(BrO_3)_2, can be

prepared by the action of excess of bromine on baryta-water, or by

decomposing a boiling aqueous solution of 100 parts of potassium bromate

with a similar solution of 74 parts of crystallized barium chloride. It

crystallizes in the monoclinic system, and separates from its aqueous

solution as Ba(BrO_3)_2 . H_2O. On heating, it begins to decompose at

260-265deg C. Barium chlorate, Ba(ClO_3)_2, is obtained by adding barium

chloride to sodium chlorate solution; on concentration of the solution

sodium chloride separates first, and then on further evaporation barium

chlorate crystallizes out and can be purified by recrystallization. It can

also be obtained by suspending barium carbonate in boiling water and

passing in chlorine. It crystallizes in monoclinic prisms of composition

Ba(ClO_3)_2 . H_2O, and begins to decompose on being heated to 250deg C.

Barium iodate, Ba(IO_3)_2, is obtained by the action of excess of iodic

acid on hot caustic baryta solution or by adding sodium iodate to barium

chloride solution. It crystallizes in monoclinic prisms of composition

Ba(IO_3)_2 . H_2O, and is only very sparingly soluble in cold water.

Barium carbide, BaC_2, is prepared by a method similar to that in use for

the preparation of calcium carbide (see ACETYLENE). L. Maquenne has also

obtained it by distilling a mixture of barium amalgam and carbon in a

stream of hydrogen. Barium sulphide, BaS, is obtained by passing

sulphuretted hydrogen over heated barium monoxide, or better by fusion of

the sulphate with a small coal. It is a white powder which is readily

decomposed by water with the formation of the hydroxide and hydrosulphide.

The phosphorescence of the sulphide obtained by heating the thiosulphate is

much increased by adding uranium, bismuth, or thorium before ignition (_J.

pr. Chem._, 1905, ii. p. 196).

Barium sulphate, BaSO_4, is the most abundant of the naturally occurring

barium compounds (see BARYTES) and can be obtained artificially by the

addition of sulphuric acid or any soluble sulphate to a solution of a

soluble barium salt, when it is precipitated as an amorphous white powder

of specific gravity 4.5. It is practically insoluble in water, and is only

very slightly soluble in dilute acids; it is soluble to some extent, when

freshly prepared, in hot concentrated sulphuric acid, and on cooling the

solution, crystals of composition BaSO_4 . H_2SO_4 are deposited. It is

used as a pigment under the name of "permanent white" or _blanc fixe_.

Barium nitride, Ba_3N_2, is obtained as a brownish mass by [v.03 p.0403]

passing nitrogen over heated barium amalgam. It is decomposed by water with

evolution of hydrogen, and on heating in a current of carbonic oxide forms

barium cyanide (L. Maquenne). Barium amide, Ba(NH_2)_2, is obtained from

potassammonium and barium bromide.

Barium nitrate, Ba(NO_3)_2, is prepared by dissolving either the carbonate

or sulphide in dilute nitric acid, or by mixing hot saturated solutions of

barium chloride and sodium nitrate. It crystallizes in octahedra, having a

specific gravity of 3.2, and melts at 597deg C. (T. Carnelley). It is

decomposed by heat, and is largely used in pyrotechny for the preparation

of green fire. Barium carbonate, BaCO_3, occurs rather widely distributed

as witherite (_q.v._), and may be prepared by the addition of barium

chloride to a hot solution of ammonium carbonate, when it is precipitated

as a dense white powder of specific gravity 4.3; almost insoluble in water.

Barium and its salts can be readily detected by the yellowish-green colour

they give when moistened with hydrochloric acid and heated in the

Bunsenflame, or by observation of their spectra, when two characteristic

green lines are seen. In solution, barium salts may be detected by the

immediate precipitate they give on the addition of calcium sulphate (this

serves to distinguish barium salts from calcium salts), and by the yellow

precipitate of barium chromate formed on the addition of potassium

chromate. Barium is estimated quantitatively by conversion into the

sulphate. The atomic weight of the element has been determined by C.

Marignac by the conversion of barium chloride into barium sulphate, and

also by a determination of the amount of silver required to precipitate

exactly a known weight of the chloride; the mean value obtained being

136.84; T. W. Richards (_Zeit. anorg. Chem._, 1893, 6, p. 89), by

determining the equivalent of barium chloride and bromide to silver,

obtained the value 137.44. For the relation of barium to radium, see

RADIOACTIVITY.

BARKER, EDMUND HENRY (1788-1839), English classical scholar, was born at

Hollym in Yorkshire. He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, as a scholar in

1807, but left the university without a degree, being prevented by

religious scruples from taking the oath then required. He had previously

obtained (in 1809) the Browne medal for Greek and Latin epigrams. After

acting as amanuensis to the famous Samuel Parr, the vicar of Hatton in

Warwickshire, he married and settled down at Thetford in Norfolk, where he

lived for about twenty-five years. He was in the habit of adding the

initials O. T. N. (of Thetford, Norfolk) to the title-page of his published

works. In later life he became involved in a law-suit in connexion with a

will, and thus exhausted his means. In 1837-1838 he was a prisoner for debt

in the king's bench and in the Fleet. He died in London on the 21st of

March 1839. Barker was a prolific writer on classical and other subjects.

In addition to contributing to the Classical Journal, he edited portions of

several classical authors for the use of schools. He was one of the first

commentators to write notes in English instead of Latin. In a volume of

letters he disputed the claims of Sir Philip Francis to the authorship of

the Letters of Junius; his _Parriana_ (1828) is a vast and ill-digested

compilation of literary anecdotes and criticisms. He also saw through the

press the English edition of Lempriere's _Classical Dictionary_ (revised by

Anthon) and of Webster's _English Dictionary_. It is as a lexicographer,

however, that Barker is chiefly known. While at Hatton, he conceived the

design of a new edition of Stephanus's _Thesaurus Graecae Linguae_. The

work was undertaken by A. J. Valpy, and, although not expressly stated, it

was understood that Barker was the responsible editor. When a few parts had

appeared, it was severely criticized in the _Quarterly Review_ (xxii.,

1820) by Blomfield; the result was the curtailment of the original plan of

the work and the omission of Barker's name in connexion with it. It was

completed in twelve volumes (1816-1828). The strictures of the _Quarterly_

were answered by Barker in his _Aristarchus Anti-Blomfieldianus_, which,

although unconvincing, was in turn answered by Bishop Monk. He also

published notes on the _Etymologicum Gudianum_, and collaborated with

Professor Dunbar of Edinburgh in a Greek and English Lexicon (1831). The

_editio princeps_ (1820) of the treatise attributed to Arcadius, [Greek:

Peri tonon], was published by him from a Paris MS. Continental scholars

entertained a more favourable opinion of him than those of his own country.

