+-------+-------------------+----------------------------+
| Year. | Tons barbed wire. | Tons meshed field fencing. |
+-------+-------------------+----------------------------+
| 1874 | 5 | |
| 1875 | 300 | |
| 1876 | 1,500 | |
| 1877 | 7,000 | |
| 1878 | 13,000 | |
| 1879 | 25,000 | |
| 1880 | 40,000 | |
| 1890 | 125,000 | |
| 1900 | 200,000 | 50,000 |
| 1907 | 250,000 | 425,000 |
+-------+-------------------+----------------------------+
Barbed wire is usually shipped to customers on wooden spools, each holding
approximately 100 lb or 80 to 100 rods. A hole is provided through the
centre of the spool for inserting a bar, on which the reel can revolve for
unwinding the wire as it is put up. After the wire is stretched in place,
it is attached to the wooden posts by means of galvanized steel wire
staples, ordinarily made from No. 9 wire. They are cut with a sharp, long,
diagonal point and can be easily driven into the posts. On account of the
rapid decay and destruction of wooden posts, steel posts have become
popular, as also have reinforced concrete posts, which add materially to
the durability of the fence. It is essential that barbed wire should be
stretched with great care. For this purpose a suitable barbed wire
stretcher is necessary.
Barbed wire fencing is now manufactured in various patterns. The general
process may be outlined briefly as follows:--The wire is made of soft
Bessemer or Siemens-Martin steel, and is drawn in the wire mill in the
usual way. Galvanizing is done by a continuous process. The coil of wire to
be galvanized is placed on a reel. The first end of the wire is led
longitudinally through an annealing medium--either red-hot lead or heated
fire-brick tubes--of sufficient length to soften the wire. From the
annealing furnace, the wire is fed longitudinally through a bath of
muriatic acid, which removes the scale, and from the acid, after a thorough
washing in water, the wire passes through a bath of spelter, heated
slightly above the melting point. After coming from the spelter and being
cooled by water, the wire is wound on suitable take-up blocks into finished
coils. From 30 to 60 wires are passing simultaneously in parallel lines
through this continuous galvanizing apparatus, thus insuring a large
output. The galvanizing gives the wire a bright finish and serves to
protect it from the corrosive action of the atmosphere. There is a
considerable demand for painted fencing, in the manufacture of which the
galvanizing is dispensed with, and the spools of finished barbed wire, as
they come from the barbing machine, are submerged in paint and dried. The
barbing and twisting together of the two longitudinal strand wires is done
by automatic machinery. A brief description of the manufacture of 2 and 4
point Glidden wire is as follows:--Two coils of wire on reels are placed
behind the machine, designed to form the main or strand wires of the fence.
One of the main wires passes through the machine longitudinally. One or two
coils of wire are placed on reels at either side of the machine for making
2 or 4 point wire respectively. These wires are fed into the machine at
right angles to the strand wire. At each movement of the feeding mechanism,
when fabricating 2 point wire, one cross wire is fed forward. A diagonal
cut forms a sharp point on the first end. The wire is again fed forward and
instantly wrapped firmly around one strand wire and cut off so as to leave
a sharp point on the incoming wire as before, while the bit of pointed wire
cut off remains as a double-pointed steel barb attached firmly to the
strand wire. This wire armed with barbs at regular intervals passes on
through a guide, where it is met by a second strand wire--a plain wire
without barbs. The duplex strand wires are attached to a take-up reel,
which is caused to revolve and take up the finished barbed wire
simultaneously and in unison with the barbing machine. In this way the
strand wires are loosely twisted into a 2-ply strand, armed with barbs
projecting at right angles in every direction.
When once started, the operation of barbed wire making is continuous and
rapid. The advantage of two strands is the automatic adjustment to changes
of temperature. When heat expands the strands, the twist simply loosens
without causing a sag, and when cold contracts them, the twist tightens,
all without materially altering the relative lengths of the combined wires.
A barbed wire machine produces from 2000 to 3000 lb of wire per day of ten
hours.
In some American states, the use of barbed wire is regulated by law, but as
a rule these laws apply to placing barbed wire on highways. Others prohibit
the use of barbed wire fencing to indicate the property line between
different owners, unless both agree to its use. In some states the use of
barbed wire is prohibited unless it has a top rail of lumber.
Barbed wire is also employed in connexion with "obstacles" in field
fortifications, especially in what are known as "high wire entanglements."
Pointed stakes or "pickets," 4 ft. high, are planted in rows and secured by
ordinary wire to holdfasts or pegs in the ground. Each picket is connected
to all around it, top and bottom, by lengths of barbed wire.
In England, where the use of barbed wire has also become common, the Barbed
Wire Act 1893 enacted that, where there is on any land adjoining a highway
within the county or district of a local authority, a fence which is made
with barbed wire (_i.e._ any wire with spikes or jagged projections), or in
which barbed wire has been placed, and where such barbed wire may probably
be injurious to persons or animals lawfully using the highway, the local
authority may require the occupier of the land to abate the nuisance by
serving notice in writing upon him. If the occupier fails to do so within
the specified time, the local authority may apply to a court of summary
jurisdiction, and such court, if satisfied that the barbed wire is a
nuisance, may by summary order direct the occupier to abate it, and on his
failure to comply with the order within a reasonable time, the local
authority may execute it and recover in a summary manner from the occupier
the expenses incurred.
BARBEL (_Barbus vulgaris_), a fish of the Cyprinid family, which is an
inhabitant of the rivers of central Europe, and is very locally distributed
in England. It has four barbels (Lat. _barba_, beard; fleshy appendages
hanging from the mouth), and the first ray of the short dorsal fin is
strong, spine-like and serrated behind. It attains a weight of 50 lb on the
continent of Europe. The genus of which it is the type is a very large one,
comprising about 300 species from Europe, Asia and Africa, among which is
the mahseer or mahaseer, the great sporting fish of India.
BARBE-MARBOIS, FRANCOIS, MARQUIS DE (1745-1837), French politician, was
born at Metz. He began his public career as intendant of San Domingo under
the old regime. At the close of 1789 he returned to France, and then placed
his services at the disposal of the revolutionary government. In 1791 he
was sent to Regensburg to help de Noailles, the French ambassador, in the
negotiations with the diet of the Empire concerning the [v.03 p.0386]
possessions of German princes in Alsace and Lorraine. Suspected of treason,
he was arrested on his return but set at liberty again. In 1795 he was
elected to the Council of the Ancients, where the general moderation of his
attitude, especially in his opposition to the exclusion of nobles and the
relations of _emigres_ from public life, brought him under suspicion of
being a royalist, though he pronounced a eulogy on Bonaparte for his
success in Italy. At the _coup d'etat_ of the 18th Fructidor (September 4)
1797, he was arrested and transported to French Guiana. Transferred to
Oleron in 1799, he owed his liberty to Napoleon, after the 18th Brumaire.