He expressed contempt for the minute verbal criticism of the Porsonian

school, in which he was himself deficient.

An account of his life will be found in the _Gentleman's Magazine_ for May

1839; see also _Notes and Queries_ (6th series, xii. p. 443), where a full

list of his works is given.

BARKER'S MILL, a mechanical contrivance invented by a Dr Barker about the

end of the 17th century. It consisted of a hollow vertical cylinder,

provided with a number of horizontal arms fitted with lateral apertures;

the contrivance is mounted so as to rotate about the vertical axis. By

allowing water to enter the vertical tube, a rotation, due to the discharge

through the lateral orifices, is set up.

BARKING, a market-town in the Romford parliamentary division of Essex,

England, on the river Roding near its junction with the Thames, 8 m. E. of

Fenchurch Street station and Liverpool Street station, London, by the

London, Tilbury & Southend and Great Eastern railways. Pop. of urban

district of Barking town (1891) 14,301; (1901) 21,547. The church of St

Margaret is Norman with perpendicular additions, and contains many

monuments of interest. Barking was celebrated for its nunnery, one of the

oldest and richest in England, founded about 670 by Erkenwald, bishop of

London, and restored in 970 by King Edgar, about a hundred years after its

destruction by the Danes. The abbess was a baroness _ex officio_, and the

revenue at the dissolution of the monasteries was L1084. There remains a

perpendicular turreted gateway. There is also an ancient market-house, used

as a town-hall. Victoria Gardens form a public pleasure-ground, and there

are recreation grounds. The Gaslight and Coke Company's works at Beckton

are in the parish, and also extensive rubber works. At the mouth of the

Roding (Barking Creek) are great sewage works, receiving the Northern

Outfall sewer from London. There are also chemical works, and some shipping

trade, principally in timber and fish. Barking is a suffragan bishopric in

the diocese of St Albans.

BARKLY EAST, a town of Cape province, South Africa, capital of a district

of the same name, and 80 m. by rail E.S.E. of Aliwal North. The town lies

north of the Drakensberg on the Kraai tributary of the Orange river at an

elevation of 5831 ft. The district has an area of 1564 sq. m. and a

population (1904) of 8490, of whom 50% are whites. The chief occupation

followed is sheep-farming, the pasturage being excellent. Like Barkly West,

the town and district are named after Sir Henry Barkly, governor of Cape

Colony, 1870-1877.

BARKLY WEST, a town of Cape province, South Africa, 21 m. N.W. of

Kimberley, capital of a district and of an electoral division of the same

name in Griqualand West. It is built on the right bank of the Vaal, here

spanned by a bridge. Pop. (1904) 1037. Originally called Klipdrift, the

town was the first founded by the diggers after the discovery in 1867 of

diamonds along the valley of the Vaal, and it had for some years a large

floating population. On the discovery of the "dry diggings" at Kimberley,

the majority of the diggers removed thither. Barkly West remains, however,

the centre of the alluvial diamonds industry. The diamonds of this district

are noted for their purity and lustre, and are generally associated with

other crystals--garnets, agates, quartz and chalcedonies.

Barkly West electoral division includes the whole of Griqualand West save

the Kimberley division. It is divided into the fiscal districts of Barkly

West, Hay and Herbert, with a total pop. (1904) of 48,388, of whom 12,170

are whites (see GRIQUALAND).

BARLAAM AND JOSAPHAT, one of the most popular and widely disseminated of

medieval religious romances, which owes its importance and interest to the

fact that it is a Christianized version of the story of Gautama Siddharta,

the Buddha, with which it agrees not only in broad outline but in essential

details.

The Christian story first appears in Greek among the works of John (_q.v._)

of Damascus, who flourished in the early part of the 8th century, and who,

before he adopted the monastic life, had [v.03 p.0404] held high office at

the court of the caliph Ab[=u] Ja'far al-Mans[=u]r, as his father Sergius

is said to have done before him.

The outline of the Greek story is as follows:--St Thomas had converted the

people of India, and after the eremitic life originated in Egypt, many

Indians adopted it. But a powerful pagan king arose who hated and

persecuted the Christians, especially the ascetics. After this king,

Abenner by name, had long been childless, a boy greatly desired and

matchless in beauty, was born to him and received the name of Josaphat. The

king, in his joy, summons astrologers to predict the child's destiny. They

foretell glory and prosperity beyond those of all his predecessors. One

sage, most learned of all, assents, but intimates that the scene of this

glory will be, not the paternal kingdom, but another infinitely more

exalted, and that the child will adopt the faith which his father

persecutes.

The boy shows a thoughtful and devout turn. King Abenner, troubled by this

and by the remembrance of the prediction, selects a secluded city, in which

he causes a splendid palace to be built, where his son should abide,

attended only by tutors and servants in the flower of youth and health. No

stranger was to have access, and the boy was to be cognizant of none of the

sorrows of humanity, such as poverty, disease, old age or death, but only

of what was pleasant, so that he should have no inducement to think of the

future life; nor was he ever to hear a word of Christ and His religion.

Prince Josaphat grows up in this seclusion, acquires all kinds of knowledge

and exhibits singular endowments. At length, on his urgent prayer, the king

reluctantly permits him to pass the limits of the palace, after having

taken all precautions to keep painful objects out of sight. But through

some neglect of orders, the prince one day encounters a leper and a blind

man, and asks of his attendants with pain and astonishment what such a

spectacle should mean. These, they tell him, are ills to which man is

liable. Shall all men have such ills? he asks. And in the end he returns

home in deep depression. Another day he falls in with a decrepit old man,

and stricken with dismay at the sight, renews his questions and hears for

the first time of death. And in how many years, continues the prince, does

this fate befall man? and must he expect death as inevitable? Is there _no_

way of escape? No means of eschewing this wretched state of decay? The

attendants reply as may be imagined; and Josaphat goes home more pensive

than ever, dwelling on the certainty of death and on what shall be

thereafter.

At this time Barlaam, an eremite of great sanctity and knowledge, dwelling

in the wilderness of Sennaritis, divinely warned, travels to India in the

disguise of a merchant, and gains access to Prince Josaphat, to whom he

imparts the Christian doctrine and commends the monastic life. Suspicion

arises and Barlaam departs. But all attempts to shake the prince's

convictions fail. As a last resource the king sends for Theudas, a

magician, who removes the prince's attendants and substitutes seductive

girls; but all their blandishments are resisted through prayer. The king

abandons these efforts and associates his son in the government. The prince

uses his power to promote religion, and everything prospers in his hands.

At last Abenner himself yields to the faith, and after some years of

penitence dies. Josaphat surrenders the kingdom to a friend called

Barachias and departs for the wilderness. After two years of painful search

and much buffeting by demons he finds Barlaam. The latter dies, and

Josaphat survives as a hermit many years. King Barachias afterwards

arrives, and transfers the bodies of the two saints to India, where they

are the source of many miracles.

Now this story is, _mutatis mutandis_, the story of Buddha. It will suffice

to recall the Buddha's education in a secluded palace, his encounter

successively with a decrepit old man, with a man in mortal disease and

poverty, with a dead body, and, lastly, with a religious recluse radiant

with peace and dignity, and his consequent abandonment of his princely

state for the ascetic life in the jungle. Some of the correspondences in

the two stories are most minute, and even the phraseology, in which some of

the details of Josaphat's history are described, almost literally renders

the Sanskrit of the _Lalita Vistara_. More than that, the very word Joasaph

or Josaphat (Arabic, _Y[=u]dasatf_) is a corruption of Bodisat due to a

confusion between the Arabic letters for Y and B, and Bodisatva is a common

title for the Buddha in the many birth-stories that clustered round the

life of the sage. There are good reasons for thinking that the Christian

story did not originate with John of Damascus, and a strong case has been

made out by Zotenberg that it reflects the religious struggles and disputes

of the early 7th century in Syria, and that the Greek text was edited by a

monk of Saint Saba named John, his version being the source of all later

texts and translations. How much older than this the Christian story is, we

cannot tell, but it is interesting to remember that it embodies in the form

of a speech the "Apology" of the 2nd-century philosopher Aristides. After

its appearance among the writings of John of Damascus, it was incorporated

with Simeon Metaphrastes' _Lives of the Saints_ (c. 950), and thence gained

great vogue, being translated into almost every European language. A famous

Icelandic version was made for Prince Hakon early in the 13th century. In

the East, too, it took on new life and Catholic missionaries freely used it

in their propaganda. Thus a Tagala (Philippine) translation was brought out

at Manila in 1712. Besides furnishing the early playwrights with material

for miracle plays, it has supplied episodes and apologues to many a writer,

including Boccaccio, John Gower and Shakespeare. Rudolph of Ems about 1220

expanded it into a long poem of 16,000 lines, celebrating the victory of

Christian over heathen teaching. The heroes of the romance have even

attained saintly rank. Their names were inserted by Petrus de Natalibus in

his _Catalogus Sanctorum_ (c. 1380), and Cardinal Baronius included them in

the official _Martyrologium_ authorized by Sixtus V. (1585-1590) under the

date of the 27th of November. In the Orthodox Eastern Church "the holy

Josaph, son of Abener, king of India" is allotted the 26th of August. Thus

unwittingly Gautama the Buddha has come to official recognition as a saint

in two great branches of the Catholic Church, and no one will say that he

does not deserve the honour. A church dedicated _Divo Josaphat_ in Palermo

is probably not the only one of its kind.

The identity of the stories of Buddha and St Josaphat was recognized by the

historian of Portuguese India, Diogo do Couto (1542-1616), as may be seen

in his history (_Dec_. v. liv. vi. cap. 2). In modern times the honour

belongs to Laboulaye (1859), Felix Liebrecht in 1860 putting it beyond

dispute. Subsequent researches have been carried out by Zotenberg, Max

Mueller, Rhys Davids, Braunholtz and Joseph Jacobs, who published his

_Barlaam and Josaphat_ in 1896.

BAR-LE-DUC, a town of north-eastern France, capital of the department of

Meuse, 50 m. E.S.E. of Chalons-sur-Marne, on the main line of the Eastern

railway between that town and Nancy. Pop. (1906) 14,624. The lower, more

modern and busier part of the town extends along a narrow valley, shut in

by wooded or vine-clad hills, and is traversed throughout its length by the

Ornain, which is crossed by several bridges. It is limited towards the

north-east by the canal from the Marne to the Rhine, on the south-west by a

small arm of the Ornain, called the Canal des Usines, on the left bank of

which the upper town (Ville Haute) is situated. The Ville Haute, which is

reached by staircases and steep narrow thoroughfares, is intersected by a

long, quiet street, bordered by houses of the 15th, 16th and 17th

centuries. In this quarter are the remains (16th century) of the chateau of

the dukes of Bar, dismantled in 1670, the old clock-tower and the college,

built in the latter half of the 16th century. Its church of St Pierre (14th

and 15th centuries) contains a skilfully-carved effigy in white stone of a

half-decayed corpse, the work of Ligier Richier (1500-1572), a pupil of

Michelangelo--erected to the memory of Rene de Chalons (d. 1544). The lower

town contains the official buildings and two or three churches, but these

are of little interest. Among the statues of distinguished natives of the

town is one to Charles Nicolas Oudinot, whose house serves as the

hotel-de-ville. Bar-le-Duc has tribunals of first instance and of commerce,

a board of trade arbitrators, a lycee, a training-college for girls, a

chamber of commerce, a branch of the Bank of France and an art museum. The

industries of the town include iron-founding and the manufacture of

machinery, corsets, hosiery, [v.03 p.0405] flannel goods, jam and

wall-paper, and brewing, cotton spinning and weaving, leather-dressing and

dyeing. Wine, timber and iron are important articles of commerce.

Bar-le-Duc was at one time the seat of the countship, later duchy, of Bar,

the history of which is given below. Though probably of ancient origin, the

town was unimportant till the 10th century when it became the residence of

the counts.

COUNTS AND DUKES OF BAR. In the middle of the 10th century the territory of

Bar (Barrois) formed a dependency of the Empire. In the 11th century its

lords were only counts by title; they belonged to the house of Mousson

(which also possessed the countships of Montbeliard and Ferrette), and

usually fought in the French ranks, while their neighbours, the dukes of

Lorraine, adhered to the German side. Theobald I., count of Bar, was an

ally of Philip Augustus, as was also his son Henry II., who distinguished

himself at the battle of Bouvines in 1214. But sometimes the counts of Bar

bore arms against France. In 1301 Henry III. having made an alliance with

Edward I. of England, whose daughter he had married, was vanquished by

Philip the Fair, who forced him to do homage for a part of Barrois,

situated west of the Meuse, which was called _Barrois mouvant_. In 1354

Robert, count of Bar, who had married the daughter of King John, was made

marquis of Pont-a-Mousson by the emperor Charles IV. and took the title of

duke of Bar. His successor, Edward III., was killed at Agincourt in 1415.

In 1419 Louis of Bar, brother of the last-named, a cardinal and bishop of

Chalons, gave the duchy of Bar to Rene of Anjou, the grandson of his sister

Yolande, who married Isabella, duchess of Lorraine. Yolande of Anjou, who

in 1444 had married Ferri of Lorraine, count of Vaudemont, became heiress

of Nicholas of Anjou, duke of Calabria and of Lorraine, in 1473, and of

Rene of Anjou, duke of Bar, in 1480; thus Lorraine, with Barrois added to

it, once more returned to the family of its ancient dukes. United with

Lorraine to France in 1634, Barrois remained, except for short intervals,

part of the royal domain. It was granted in 1738 to Stanislaus Leszczynski,

ex-king of Poland, and on his death in 1766 was once more attached to the

crown of France.