In 1801 he became councillor of state and director of the public treasury,
and in 1802 a senator. In 1803 he negotiated the treaty by which Louisiana
was ceded to the United States, and was rewarded by the First Consul with a
gift of 152,000 francs. In 1805 he was made grand officer of the legion of
honour and a count, and in 1808 he became president of the _cour des
comptes_. In return for these favours, he addressed Napoleon with servile
compliments; yet in 1814 he helped to draw up the act of abdication of the
emperor, and declared to the _cour des comptes_, with reference to the
invasion of France by the allies, "united for the most beautiful of causes,
it is long since we have been so free as we now are in the presence of the
foreigner in arms." In June 1814, Louis XVIII. named him peer of France and
confirmed him in his office as president of the _cour des comptes_.
Deprived of his positions by Napoleon during the Hundred Days he was
appointed minister of justice in the ministry of the duc de Richelieu
(August 1815). In this office he tried unsuccessfully to gain the
confidence of the ultra-royalists, and withdrew at the end of nine months
(May 10, 1816).
In 1830, when Louis Philippe assumed the reins of government, Barbe-Marbois
went, as president of the _cour des comptes_, to compliment him and was
confirmed in his position. It was the sixth government he had served and
all with servility. He held his office until April 1834, and died on the
12th of February 1837. He published various works, of which may be
mentioned: _Reflexions sur la colonie de Saint-Domingue_ (1794), _De la
Guyane, &c._ (1822), an _Histoire de la Louisiane et la cession de cette
colonie par la France aux Etats-Unis, &c._ (1828), and the story of his
transportation after the 18th Fructidor in _Journal d'un deporte non juge_,
2 vols. (1834).
BARBER (from Lat. _barba_, beard), one whose occupation it is to shave or
trim beards, a hairdresser. In former times the barber's craft was
dignified with the title of a profession, being conjoined with the art of
surgery. In France the barber-surgeons were separated from the perruquiers,
and incorporated as a distinct body in the reign of Louis XIV. In England
barbers first received incorporation from Edward IV. in 1461. By 32 Henry
VIII. c. 42, they were united with the company of surgeons, it being
enacted that the barbers should confine themselves to the minor operations
of blood-letting and drawing teeth, while the surgeons were prohibited from
"barbery or shaving." In 1745 barbers and surgeons were separated into
distinct corporations by 18 George II. c. 15. The barber's shop was a
favourite resort of idle persons; and in addition to its attraction as a
focus of news, a lute, viol, or some such musical instrument, was always
kept for the entertainment of waiting customers. The barber's sign
consisted of a striped pole, from which was suspended a basin, symbols the
use of which is still preserved. The fillet round the pole indicated the
ribbon for bandaging the arm in bleeding, and the basin the vessel to
receive the blood.
See also BEARD, and _Annals of the Barber Surgeons of London_ (1890).
BARBERINI, the name of a powerful Italian family, originally of Tuscan
extraction, who settled in Florence during the early part of the 11th
century. They acquired great wealth and influence, and in 1623 Maffeo
Barberini was raised to the papal throne as Urban VIII. He made his
brother, Antonio, a distinguished soldier, and two nephews, cardinals, and
gave to a third nephew, Taddeo, the principality of Palestrina. Great
jealousy of their increasing power was excited amongst the neighbouring
princes, and Odoardo Farnese, duke of Parma, made war upon Taddeo, and
defeated the papal troops. After the death of Urban in 1644 his successor,
Innocent X., showed hostility to the Barberini family. Taddeo fled to
Paris, where he died in 1647, and with him the family became extinct in the
male line. His daughter Cornelia married Prince Giulio Cesare Colonna di
Sciarra in 1728, who added her name to his own. On the death of Prince
Enrico Barberini-Colonna the name went to his daughter and heiress Donna
Maria and her husband Marquis Luigi Sacchetti, who received the title of
prince of Palestrina and permission to bear the name of Barberini. The fine
Barberini palace and library in Rome give evidence of their wealth and
magnificence. The ruthless way in which they plundered ancient buildings to
adorn their own palaces is the origin of the saying, "Quod non fecerunt
barbari, fecerunt Barberini."
See A. von Reumont, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_ (Berlin, 1868), iii. b.
611-612, 615, 617, &c.; _Almanach de Gotha_ (Gotha, 1902); J. H. Douglas,
_The Principal Noble Families of Rome_ (Rome, 1905).
BARBERRY (_Berberis vulgaris_), a shrub with spiny-toothed leaves, which on
the woody shoots are reduced to forked spines, and pale yellow flowers in
hanging racemes, which are succeeded by orange-red berries. It is a member
of the botanical natural order _Berberidaceae_, and contains about 100
species in the north temperate zone and in the Andes of South America
extending into Patagonia. The order is nearly allied to the buttercup order
in having the parts of the flowers all free and arranged in regular
succession below the ovary which consists of only one carpel. It is
distinguished by having the sepals, petals and stamens in multiples of 2, 3
or 4, never of 5. The berries of _Berberis_ are edible; those of the native
barberry are sometimes made into preserves. The alkaloid berberine (_q.v._)
occurs in the roots.
BARBERTON, a town of the Transvaal, 283 m. by rail (175 m. in a direct
line) E. of Pretoria and 136 m. W.N.W. of Delagoa Bay. Pop. (1904) 2433, of
whom 1214 were whites. Barberton lies 2825 ft. above the sea and is built
on the side of a valley named De Kaap, from a bold headland of the
Drakensberg which towers above it. The chief town of a district of the same
name, it owes its existence to the discovery of gold in the Kaap valley,
and dates from 1886. There are several fine public buildings grouped mainly
round President Square. The town is connected with the Lourenco
Marques-Pretoria trunk railway by a branch line, 35 m. long, which runs
N.E. through fine mountainous country and joins the main line at
Kaapmuiden. During the war of 1899-1902 the Boers were driven out of
Barberton (13th of September 1900) by General (afterwards Sir John) French.