(M. P.*)

BARLETTA (anc. _Barduli_), a seaport town and episcopal see of Apulia,

Italy, on the E.S.E. coast, in the province of Bari, 34-1/2 m. W.N.W. of

Bari by rail. Pop. (1901) 42,022. Its importance dates from the time of the

Hohenstaufen. The Gothic church of S. Sepolcro was built at the close of

the 12th century, and the Romanesque cathedral was begun at the same

period, but added to later. In front of the former church stands a bronze

statue, 14 ft. in height, of the emperor Heraclius. The castle behind the

cathedral dates from 1537. The harbour is good. It was cleared by 508

sailing-vessels and 461 steamers, the latter with a total tonnage of

364,904 in 1904; the exports were of the value of L180,699 (principally

wine, sulphur, oil, tartar and tartaric acid), and the imports L92,486

(coal, timber and sundries).

In the neighbourhood (between Andria and Corato), during the siege of

Barletta by the French in 1503, the town being defended by the Spanish

army, a combat took place between thirteen picked knights of Italy and

France, which resulted in favour of the former: it has been celebrated by

Massimo d' Azeglio in his _Disfida di Barletta_. Seven miles to the N.W.

are the salt-works of Barletta, now known under the name of Margherita di

Savoia.

(T. AS.)

BARLEY (_Hordeum sativum_), a member of the grass family, and an important

cereal which belongs peculiarly to temperate regions. It originated from a

wild species, _H. spontaneum_, a native of western Asia and has been

cultivated from the earliest times. Three subspecies or races are

recognized, (i.) _H. sativum_, subsp. _distichum_ (described by Linnaeus as

a distinct species, _H. distichon_), two-rowed barley. Only the middle

spikelet of each triplet is fertile; the ear has therefore only two

longitudinal rows of grain, and the spikes are strongly compressed

laterally. This approaches most nearly to the wild stock, from which it is

distinguished by the non-jointed axis and somewhat shorter awns. This is

the race most commonly grown in the British Isles and in central Europe,

and includes a large number of sub-races and varieties among which are the

finest malting-barleys. The chief sub-races are (a) peacock, fan or

battledore barley, described by Linnaeus as a distinct species, _H.

zeocriton_, with erect short ears about 2-1/2 in. long, broad at the base

and narrow at the tip, suggesting an open fan or peacock's tail; (b)

erect-eared barleys (var. _erectum_) with erect broad ears and

closely-packed plump grains; (c) nodding barleys (var. _nutans_). The ripe

ears of the last hang so as to become almost parallel with the stem; they

are narrower and longer than in (b), owing to the grains being placed

farther apart on the rachis; it includes the Chevalier variety, one of the

best for malting purposes, (ii.) _H. sativum_, subsp. _hexastichum_,

six-rowed barley (the _H. hexastichon_ of Linnaeus). All the flowers of

each triplet of spikelets on both sides of the rachis are fertile and

produce ripe fruits; hence the ear produces six longitudinal rows of grain.

The ears are short, erect, and the grain thin and coarse; the straw is also

short. It is a hardy race, but owing to the poor quality of the grain is

rarely met with in Great Britain, (iii.) _H. sativum_, subsp. _vulgare_,

bere, bigg or four-rowed barley (the _H. vulgare_ of Linnaeus). All the

flowers of each triplet are fertile as in (ii.), but the rows are not

arranged regularly at equal distances round the rachis. The central fruits

of each triplet form two regular rows, but the lateral spikelets form not

four straight single rows as in (ii.), but two regular double rows, the

whole ear appearing irregularly four-rowed. This race seems to be of later

origin than the others. The ears are erect, about 2-1/2 in. long, the

grains thinner and longer than in the two-rowed race, and the awns stiff

and firmly adhering to the flowering glume. The var. _pallidum_ is the

barley most frequently cultivated in northern Europe and northern Asia.

This race was formerly used for malt and beer, but owing to its larger

amount of gluten as compared with starch it is less adapted for brewing

than the two-rowed sorts. To this belong the varieties naked barley (_H.

coeleste_ and _H. nudum_) and Himalayan barley (_H. trifurcatum_ and _H.

aegiceras_). In both the fruits fall out freely from the glume, and in the

latter the awns are three-pronged and shorter than the grain.

Barley is the most hardy of all cereal grains, its limit of cultivation

extending farther north than any other; and, at the same time, it can be

profitably cultivated in sub-tropical countries. The opinion of Pliny, that

it is the most ancient aliment of mankind, appears to be well-founded, for

no less than three varieties have been found in the lake dwellings of

Switzerland, in deposits belonging to the Stone Period. According to

Professor Heer these varieties are the common two-rowed (_H. distichum_),

the large six-rowed (_H. hexastichum_, var. _densum_), and the small

six-rowed (_H. hexastichum_, var. _sanctum_). The last variety is both the

most ancient and the most commonly found, and is the sacred barley of

antiquity, ears of which are frequently represented plaited in the hair of

the goddess Ceres, besides being figured on ancient coins. The cultivation

of barley in ancient Egypt is indicated in Exod. ix. 31. Till within recent

times barley formed an important source of food in northern countries, and

barley cakes are still to some extent eaten. Owing, however, to its poverty

in that form of nitrogenous compound called gluten, so abundant in wheat,

barley-flour cannot be baked into vesiculated bread; still it is a

highly-nutritious substance, the salts it contains having a high proportion

of phosphoric acid. The following is the composition of barley-meal

according to Von Bibra, omitting the salts:--

Water . . . . 15 per cent.

Nitrogenous compounds . 12.981 "

Gum . . . . 6.744 "

Sugar . . . . 3.200 "

Starch . . . . 59.950 "

Fat . . . . 2.170 "

Barley is now chiefly cultivated for malting (see MALT) to prepare spirits

and beer (see BREWING), but it is also largely employed in domestic

cookery. For the latter purpose the hard, somewhat flinty grains are

preferable, and they are prepared by grinding off the outer cuticle which

forms "pot barley." When the attrition is carried further, so that the

grain is reduced to small round pellets, it is termed "pearl barley."

Patent barley is either pot or pearl barley reduced to flour. Under the

name _decoctum hordei_, a preparation of barley is included in the [v.03

p.0406] British Pharmacopoeia, which is of value as a demulcent and

emollient drink in febrile and inflammatory disorders.