BARBETTE (Fr. diminutive of _barbe_, a beard), a platform inside a
fortification raised sufficiently high for artillery placed thereon to be
able to fire _en barbette_, _viz._ over the top of the parapet; also in
warships a raised platform, protected by armour on the sides, upon which
guns are mounted _en barbette_.
BARBEY D'AUREVILLY, JULES AMEDEE (1808-1889), French man of letters, was
born at Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte (Manche) on the 2nd of November 1808. His
most famous novels are _Une Vieille Maitresse_ (1851), attacked at the time
of its publication on the charge of immorality; _L'Ensorcelee_ (1854), an
episode of the royalist rising among the Norman peasants against the first
republic; the _Chevalier Destouches_ (1864); and a collection of
extraordinary stories entitled _Les Diaboliques_ (1874). Barbey d'Aurevilly
is an extreme example of the eccentricities of which the Romanticists were
capable, and to read him is to understand the discredit that fell upon the
manner. He held extreme Catholic views and wrote on the most _risque_
subjects, he gave himself aristocratic airs and hinted at a mysterious
past, though his parentage was entirely _bourgeois_ and his youth very
hum-drum and innocent. In the 'fifties d'Aurevilly became literary critic
of the _Pays_, and a number of his essays, contributed to this and other
journals, were collected as _Les Oeuvres et les hommes du XIX^e siecle_
(1861-1865). Other literary studies are _Les Romanciers_ (1866) and _Goethe
et Diderot_ (1880). He died in Paris on the 23rd of April 1889. Paul
Bourget describes him as a dreamer with an exquisite sense of vision, who
sought and found in his work a refuge from the [v.03 p.0387] uncongenial
world of every day. Jules Lemaitre, a less sympathetic critic, finds in the
extraordinary crimes of his heroes and heroines, his reactionary views, his
dandyism and snobbery, an exaggerated Byronism.
See also Alcide Dusolier, _Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly_ (1862), a collection
of eulogies and interviews; Paul Bourget, Preface to d'Aurevilly's
_Memoranda_ (1883); Jules Lemaitre, _Les Contemporains_; Eugene Grele,
_Barbey d'Aurevilly, sa vie et son oeuvre_ (1902); Rene Doumic, in the
_Revue des deux mondes_ (Sept. 1902).
BARBEYRAC, JEAN (1674-1744), French jurist, the nephew of Charles
Barbeyrac, a distinguished physician of Montpellier, was born at Beziers in
Lower Languedoc on the 15th of March 1674. He removed with his family into
Switzerland after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and there studied
jurisprudence. After spending some time at Geneva and Frankfort-on-Main, he
became professor of belles-lettres in the French school of Berlin. Thence,
in 1711, he was called to the professorship of history and civil law at
Lausanne, and finally settled as professor of public law at Groningen. He
died on the 3rd of March 1744. His fame rests chiefly on the preface and
notes to his translation of Pufendorf's treatise _De Jure Naturae et
Gentium_. In fundamental principles he follows almost entirely Locke and
Pufendorf; but he works out with great skill the theory of moral
obligation, referring it to the command or will of God. He indicates the
distinction, developed more fully by Thomasius and Kant, between the legal
and the moral qualities of action. The principles of international law he
reduces to those of the law of nature, and combats, in so doing, many of
the positions taken up by Grotius. He rejects the notion that sovereignty
in any way resembles property, and makes even marriage a matter of civil
contract. Barbeyrac also translated Grotius's _De Jure Belli et Pacis_,
Cumberland's _De Legibus Naturae_, and Pufendorf's smaller treatise _De
Officio Hominis et Civis_. Among his own productions are a treatise, _De la
morale des peres_, a history of ancient treaties contained in the
_Supplement au grand corps diplomatique_, and the curious _Traite du jeu_
(1709), in which he defends the morality of games of chance.
BARBICAN (from Fr. _barbacane_, probably of Arabic or Persian origin), an
outwork for the defence of a gate or drawbridge; also a sort of pent-house
or construction of timber to shelter warders or sentries from arrows or
other missiles.
BARBIER, ANTOINE ALEXANDRE (1765-1825), French librarian and bibliographer,
was born on the 11th of January 1765 at Coulommiers (Seine-et-Marne). He
took priest's orders, from which, however, he was finally released by the
pope in 1801. In 1794 he became a member of the temporary commission of the
arts, and was charged with the duty of distributing among the various
libraries of Paris the books that had been confiscated during the
Revolution. In the execution of this task he discovered the letters of
Huet, bishop of Avranches, and the MSS. of the works of Fenelon. He became
librarian successively to the Directory, to the Conseil d'Etat, and in 1807
to Napoleon, from whom he carried out a number of commissions. He produced
a standard work in his _Dictionnaire des ouvrages anonymes et pseudonymes_
(4 vols., 1806-1809; 3rd edition 1872-1879). Only the first part of his
_Examen critique des dictionnaires historiques_ (1820) was published. He
had a share in the foundation of the libraries of the Louvre, of
Fontainebleau, of Compiegne and Saint-Cloud; under Louis XVIII. he became
administrator of the king's private libraries, but in 1822 he was deprived
of all his offices. Barbier died in Paris on the 5th of December 1825.
See also a notice by his son, Louis Barbier, and a list of his works
prefixed to the 3rd edition of the _Dict. des ouvrages anonymes et
pseudonymes_.
BARBIER, HENRI AUGUSTE (1805-1882), French dramatist and poet, was born in
Paris on the 29th of April 1805. Inspired by the revolution of July he
poured forth a series of eager, vigorous poems, denouncing, crudely enough,
the evils of the time. They are spoken of collectively as the _Iambes_
(1831), though the designation is not strictly applicable to all. As the
name suggests, they are modelled on the verse of Andre Chenier. They
include _La Curee_, _La Popularite_, _L'Idole_, _Paris_, _Dante_,
_Quatre-vingt-treize_ and _Varsovie_. The rest of Barbier's poems are
forgotten, and when, in 1869, he received the long delayed honour of
admission to the Academy, Montalembert expressed the general sentiment in
his _Barbier? mais il est mort!_ It was even asserted, though without
foundation, that he was not the real author of the _Iambes_. He died at
Nice on the 13th of February 1882. He collaborated with Leon de Wailly in
the libretto of Berlioz's opera, _Benvenuto Cellini_, and his works include
two series of poems on the political and social troubles of Italy and
England, printed in later editions of _Iambes et poemes_.
See also Sainte-Beuve, _Portraits Contemporains_, vol. ii.