_Cultivation_.--Apart from the growth-habits of the plant itself, the

consideration that chiefly determines the routine of barley cultivation is

the demand on the part of the maltster for uniformity of sample. Less care

is required in its cultivation when it is intended for feeding live-stock.

It is essential that the grains on the maltster's floor should germinate

simultaneously, hence at the time of reaping, the whole crop must be as

nearly as possible in the same stage of maturity. On rich soils the crop is

liable to grow too rapidly and yield a coarse, uneven sample, consequently

the best barley is grown on light, open and preferably calcareous soils,

while if the condition of the soil is too high it is often reduced by

growing wheat before the barley.

Barley (see AGRICULTURE, _Crops and Cropping_) is a rapidly-growing and

shallow-rooted plant. The upper layer of the soil must therefore be free

from weeds, finely pulverized and stocked with a readily-available supply

of nutriment. In most rotations barley is grown after turnips, or some

other "cleaning" crop, with or without the interposition of a wheat crop.

The roots are fed off by sheep during autumn and early winter, after which

the ground is ploughed to a depth of 3 or 4 in. only in order not to put

the layer of soil fertilized by the sheep beyond reach of the plant. The

ground is then left unworked and open to the crumbling influence of frost

till towards the end of winter, when it is stirred with the cultivator

followed by the harrows, or in some cases ploughed with a shallow furrow.

The seed, which should be plump, light in colour, with a thin skin covered

by fine wrinkles, is sown in March and early April[1] at the rate of from 8

to 12 pecks to the acre and lightly harrowed in. As even distribution at a

uniform depth is necessary, the drill is preferred to the broadcast-seeder

for barley sowing. In early districts seeding may take place as early as

February, provided a fine tilth is obtainable, but it rarely extends beyond

the end of April. If artificial manures are used, a usual dressing consists

of 2 or 3 cwt. of superphosphate to the acre at the time of sowing,

followed, if the ground is in poor condition, by 1 cwt. of nitrate of soda

when the plant is showing. Nitrogen must, however, be applied with caution

as it makes the barley rich in albumen, and highly albuminous barley keeps

badly and easily loses its germinating capacity. Farm-yard manure should

also be avoided. After-cultivation may comprise rolling, harrowing (to

preserve the fineness of the tilth) and in some districts hoeing. Barley is

cut, either with scythe or machine, when it is quite ripe with the ears

bending over. The crop is often allowed to lie loose for a day or two,

owing to the belief that sunshine and dews or even showers mellow it and

improve its colour. It may even be stacked without tying into sheaves,

though this course involves greater expenditure of labour in carrying and

afterwards in threshing. There is a prejudice against the use of the binder

in reaping barley, as it is impossible to secure uniformity of colour in

the grain when the stalks are tightly tied in the sheaf, and the sun has

not free access to those on the inside. In any case it must not be stacked

while damp, and if cut by machine is therefore sometimes tied in sheaves

and set up in stocks as in the case of wheat. The above sketch indicates

the general principles of barley-cultivation, but in practice they are

often modified by local custom or farming exigencies.

Barley is liable to smut and the other fungus diseases which attack wheat

(_q.v._), and the insect pests which prey on the two plants are also

similar. The larvae of the ribbon-footed corn-fly (_Chlorops taeniopus_)

caused great injury to the barley crop in Great Britain in 1893, when the

plant was weakened by extreme drought. A fair crop of barley yields about

36 bushels (56 lb to the bushel) per acre, but under the best conditions 40

and 50 bushels may be obtained. The yield of straw is from 15 to 20 cwt.

per acre. Barley-straw is considered inferior both as fodder and litter.

[1] Barley is occasionally sown in autumn to provide keep for sheep in the

following spring.

BARLEY-BREAK, an old English country game frequently mentioned by the poets

of the 17th and 18th centuries. It was played by three pairs composed of

one of each sex, who were stationed in three bases or plots, contiguous to

each other. The couple occupying the middle base, called _hell_ or

_prison_, endeavoured to catch the other two, who, when chased, might

_break_ to avoid being caught. If one was overtaken, he and his companion

were condemned to _hell_. From this game was taken the expression "the last

couple in hell," often used in old plays.

BARLEY-CORN, a grain of barley, and thus a measure taken from the length of

a grain of barley, three of which (sometimes four) were considered to make

up an inch. The barley-corn has been personified as representing the malt

liquor made from barley, as in Burns's song "John Barleycorn."

BARLOW, SIR GEORGE HILARO (1762-1847), Anglo-Indian statesman, was

appointed to the Bengal Civil Service in 1778, and in 1788 carried into

execution the permanent settlement of Bengal. When the marquess of

Cornwallis died in 1805, Sir George Barlow was nominated provisional

governor-general, and his passion for economy and retrenchment in that

capacity has caused him to be known as the only governor-general who

diminished the area of British territory; but his nomination was rejected

by the home government, and Lord Minto was appointed. Subsequently Barlow

was created governor of Madras, where his want of tact caused a mutiny of

officers in 1809, similar to that which had previously occurred under

Clive. In 1812 he was recalled, and lived in retirement until his death in

February 1847. He was created a baronet in 1803.