BARBIER, LOUIS, known as the ABBE DE LA RIVIERE (1593-1670), French bishop,
was born of humble parents in Vaudelaincourt, near Compiegne. He entered
the church and made his way by his wit and cleverness, until he was
appointed tutor, and then became the friend and adviser, of Gaston
d'Orleans, brother of Louis XIII. He thus gained an entrance to the court,
became grand almoner of the queen, and received the revenue of rich abbeys.
In March 1655 he was named bishop of Langres, but he spent his time at
court, where his wit was always in demand, and where he gained great sums
by gambling. He died very rich.
BARBIERI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO (otherwise called GUERCINO, from his
squinting), (1591-1666), Italian historical painter, was born at Cento, a
village not far from Bologna. His artistic powers were developed very
rapidly, and at the age of seventeen he was associated with Benedetto
Gennari (1550-1610), a well-known painter of the Bolognese school. The fame
of the young painter spread beyond his native village, and in 1615 he
removed to Bologna, where his paintings were much admired. His first style
was formed after that of the Caracci; but the strong colouring and shadows
employed by Caravaggio made a deep impression on his mind, and for a
considerable period his productions showed evident traces of that painter's
influence. Some of his latest pieces approach rather to the manner of his
great contemporary Guido, and are painted with more lightness and
clearness. Guercino was esteemed very highly in his lifetime, not only by
the nobles and princes of Italy, but by his brother artists, who placed him
in the first rank of painters. He was remarkable for the extreme rapidity
of his execution; he completed no fewer than 106 large altar-pieces for
churches, and his other paintings amount to about 144. His most famous
piece is thought to be the St Petronilla, which was painted at Rome for
Gregory XV. and is now in the Capitol. In 1626 he began his frescoes in the
Duomo at Piacenza. Guercino continued to paint and teach up to the time of
his death in 1666. He had amassed a handsome fortune by his labours. His
life, by J. A. Calvi, appeared at Bologna in 1808.
His brother, PAOLO ANTONIO BARBIERI (1603-1649), was a celebrated painter
of still life and animals. He chose for his subjects fruits, flowers,
insects and animals, which he painted after nature with a lively tint of
colour, great tenderness of pencil, and a strong character of truth and
life.
BARBITON, or BARBITOS (Gr. [Greek: barbiton] or [Greek: barbitos]; Lat.
_barbitus_; Pers. _barbat_, _barbud_), an ancient stringed instrument known
to us from the Greek and Roman classics, but derived from Persia.
Theocritus (xvi. 45), the Sicilian poet, calls it an instrument of many
strings, _i.e._ more than seven, which was by the Hellenes accounted the
perfect number, as in the cithara of the best period. Anacreon,[1] (a
native of Teos in Asia Minor) sings that his barbitos only gives out erotic
tones. Pollux (_Onomasticon_ iv. chap. 8, s. 59) calls the instrument
barbiton or barymite (from [Greek: barus], heavy and [Greek: mitos], a
string), an instrument producing deep sounds; the strings were twice as
long as those of the pectis and sounded an octave lower. Pindar (in Athen.
xiv. p. 635), in the same line wherein he attributes the introduction of
the instrument into Greece to Terpander, tells us one could magadize,
_i.e._ play in two parts at an interval of an octave on the two
instruments. The word barbiton was frequently used for the lyre itself.
Although in use in Asia Minor, Italy, [v.03 p.0388] Sicily, and Greece, it
is evident that the barbiton never won for itself a place in the affections
of the Greeks of Hellas; it was regarded as a barbarian instrument affected
by those only whose tastes in matters of art were unorthodox. It had fallen
into disuse in the days of Aristotle,[2] but reappeared under the Romans.
In spite of the few meagre shreds of authentic information extant
concerning this somewhat elusive instrument, it is possible nevertheless to
identify the barbiton as it was known among the Greeks and Romans. From the
Greek writers we know that it was an instrument having some feature or
features in common with the lyre, which warranted classification with it.
From the Persians and Arabs we learn that it was a kind of _rebab_ or lute,
or a chelys-lyre,[3] first introduced into Europe through Asia Minor by way
of Greece, and centuries later into Spain by the Moors, amongst whom it was
in the 14th century known as _al-barbet_.[4] There is a stringed
instrument, as yet unidentified by name, of which there are at least four
different representations in sculpture,[5] which combines the
characteristics of both lyre and rebab, having the vaulted back and gradual
narrowing to form a neck which are typical of the rebab and the stringing
of the lyre. In outline it resembles a large lute with a wide neck, and the
seven strings of the lyre of the best period, or sometimes nine, following
the decadent lyre. Most authors in reproducing these sculptures showing the
barbiton represent the instrument as boat-shaped and without a neck, as,
for instance, Carl Engel. This is due to the fact that the part of the
instrument where neck joins body is in deep shadow, so that the correct
outline can hardly be distinguished, being almost hidden by hand on one
side and drapery on the other.
[Illustration: Barbiton, from a bas-relief in the Louvre, "Achilles at
Scyros."]
The barbiton, as pictured here, had probably undergone considerable
modification at the hands of the Greeks and had diverged from the
archetype. The barbiton, however, although it underwent many changes,
retained until the end the characteristics of the instruments of the Greek
lyre whose strings were plucked, whereas the rebab was sounded by means of
the bow at the time of its introduction into Europe. At some period not yet
determined, which we can but conjecture, the barbat approximated to the
form of the large _lute_ (_q.v._). An instrument called barbiton was known
in the early part of the 16th[6] and during the 17th century. It was a kind
of theorbo or bass-lute, but with one neck only, bent back at right angles
to form the head. Robert Fludd[7] gives a detailed description of it with
an illustration:--"Inter quas instrumenta non nulla barbito simillima
effinxerunt cujus modi sunt illa quae vulgo appellantur theorba, quae sonos
graviores reddunt chordasque nervosas habent." The people called it
_theorbo_, but the scholar having identified it with the instrument of
classic Greece and Rome called it barbiton. The barbiton had nine pairs of
gut strings, each pair being in unison. Dictionaries of the 18th century
support Fludd's use of the name barbiton. G. B. Doni[8] mentions the
barbiton, defining it in his index as _Barbitos seu major chelys italice
tiorba_, and deriving it from lyre and cithara in common with testudines,
tiorbas and all tortoiseshell instruments. Claude Perrault,[9] writing in
the 18th century, states that "les modernes appellent notre luth barbiton"
(the moderns call our lute barbiton). Constantijn Huygens[10] declares that
he learnt to play the barbiton in a few weeks, but took two years to learn
the cittern.
The _barbat_ was a variety of _rebab_ (_q.v._), a bass instrument,
differing only in size and number of strings. This is quite in accordance
with what we know of the nomenclature of musical instruments among Persians
and Arabs, with whom a slight deviation in the construction of an
instrument called for a new name.[11] The word _barbud_ applied to the
barbiton is said to be derived[12] from a famous musician living at the
time of Chosroes II. (A.D. 590-628), who excelled in playing upon the
instrument. From a later translation of part of the same authority into
German[13] we obtain the following reference to Persian musical
instruments: "Die Saenger stehen bei seinem Gastmahl; in ihrer Hand
Barbiton^{(i.)} und Leyer^{(ii.)} und Laute^{(iii.)} und Floete^{(iv.)} und
Deff (Handpauke)." Mr Ellis, of the Oriental Department of the British
Museum, has kindly supplied the original Persian names translated above,
_i.e._ (i.) _barbut_, (ii.) _chang_, (iii.) _rub[=a]b_, (iv.) _nei_. The
barbut and rubab thus were different instruments as late as the 19th
century in Persia. There were but slight differences if any between the
archetypes of the pear-shaped rebab and of the lute before the application
of the bow to the former--both had vaulted backs, body and neck in one, and
gut strings plucked by the fingers.
(K. S.)
[1] See Bergk's _Poetae Lyrici Graeci_ (4th ed., 1882), p. 291, _fr._ 143
[113]; and p. 311, 23 [1], 3; and 14 [9], 34, p. 306.
[2] _Polit._ viii. (v.), 6, ed. Susemihl-Hicks (1894), pp. 604 (= 1341a 40)
and 632; Daremberg and Saglio, _Dict. d'ant. gr. et rom._, article "Lyre,"
p. 1450, for a few more references to the classics.
[3] Johnson's Persian-Arabic-English dictionary: _barbat_, a harp or lute,
_barbatzan_, player upon lute, pl._bar[=a]bit_; G. W. Freytag, _Lexicon
Arabico-Latinum_, i. p. 102; _barbat_ (Persian and Arabic), barbitus, genus
testudinis, plerumque sex septamve chordis instructum (rotundam habet
formam in Africa); _Lexicon Aegidii Forcellini_ (Prato, 1858; "Barbito
aurataque chely ac doctis fidibus personare" (Martianus Capella i. 36);
G. B. Doni, _Lyra Barberina_, ii. index.
[4] _Enumeration of Arab Musical Instruments_, xiv. c.
[5] (a) See C. Clarac, _Musee du Louvre_, vol. i. pl. 202, No. 261. (b)
Accompanying illustration. See also Kathleen Schlesinger, "Orchestral
Instruments", part ii., "Precursors of the Violin Family," fig. 108 and p.
23, pp. 106-107, fig. 144 and appendix. (c) Sarcophagus in the cathedral of
Girgenti in Sicily, illustrated by Carl Engel, _Early History of the Violin
Family_, p. 112. A cast is preserved in the sepulchral basement at the
British Museum. Domenico, _Lo Faso Pietra-Santa, le antichita della
Sicilia_ (Palermo, 1834), vol. 3, pl. 45 (2), text p. 89. (d) C. Zoega,
_Antike Basreliefe von Rom_ (Giessen, 1812), atlas, pl. 98, sarcophagus
representing a scene in the story of Hippolytus and Phaedra.
[6] In Jacob Locher's _Navis Stultifera_ (Basil, 1506), titulus 7, is an
illustration of a small harp and lute with the legend _nec cytharum tangit
nec barbiton_.
[7] _Historia Utriusque Cosmi_ (Oppenheim, 1617), tom. i. tract ii. part
ii. lib. iv. cap. i. p. 226.
[8] _Lyra Barberina_, vol. ii. index, and also vol. i. p. 29.
[9] "La Musique des anciens," _Oeuvres completes_ (ed. Amsterdam, 1727),
tom. i. p. 306.
[10] _De Vita propria sermonum inter liberos libri duo_ (Haarlem, 1817).
See also Edmund van der Straeten, _La Musique aux Pays-Bas_, vol. ii. p.
349.
[11] See _The Seven Seas_, a dictionary and grammar of the Persian
language, by Ghazi ud-din Haidar, king of Oudh, in seven parts (Lucknow,
1822) (only the title of the book is in English). A review of this book in
German with copious quotations by von Hammer-Purgstall is published in
_Jahrbuecher der Literatur_ (Vienna, 1826), Bd. 35 and 36; names of musical
instruments, Bd. 36, p. 292 et seq. See also R. G. Kiesewetter, _Die Musik
der Araber, nach Originalquellen dargestellt_ (Leipzig, 1843, p. 91,
classification of instruments).
[12] _The Seven Seas_, part i. p. 153; _Jahrb. d. Literatur_, Bd. 36, p.
294.
[13] Fr. Rueckert, _Grammatik, Poetik und Rhetorik der Perser, nach dem
7^{ten} Bde. des Hefts Kolzum_ (Gotha, 1874), p. 80.
BARBIZON, a French village, near the forest of Fontainebleau, which gave
its name to the "Barbizon school" of painters, whose leaders were Corot,
Rousseau, Millet and Daubigny, together with Diaz, Dupre, Jacque, Francais,
Harpignies and others. They put aside the conventional idea of "subject" in
their pictures of landscape and peasant life, and went direct to the fields
and woods for their inspiration. The distinctive note of the school is seen
in the work of Rousseau and of Millet, each of whom, after spending his
early years in Paris, made his home in Barbizon. Unappreciated, poor and
neglected, it was not until after years of struggle that they attained
recognition and success. They both died at Barbizon--Rousseau in 1867 and
Millet in 1875. It is difficult now to realize that their work, so
unaffected and beautiful, should have been so hardly received. To
understand this, it is necessary to remember the conflicts that existed
between the classic and romantic schools in the first half of the 19th
century, when the classicists, followers of the tradition of [v.03 p.0389]
David, were the predominant school. The romantic movement, with Gericault,
Bonington and Delacroix, was gaining favour. In 1824 Constable's pictures
were shown in the Salon, and confirmed the younger men in their resolution
to abandon the lifeless pedantry of the schools and to seek inspiration
from nature. In those troubled times Rousseau and Millet unburdened their
souls to their friends, and their published lives contain many letters,
some extracts from which will express the ideals which these artists held
in common, and show clearly the true and firmly-based foundation on which
their art stands. Rousseau wrote, "It is good composition when the objects
represented are not there solely as they are, but when they contain under a
natural appearance the sentiments which they have stirred in our souls....