BARLOW, JOEL (1754-1812), American poet and politician, born in Redding,

Fairfield county, Connecticut, on the 24th of March 1754. He graduated at

Yale in 1778, was a post-graduate student there for two years, and from

September 1780 until the close of the revolutionary war was chaplain in a

Massachusetts brigade. He then, in 1783, removed to Hartford, Connecticut,

established there in July 1784 a weekly paper, the _American Mercury_, with

which he was connected for a year, and in 1786 was admitted to the bar. At

Hartford he was a member of a group of young writers including Lemuel

Hopkins, David Humphreys, and John Trumbull, known in American literary

history as the "Hartford Wits." He contributed to the _Anarchiad_, a series

of satirico-political papers, and in 1787 published a long and ambitious

poem, _The Vision of Columbus_, which gave him a considerable literary

reputation and was once much read. In 1788 he went to France as the agent

of the Scioto Land Company, his object being to sell lands and enlist

immigrants. He seems to have been ignorant of the fraudulent character of

the company, which failed disastrously in 1790. He had previously, however,

induced the company of Frenchmen, who ultimately founded Gallipolis, Ohio,

to emigrate to America. In Paris he became a liberal in religion and an

advanced republican in politics. He remained abroad for several years,

spending much of his time in London; was a member of the obnoxious "London

Society for Constitutional Information"; published various radical essays,

including a volume entitled _Advice to the Privileged Orders_ (1792), which

was proscribed by the British government; and was made a citizen of France

in 1792. He was American consul at Algiers in 1795-1797, securing the

release of American prisoners held for ransom, and negotiating a treaty

with Tripoli (1796). He returned to America in 1805, and lived near

Washington, D.C., until 1811, when he became American plenipotentiary to

France, charged with negotiating a commercial treaty with Napoleon, and

with securing the restitution of confiscated American property or indemnity

therefor. He was summoned for an interview with Napoleon at Wilna, but

failed to see the emperor there; became involved in the retreat of the

French army; and, overcome by exposure, died at the Polish village of

Zarnowiec on the 24th of December 1812. In 1807 he had published in a

sumptuous volume the _Columbiad_, an enlarged edition of his _Vision of

Columbus_, more pompous even than the original; but, though it added to his

reputation in some quarters, on the whole it was not well received, and it

has subsequently been much ridiculed. The poem for which he is now best

known is his mock heroic _Hasty Pudding_ (1793). Besides the writings

mentioned above, he published _Conspiracy of Kings, a Poem addressed to

[v.03 p.0407] the Inhabitants of Europe from another Quarter of the Globe_

(1792); _View of the Public Debt, Receipts and Expenditure of the United

States_ (1800); and the _Political Writings of Joel Barlow_ (2nd ed.,

1796). He also published an edition, "corrected and enlarged," of Isaac

Watt's _Imitation of the Psalms of David_ (1786).

See C. B. Todd's _Life and Letters of Joel Barlow_ (New York and London,

1886); and a chapter, "The Literary Strivings of Joel Barlow," in M. C.

Tyler's _Three Men of Letters_ (New York and London, 1895).

BARLOW, PETER (1776-1862), English writer on pure and applied mathematics,

was born at Norwich in 1776 and died on the 1st of March 1862. In 1806 he

was appointed mathematical master in the Woolwich Academy, and filled that

post for forty-one years. In 1823 he was made a fellow of the Royal

Society, and two years later received the Copley medal. Steam locomotion

received much attention at his hands, and he sat on the railway commissions

of 1836, 1839, 1842, 1845. He received many distinctions from British and

foreign scientific societies. Barlow's principal works are--_Elementary

Investigation of the Theory of Numbers_ (1811); _New Mathematical and

Philosophical Dictionary_ (1814); _Essay on Magnetic Attractions_ (1820).

The investigations on magnetism led to the important practical discovery of

a means of rectifying or compensating compass errors in ships. Besides

compiling numerous useful tables, he contributed largely to the

_Encyclopaedia Metropolitana_.

BARM (a word common to Teutonic languages), the scum formed on the top of

malt liquor when fermenting; yeast used to leaven bread, or to set up

fermentation in liquor.

BARMECIDES, more accurately BARMAKIDS, a noble Persian family which

attained great power under the Abbasid caliphs. Barmak, the founder of the

family, was a Persian fire-worshipper, and is supposed to have been a

native of Khorasan. According to tradition, his wife was taken for a time

into the harem of Abdallah, brother of Kotaiba the conqueror of Balkh, and

became the mother of Khalid b. Barmak the Barmecide. Barmak subsequently

(about A.D. 736) rebuilt and adorned his native city of Balkh after the

rebellion of Harith. The family prospered, and his grandson Ya[h.]y[=a] b.

Khalid was the vizier of the caliph Mahdi and tutor of Har[=u]n al-Rashid.

His sons Fadl and Ja'far (the Giafar of the _Arabian Nights_) both occupied

high offices under Har[=u]n. The story of their disgrace, though romantic,

is not improbable. Har[=u]n, it is said, found his chief pleasure in the

society of his sister 'Abb[=a]sa and Ja'far, and in order that these two

might be with him continuously without breach of etiquette, persuaded them

to contract a purely formal marriage. The conditions were, however, not

observed and Har[=u]n, learning that 'Abb[=a]sa had borne a son, caused

Ja'far suddenly to be arrested and beheaded, and the rest of the family

except Mahommed, Ya[h.]y[=a]'s brother, to be imprisoned and deprived of

their property. It is probable, however, that Har[=u]n's anger was caused

to a large extent by the insinuations of his courtiers that he was a mere

puppet in the hands of a powerful family. See further CALIPHATE, section C,

ss. 4, 5.

The expression "Barmecide Feast," to denote an imaginary banquet, is drawn

from one of the tales ("The Barber's Tale of his Sixth Brother") in the

Arabian Nights, in which a series of empty dishes is served up to a hungry

man to test his sense of humour by one of the Barmecides (see edition by

L. C. Smithers, Lond., 1894, vol. i. 317).

BARMEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province and the

governmental district of Duesseldorf. Pop. (1816) 19,030; (1890) 116,144;

(1905) 156,148. It is served by the main railway from Berlin to

Aix-la-Chapelle, and lies immediately east of Elberfeld, with which it

virtually forms one town. It stretches for some 4 m. along the narrow

valley of the river Wupper, which, within the municipal boundaries, is

crossed by twenty bridges. High wooded hills surround it. It is divided

into three main districts, Upper, Middle and Lower Barmen, and is

connected, throughout its length, with Elberfeld, by railway, tramway, and

a suspended trolley line, hanging over the bed of the Wupper. It contains

nine Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches, a stately modern town

hall, a Hall of Fame (_Ruhmeshalle_), with statues of the emperors William

I. and Frederick III., a theatre, a picture-gallery, an ethnographical

museum, and an exchange. There are many public monuments, one to Bismarck

another to the poet Emil Rittershaus (1834-1897), a native of the town, and

one commemorative of the Franco-German War of 1870-71. There are several

high-grade public schools, academies of technical science, engineering and

textile industry, and a missionary theological seminary. Barmen is one of

the most important manufacturing centres of Germany. The rapid development

of its commercial activity only dates from the beginning of the 19th

century. It is the chief seat of ribbon weaving in Germany, and

manufactures thread, lace, braids, cotton and cloth goods, carpets, silks,

machinery, steel wares, plated goods and buttons, the last industry

employing about 15,000 hands. There are numerous bleaching-fields,

print-fields and dyeworks famous for their Turkey-red, soap works, chemical

works and potteries. There are also extensive breweries. Its export trade,

particularly to the United States, is very considerable. The hills lying S.

of the town are laid out in public grounds. Here are a health resort, a

tower commanding an extensive view, and numerous villas. Barmen, although

mentioned in chronicles in the 11th century, did not attain civic rights

until 1808, when it was formed into a municipality by the grand-duke of

Berg.

See A. Shadwell, _Industrial Efficiency_ (1906), for a good description of

the industrial aspect.

BARMOTE COURT (also written BERGHMOTE, BARGHMOTE, BARGEMOTE, BARMOOT), a

name applied to courts held in the lead-mining districts of Derbyshire,

England, for the purpose of determining the customs peculiar to the

industry and also for the settlements of any disputes which may arise in

connexion therewith. Barmote courts are of very ancient origin, having been

in existence in the reign of Edward I. Their jurisdiction extends both to

the crown lands in the duchy of Lancaster and to those under individual

ownership, comprising seven clearly defined districts. Owing to the

progress made in modern mining, many of the customs and much of the

procedure had become obsolete, and their powers were regulated by the High

Peak Mining Customs and Mineral Courts Act 1851. An appeal from the

jurisdiction of the courts lies by way of _certiorari_.