For God's sake, and in recompense for the life He has given us, let us try
in our works to make the manifestation of life our first thought: let us
make a man breathe, a tree really vegetate." And Millet--"I try not to have
things look as if chance had brought them together, but as if they had a
necessary bond between themselves. I want the people I represent to look as
if they really belonged to their station, so that imagination cannot
conceive of their ever being anything else. People and things should always
be there with an object. I want to put strongly and completely all that is
necessary, for I think things weakly said might as well not be said at all,
for they are, as it were, deflowered and spoiled--but I profess the
greatest horror for uselessness (however brilliant) and filling up. These
things can only weaken a picture by distracting the attention toward
secondary things." In another letter he says--"Art began to decline from
the moment that the artist did not lean directly and naively upon
impressions made by nature. Cleverness naturally and rapidly took the place
of nature, and decadence then began.... At bottom it always comes to this:
a man must be moved himself in order to move others, and all that is done
from theory, however clever, can never attain this end, for it is
impossible that it should have the breath of life." The ideas of the
"Barbizon school" only gradually obtained acceptance, but the chief members
of it now rank among the greater artists of their time.
See D. Croal Thomson, _The Barbizon School_ (1891), with a full list of the
French authorities to be consulted; Jules Breton, _Nos peintres du siecle_,
Paris, 1900.
BARBON, NICHOLAS (_c._ 1640-1698), English economist, probably the son of
Praise-god Barbon, was born in London, studied medicine at Leiden,
graduated M.D. at Utrecht in 1661, and was admitted an honorary fellow of
the College of Physicians in 1664. He took a considerable part in the
rebuilding of London after the great fire of 1666, and has a claim to be
considered the institutor of fire-insurance in England, which he started
somewhere about 1680. He was M.P. for Bramber in 1690 and 1695. He founded
a land bank which, according to contemporaries, was fairly successful and
was united with that of John Briscoe in 1696. He died in 1698. His writings
are interesting as expressing views much in advance of his time and very
near akin to those of modern times on such important topics as value, rent
and foreign trade. The more important were _Apology for the Builder; or a
Discourse showing the Cause and Effects of the Increase of Building_
(1685); _A Discourse of Trade_ (1690); and _A Discourse Concerning Coining
the New Money Lighter_ (1696).
BARBON (BAREBONE or BAREBONES), PRAISE-GOD (_c._ 1596-1679), English
leather-seller and Fifth Monarchy man, was admitted freeman of the
Leathersellers Company on the 20th of January 1623 and liveryman on the
13th of October 1634. About the same time he became minister to a
congregation which assembled at his own house, "The Lock and Key," in Fleet
Street, where his preaching attracted large audiences. The exact nature of
his religious opinions is not perfectly clear. He is styled by his enemies
a Brownist and Anabaptist, _i.e._ probably Baptist, but he wrote two books
in support of paedobaptism, and his congregation had separated from a
larger one of Baptists on that point of controversy. Later he belonged to
the sect of Fifth Monarchy men. He was the object of the abuse and ridicule
of the opposite party, and his meetings were frequently disturbed by riots.
On the 20th of December 1641 his house was stormed by a mob and he narrowly
escaped with his life. Barbon, who was a man of substantial property, was
summoned by Cromwell on the 6th of June 1653 as a member for London to the
assembly of nominees called after him in derision Barebone's Parliament.
His name is occasionally mentioned, but he appears to have taken no part in
the debates. In 1660 he showed great activity in endeavouring to prevent
the Restoration. He published Needham's book, _News from Brussels in a
Letter from a Near Attendant on His Majesty's Person ..._, which retailed
unfavourable anecdotes relating to Charles's morals, and on the 9th of
February he presented the petition to the Parliament, which proposed that
all officials should abjure the Stuarts, and all publicly proposing the
Restoration should be deemed guilty of high treason. His conduct drew upon
him several royalist attacks. On the 31st of March he was obliged to sign
an engagement to the council not to disturb the peace, and on the 26th of
November 1661 he was arrested, together with John Wildman and James
Harrington, and was imprisoned in the Tower till the 27th of July 1662,
when he was released on bail. Barbon, who was married, was buried on the
5th of January 1680. He was the author of _A Discourse tending to prove ...
Baptism ... to be the ordinance of Jesus Christ. As also that the Baptism
of Infants is warentable_ (1642), the preface of which shows a spirit of
wide religious tolerance; and _A Reply to the Frivolous and Impertinent
answer of R. B. and E. B. to the Discourse of P. B._ (1643).
BARBOUR, JOHN (? 1316-1395), Scottish poet, was born, perhaps in
Aberdeenshire, early in the 14th century, approximately 1316. In a letter
of safe-conduct dated 1357, allowing him to go to Oxford for study, he is
described as archdeacon of Aberdeen. He is named in a similar letter in
1364 and in another in 1368 granting him permission to pass to France,
probably for further study, at the university of Paris. In 1372 he was one
of the auditors of exchequer, and in 1373 a clerk of audit in the king's
household. In 1375 (he gives the date, and his age as 60) he composed his
best known poem _The Brus_, for which he received, in 1377, the gift of ten
pounds, and, in 1378, a life-pension of twenty shillings. Additional
rewards followed, including the renewal of his exchequer auditorship
(though he may have continued to enjoy it since his first appointment) and
ten pounds to his pension. The only biographical evidence of his closing
years is his signature as a witness to sundry deeds in the "Register of
Aberdeen" as late as 1392. According to the obit-book of the cathedral of
Aberdeen, he died on the 13th of March 1395. The state records show that
his life-pension was not paid after that date.
Considerable controversy has arisen regarding Barbour's literary work. If
he be the author of the five or six long poems which have been ascribed to
him by different writers, he adds to his importance as the father of Scots
poetry the reputation of being one of the most voluminous writers in Middle
English, certainly the most voluminous of all Scots poets.
(1) _The Brus_, in twenty books, and running to over 13,500 four-accent
lines, in couplets, is a narrative poem with a purpose partly historical,
partly patriotic. It opens with a description of the state of Scotland at
the death of Alexander III. (1286) and concludes with the death of Douglas
and the burial of the Bruce's heart (1332). The central episode is the
battle of Bannockburn. Patriotic as the sentiment is, it is in more general
terms than is found in later Scots literature. The king is a hero of the
chivalric type common in contemporary romance; freedom is a "noble thing"
to be sought and won at all costs; the opponents of such freedom are shown
in the dark colours which history and poetic propriety require; but there
is none of the complacency of the merely provincial habit of mind. The
lines do not lack vigour; and there are passages of high merit, notably the
oft-quoted section beginning "A! fredome is a noble thing." Despite a
number of errors of fact, notably the confusion of the three Bruces in the
person of the hero, the poem is historically trustworthy as compared with
contemporary verse-chronicle, and especially with the _Wallace_ of the next
century. No one [v.03 p.0390] has doubted Barbour's authorship of the
_Brus_, but argument has been attempted to show that the text as we have it
is an edited copy, perhaps by John Ramsay, a Perth scribe, who wrote out
the two extant texts, preserved in the Advocates' library, Edinburgh, and
in the library of St John's College, Cambridge. Extensive portions of the
poem have been incorporated by Wyntoun (_q.v._) in his _Chronicle_. The
first printed edition extant is Charteris's (Edinburgh, 1571); the second
is Hart's (Edinburgh, 1616).
(2) Wyntoun speaks (_Chronicle_ III. iii.) of a "Treteis" which Barbour
made by way of "a genealogy" of "Brutus lynagis"; and elsewhere in that
poem there are references to the archdeacon's "Stewartis Oryginale." This
"Brut" is unknown; but the reference has been held by some to be to (3) a
Troy-book, based on Guido da Colonna's _Historia Destructionis Troiae_. Two
fragments of such a work have been preserved in texts of Lydgate's
_Troy-book_, the first in MS. Camb. Univ. Lib. Kk. v. 30, the second in the
same and in MS. Douce 148 in the Bodleian library, Oxford. This ascription
was first made by Henry Bradshaw, the librarian of Cambridge University;
but the consensus of critical opinion is now against it. Though it were
proved that these Troy fragments are Barbour's, there remains the question
whether their identification with the book on the Stewart line is
justified. The scale of the story in these fragments forces us to doubt
this identification. They contain 595 + 3118 = 3713 lines and are concerned
entirely with "Trojan" matters. This would be an undue allowance in a
Scottish "genealogy."
(4) Yet another work was added to the list of Barbour's works by the
discovery in the university library of Cambridge, by Henry Bradshaw, of a
long Scots poem of over 33,000 lines, dealing with _Legends of the Saints_,
as told in the _Legenda Aurea_ and other legendaries. The general likeness
of this poem to Barbour's accepted work in verse-length, dialect and style,
and the facts that the lives of English saints are excluded and those of St
Machar (the patron saint of Aberdeen) and St Ninian are inserted, made the
ascription plausible. Later criticism, though divided, has tended in the
contrary direction, and has based its strongest negative judgment on the
consideration of rhymes, assonance and vocabulary (see bibliography). That
the "district" of the author is the north-east of Scotland cannot be
doubted in the face of a passage such as this, in the fortieth legend (St
Ninian), 11, 1359 et seq.
"A lytil tale [gh]et herd I tel,
that in to my tyme befel,
of a gudman, in murrefe [_Moray_] borne
in elgyne [_Elgin_], and his kine beforne,
and callit was a faithful man
vith al thame that hyme knew than;
& _this mare trastely I say,_
_for I kend hyme weile mony day._
_John balormy ves his name,_
a man of ful gud fame."
But whether this north-east Scots author is Barbour is a question which we
cannot answer by means of the data at present available.
(5) If Barbour be the author of the _Legends_, then (so does one conclusion
hang upon another) he is the author of a Gospel story with the later life
of the Virgin, described in the prologue to the _Legends_ and in other
passages as a book "of the birth of Jhesu criste" and one "quhare-in I
recordit the genology of our lady sanct Mary."
(6) In recent years an attempt has been made to name Barbour as the author
of the _Buik of Alexander_ (a translation of the _Roman d'Alexandre_ and
associated pieces, including the _Voeux du Paon_), as known in the unique
edition, _c._ 1580, printed at the Edinburgh press of Alexander Arbuthnot.
The "argument" as it stands is nothing more than an exaggerated inference
from parallel-passages in the _Bruce_ and _Alexander_; and it makes no
allowance for the tags, epithets and general vocabulary common to all
writers of the period. Should the assumption be proved to be correct, and
should it be found that the "_Troy fragments_ were written first of all,
followed by _Alexander_ and _Bruce_ or _Bruce_ and _Alexander_, and that
the _Legends_ end the chapter," it will be by "evidence" other than that
which has been produced to this date.
For Barbour's life see _Exchequer Rolls of Scotland_, ii. and iii.;
_Registrum Episcopatus Aberdonensis_ (Spalding Club); Rymer's _Foedera_.
WORKS.--(1)_The Brus_ MSS. and early editions _u.s._ Modern editions: J.
Pinkerton, 3 vols. (1790) (called by the editor "the first genuine
edition," because printed from the Advocates' Library text, but
carelessly); Jamieson (1820); Cosmo Innes (Spalding Club, 1856); W. W.
Skeat (Early English Text Society, 1870-1889; reprinted, after revision by
the editor, by the Scottish Text Society, 1893-1895). On the question of
the recension of Barbour's text, see J. T. T. Brown, _The Wallace and The
Bruce restudied_ (Bonn, 1900). (2 and 3) _Troy Fragments_. C. Horstmann has
printed the text in his _Legendensammlung_ (_ut infra_). See Bradshaw,
_Transactions of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society_ (1866); the prolegomena
in Horstmann's edition; Skeat, _Brus_ (S. T. S. edit. _u.s._ pp. xlvi. et
seq.); Koeppel, "Die Fragmente von Barbours Trojanerkrieg," in _Englische
Studien_, x. 373; Panton and Donaldson, _The Gest Historiale of the
Destruction of Troye_ (E. E. T. S. pt. ii. Introd. pp. x. et seq.); G.
Neilson (_ut infra_); and J. T. T. Brown (_ut supra_) _passim_. (4)
_Legends of the Saints_. C. Horstmann, who upholds Barbour's authorship,
has printed the text in his _Barbours des schottischen Nationaldichters
Legendensammlung nebst den Fragmenten seines Trojanerkrieges_, 2 vols.