BARMOUTH (_Abermaw_, mouth of the Maw, or Mawddach, in Cardigan Bay, the

only haven in Merionethshire, North Wales), a small seaport on the north of

the estuary. Pop. of urban district (1901), 2214. The ride to Dolgelley

(Dolgellau) is fine. The parish church, Llanaber, 1-1/2 m. from Barmouth,

is on a cliff overlooking the sea. Barmouth is a favourite bathing place,

on the Cambrian railway. It is a centre for coaching in summer, especially

to and through the Vale of Llangollen.

BARNABAS, in the New Testament, the surname, according to Acts iv. 36,

given by the apostles (possibly in contrast to Joseph Barsabbas, Acts i.

23) to Joseph, "a Levite, a man of Cyprus by birth," who, though like Paul

not of the Twelve, came like him to rank as an apostle (Acts xiv. 4, 14, 1

Cor. ix. 6; see APOSTLE). The Greek rendering of this Semitic name [Greek:

huios parakleseos]) may be translated "son of consolation" (as in the

A.V.), or "son of exhortation" (as in the R.V.). But there is an initial

difficulty about the Greek rendering itself, as no satisfactory etymology

of Bar-nabas in this sense has as yet been suggested. The one at present in

favour on the ground of philological analogy (see Z.N.T.W., 1906, p. 91 for

a fresh instance), viz. Bar-Nebo, lacks intrinsic fitness for a Jew and a

Levite, and of course does not accord with the statement in Acts itself.

Hence it still seems best to assume some unknown Aramaic form equivalent to

[Greek: paraklesis], and then to take the latter in the sense of comfort or

encouragement. This rendering, rather than "exhortation" in the sense of

eloquence, best suits the usage of Acts, which suggests such comfort as is

given by encouraging rather than rousing words (ix. 31, xi. 23, xiii. 15,

xv. 31 f.; cf. Luke ii. 25, vi. 24). All we hear of Barnabas points to

goodness of heart ("a good man," xi. 24) as his distinctive quality, giving

fineness of perception (ix. 27, xi. 25 f.) and large insight into

essentials (xi. 23 f.). It was probably the practically helpful and

encouraging form that his gift as a "prophet" took (Acts xiii. i, [v.03

p.0408] with 1 Cor. xiv. 3). It is perhaps significant that his first

appearance is of the generously helpful kind described in Acts iv. 36 f.

Yet we must beware of regarding Barnabas as merely a fine character; he

plays too prominent a part in the New Testament for any such limitation.

Thus, he next appears as braving the suspicions which dogged the

ex-persecutor Saul (Paul)--possibly an old acquaintance in Hellenist

circles at Jerusalem (cf. vi. 9, ix. 29)--and introducing him to the older

apostles (ix. 27). More suggestive still of high repute as a man of insight

and authority is his mission from the Jerusalem Church to inspect and judge

of the new departure in the Gospel at Antioch, in Acts xi. 22. This means

very much, though his modesty led him to call in the aid of his friend Saul

to cope with the new and expanding situation (25 f.). After their brief

joint visit to Judaea and Jerusalem (xi. 30, xii. 25) we next get a glimpse

of Barnabas as still chief among the spiritual leaders of the Antiochene

Church, and as called by the Spirit, along with Saul, to initiate the wider

mission of the Gospel, outside Syria even, in regions beyond (xiii. 2, 4).

He led the way to his native Cyprus; but in the crucial struggle with the

magician Bar-Jesus, in the presence of the governor of the island (xiii. 7

ff.), Saul seems to have come so decisively to the front, that henceforth,

for the author of Acts he takes the lead, and Barnabas appears as his

colleague (see xiii. 13, "Paul and his company," and note the turning back

of Mark, the kinsman of Barnabas). The fact that at Lystra the natives

styled Barnabas, Zeus, and Paul, Hermes, while suggesting that Barnabas was

the man of nobler mien, proves that Paul was the chief speaker (xiv. 12);

and the notices in the Pauline epistles fully bear out the view that "the

gospel of the Gentiles" which they preached was in conception Paul's (Gal.

ii. 1-9). Indeed, Barnabas's vacillation at Antioch, as recorded in Gal.

ii. 11 ff. (whether it preceded or followed their mission in Acts

xiii.-xiv.), shows that, while gifted with true intuitions, he was not

strong in thinking out his position to all its issues on principle, and

that it was here that Paul was so immensely his superior. But what Barnabas

did see with full reasoned conviction, he was staunch in upholding; thus he

upheld the general cause of Gentile freedom from the obligation of

circumcision (as distinct from perfect religious equality with Jewish

believers) at the Jerusalem conference (Acts xv.). With this stand for

principle, however, his main work, as a great link in the transition of the

Gospel from its Jewish to its universal mission, reached its climax; and

Acts transfers its attention wholly to Paul, after explaining how their

roads parted under rather painful circumstances (xv. 37 ff.).

When Barnabas sails away with Mark to resume work in Cyprus, the mists of

history hide him from our sight. Only now and again do we catch fugitive

and increasingly doubtful glimpses of him and his work. We learn from 1

Cor. ix. 6 that he adhered to Paul's principle of self-support in his

mission work, and from Col. iv. 10 that his name was well known and

respected at Colossae about A.D. 60. Tradition, which early regards him as

one of the seventy (Clem. Alex.), carries him, plausibly enough, to

Alexandria (_Clem. Hom._ i. 8, ii. 4; cf. the ascription to him of the

Alexandrine _Epistle of Barnabas_). But the evidence for his having visited

Rome (later tradition says also Milan) is stronger because more varied

(_Clem. Recog._ i. 7, cf. _Hom._ i. 7; the early _Actus Petri

Vercellenses_; and the late Cypriot _Encomium_), especially if we might

trust the Western ascription to him of the epistle to the Hebrews, which

begins with Tertullian (_De Pud._ 20). But this may itself be mere

inference from its self-description (xiii. 22), as a "word of exhortation,"

to the "son of exhortation" (Acts iv. 36) as its author. The legend of his

missionary labours in Cyprus, including martyrdom at Salamis, is quite late

and untrustworthy. The date of his death is uncertain, but he was probably

no longer living when Acts was written (_c._ A.D. 75-80).

His was essentially a mediating role. He filled a position intermediate

between Jewish and Pauline Christianity--one characteristic of Christian

Hellenists generally. Hence he is spoken of with respect in the

Clementines; while Paul, as a radical in relation to the Law, is

discountenanced. If we could confidently credit him with the authorship of

the epistle to the Hebrews, we could conceive his theological standpoint

more exactly. But, in any case, the Barnabas of history was a greater man

than the Barnabas of modern tradition.

See W. Cunningham, _Epistle of Barnabas_, pp. xlvii.-lxii.; O.

Braunsberger, _Der Apostel Barnabas, sein Leben ..._ (Mainz, 1876);

articles _s.v._ in _Ency. Biblica_ and Hastings's _Dictionary of the

Bible_.

THE EPISTLE OF BARNABAS is one of the apocryphal books of the New

Testament. At the end of the _Codex Sinaiticus_ of the 4th century, as a

sort of appendix to the New Testament, there stands an "Epistle of

Barnabas." Here it is followed by the _Shepherd of Hermas_, while in an

11th-century MS., which contains also the _Didach[=e]_, it is followed by

two writings which themselves form an appendix to the New Testament in the

_Codex Alexandrinus_. This means that it once enjoyed quasi-canonical

authority, a fact amply borne out by what Eusebius (_H. E._ iii. 25) says

as to its standing in the ancient Church. It was at Alexandria that its

authority was greatest. Clement comments on it, as on the canonical

scriptures, in his _Hypotyposes_; Origen cites it in the same spirit as

scripture (_C. Celsum_, i. 63, _De Princ._ iii. 2, 4, 7). Clement, too,

ascribes it to "the apostle" or "the prophet" Barnabas (_Strom._ ii. 6, 31,

cf. ii. 20, 116), with explicit reference to Paul's fellow-apostle.

Internal evidence makes this ascription impossible, nor does the epistle

itself lay any claim to such authorship. Lightfoot, indeed, suggests that

its author was "some unknown namesake" of the famous Barnabas: but it is

simpler to suppose that it was fathered upon the latter by the Alexandrian

Church, ready to believe that so favourite a writing was of apostolic

origin.

"That Alexandria, the place of its earliest reception, was also the place

of its birth, is borne out by the internal evidence of style and

interpretation, which is Alexandrian throughout" (Lightfoot). The picture,

too, which it gives of the danger lest the Christianity of its readers

should be unduly Judaic in feeling and practice, suits well the experiences

of a writer living in Alexandria, where Judaism was immensely strong.

Further, he shows an "astonishing familiarity with the Jewish rites," in

the opinion of a modern Jew (Kohler in the _Jewish Encycl._); so much so,

that the latter agrees with another Jewish scholar in saying that "the

writer seems to have been a converted Jew, whose fanatic zeal rendered him

a bitter opponent of Judaism within the Christian Church." These opinions

must overrule the view of some Christian scholars that the writer often

blunders in Jewish matters, the fact being that his knowledge is derived

from the Judaism of Alexandria[1] rather than Palestine. But we need not

therefore regard the author as of Jewish birth. It is enough, and more in

keeping with the thought as a whole, to regard him as having been in close

contact with Judaism, possibly as a proselyte. He now uses his knowledge to

warn his readers, with intense passion, against all compromise between

Judaism and the Gospel. In this he goes so far as to deny any historical

connexion between the two, maintaining with all the devices of an

extravagant allegorism, including the Rabbinic _Gematria_ based on the

numerical values of letters (ix. 7 f.), that the Law and Prophecy, as meant

by God, had never been given to Israel as a people. The Divine oracles had

ever pointed to the Christian Covenant, and had been so understood by the

men of God in Israel, whereas the apostate people had turned aside to keep

the ceremonial letter of the Law at the instigation of an evil angel (ix.

4). In this way he takes in succession the typical Jewish

institutions--Circumcision, Foods, Ablutions, Covenant, Sabbath,

Temple--showing their spiritual counterpart in the New People and its

ordinances, and that the Cross was prefigured from the first. Such insight

(_gnosis_) into the reality of the case he regards as the natural issue of

Christian faith; and it is his main object to help his readers to attain

such spirituality--the more so that, by similar insight applied to the

signs of the times, he knows and can show that the end of the present age

is imminent (i. 5, 7-iv.). The burden of his epistle, then, is, "Let us

become [v.03 p.0409] spiritual, a perfect temple unto God" (iv. 11); and

that not only by theoretic insight, but also by practical wisdom of life.

In order to enforce this moral, he passes to "another sort of _gnosis_ and

instruction" (xviii. i), _viz._ the precepts of the "Two Ways," cited in a

slightly different form from that found in the first part of the _Teaching

of the Apostles_. The modifications, however, are all in a more spiritual

direction, in keeping with the genuinely evangelic spirit which underlies

and pervades even the allegorical ingenuities of the epistle.

Its opening shows it to have been addressed to a Church, or rather a group

of Churches, recently visited by the writer, who, while not wishing to

write as an authoritative "teacher" so much as one who has come to love

them as a friend (i. 8, cf. ix. 9), yet belongs to the class of "teachers"

with a recognized spiritual gift (_charisma_), referred to _e.g._ in the

_Didach[=e]_. He evidently feels in a position to give his _gnosis_ with

some claim to a deferential hearing. This being so, the epistle was

probably written, not to Alexandria, but rather by a "teacher" of the

Alexandrine Church to some body of Christians in Lower Egypt among whom he

had recently been visiting. This would explain the absence of specific

address, so that it appears as in form a "general epistle," as Origen

styles it. Its date has been much debated. But Lightfoot's reading of the

apocalyptic passage in ch. iv.--with a slight modification suggested by Sir

W. M. Ramsay--is really conclusive for the reign of Vespasian (A.D. 70-79).

The main counter-view, in favour of a date about A.D. 130, can give no

natural account of this passage, while it misconstrues the reference in ch.

xvi. to the building of the spiritual temple, the Christian Church. Thus

this epistle is the earliest of the Apostolic Fathers, and as such of

special interest. Its central problem, the relation of Judaism and

Christianity--of the Old and the New forms of a Covenant which, as Divine,

must in a sense abide the same--was one which gave the early Church much

trouble; nor, in absence of a due theory of the education of the race by

gradual development, was it able to solve it satisfactorily.

LITERATURE.--Besides collected editions of the Apostolic Fathers, see O.

Braunsberger, _Der Apostel Barnabas, ... u. der ihm beigelegte Brief_

(Mainz, 1876); W. Cunningham, _Epistle of Barnabas_ (1877); sections in J.

Donaldson, _The Apostolic Fathers_; E. Reuss, _Theologie chretienne_, vol.

ii., and in M. von Engelhardt, _Das Christenthum Justins des Martyrers_;

and Lightfoot's fragmentary essay in his _Clement of Rome_, ii. 503-512.

See also APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE, section "New Testament."