(Heilbronn, 1881-1882), and that of the legend of St Machor in his
_Altenglische Legenden_. _Neue Folge_ (Heilbronn, 1881) pp. 189-208. A
later edition by W. M. Metcalfe, who disputes Barbour's claim, appeared in
1896 (_Legends of the Saints in the Scottish Dialect of the Fourteenth
Century_, 3 vols., Scottish Text Society). See the introductions to these
editions; also Skeat and Koppel _u.s._, and P. Buss, _Sind die von
Horstmann herausgegebenen schottischen Legenden ein Werk Barberes?_ (Halle,
1886) (cf. _Anglia_, ix. 3, 1886). (5) For the Gospel-story evidence see
Metcalfe, _u.s._ I. xxix. (6) On the _Alexander Book_ and its assumed
relationships, see G. Neilson, _John Barbour, Poet and Translator_ (1900)
(a reprint from the _Transactions of the Philological Society_); J. T. T.
Brown _u.s._, "Postscript," pp. 156-171; and _Athenaeum_, 17th of November,
1st and 8th December 1900, and the 9th of February 1901.
(G. G. S.)
BARBUDA, an island in the British West Indies. It lies 25 m. N. of Antigua,
of which it is a dependency, in 17deg 33' N. and 61deg 43' W., and it has
an area of 62 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 775. It is flat and densely wooded. On the
western side there is a large lagoon, separated from the sea by a spit of
sand. The part of the island under cultivation is very fertile, and the air
is remarkable for its purity. Cattle and horses are bred and wild deer are
still found. Salt and phosphates of lime are exported. The island was
annexed by Great Britain in 1628 and was bestowed in 1680 upon the
Codrington family who, for more than 200 years, held it as a kind of feudal
fief.
BARBY, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the left bank of
the Elbe, 82 m. S.W. of Berlin on the direct railway to Cassel. Pop. (1900)
5136. It has two evangelical churches and a seminary for school teachers,
which is housed in the former castle of the lords of Barby. The industries
are mainly agricultural, but there are sugar factories and breweries. Here
from 1749 to 1809 was a settlement of the Herrnhut evangelical brotherhood.
BARCA (mod. _Merj_), an ancient city founded in the territory of Cyrene in
the middle of the 6th century B.C. Rising quickly to importance it became a
rival of the older city, and gave its name to the western province of the
latter's territory. The name as a provincial designation is still in
occasional use, but is now applied to all the province of Bengazi. Barca is
said to have owed its origin to Greek refugees flying from the tyranny of
Arcesilaus II. (see CYRENE), but it is certain that it was rather a Libyan
than a Greek town at all times. A Persian force invited by the notorious
Pheretima, mother of Arcesilaus III., in revenge for Barcan support of a
rival faction, sacked it towards the close of the 6th century and deported
a number of its inhabitants to Bactria. Under Ptolemaic rule it began to
decline, like Cyrene, and its port Ptolemais (Tolmeita) took its place: but
after the Arab conquest (A.D. 641) it became the chief place of the
Cyrenaica for a time and a principal station on the Kairawan road. Though
now a mere village, Merj is still the chief centre of administration
inland, and has a fort and small garrison. No ruins of earlier period than
the late Roman and early Arab seem to be visible on the site. The latter
lies, like Cyrene, about ten miles from the coast on the crest of Jebel
Akhdar, here sunk to a low downland. It owed its early prosperity to its
easy access to the sea, and to the fact that natural conditions in
Cyrenaica and the [v.03 p.0391] Sahara behind it, tend to divert trade to
the west of the district--a fact which is exemplified by the final survival
of Berenice (mod. Bengazi). Merj stands in a rich but ill-cultivated
stretch of red soil.
(D. G. H.)
BARCAROLE, or BARCAROLLE (Ital. _barcaruola_, a boat-song) properly a
musical term for the songs sung by the Venetian gondoliers, and hence for
an instrumental or vocal composition, generally in 6-8 time, written in
imitation of their characteristic rhythm.
BARCELONA, a maritime province of north-eastern Spain, formed in 1833 out
of districts belonging to the ancient kingdom of Catalonia, and bounded on
the N.E. and E. by Gerona; S. by the Mediterranean Sea; S.W. by Tarragona;
and W. and N.W. by Lerida. Pop. (1900) 1,054,541; area 2968 sq. m. Apart
from a few tracts of level country along the coast and near Igualada,
Manresa, Sabadell and Vich, almost the whole surface consists of mountain
ranges, often densely wooded, rich in minerals and intersected by deep
ravines. These ranges are outliers of the Pyrenees, which extend along the
northern frontier, forming there the lofty Sierra del Cadi with the peak of
Tosa (8317 ft.). Towards the sea, the altitudes become gradually less,
although not with a uniform decrease; for several isolated peaks and minor
ranges such as Montserrat and Monseny rise conspicuously amid the lower
summits to a height of 4000-6000 ft. The central districts are watered by
the Llobregat, which rises at the base of the Sierra del Cadi, and flows
into the sea near Barcelona, the capital, after receiving many small
tributaries. The river Ter crosses the eastern extremity of the province.
Barcelona can be divided into three climatic zones; a temperate one near
the sea, where even palm and orange trees grow; a colder one in the valleys
and plains, more inland; and a colder still among the mountains, where not
a few peaks are snow-clad for a great part of the year. Agriculture and
stock-keeping are comparatively unimportant in this province, which is the
centre of Spanish industry and commerce. In every direction the country
looks like a veritable hive of human activity and enterprise, every town
and village full of factories, and alive with the din of machinery. Lead,
zinc, lignite, coal and salt are worked, and there are numerous mineral
springs; but the prosperity of the province chiefly depends on its transit
trade and manufactures. These are described in detail in articles on the
chief towns. Barcelona (pop. 1900, 533,000), Badalona (19,240), Cardona
(3855), Igualada (10,442), Manresa (23,252), Mataro (19,704), Sabadell
(23,294), Tarrasa (15,956), Vich (11,628) and Villanueva y Geltru (11,856).
Berga (5465), perhaps the Roman Castrum Bergium, on the Llobregat, is the
home of the Catalonian cotton industry. None of the rivers is navigable,
and the roads are in general indifferent and insufficient. The province is
better off in regard to railways, of which there are 349 m. Important lines
radiate from the city of Barcelona north-east along the coast to Gerona and
to Perpignan in France; south-west along the coast to Tarragona and
Valencia; and west to Saragossa and Madrid. Several local railways link
together the principal towns. For a general description of the people, and
for the history of this region see CATALONIA. The population is greater and
increases more rapidly than that of any other Spanish province, a fact due
not to any large excess of births over deaths, but to the industrial life
which attracts many immigrants. In the last quarter of the 19th century the
increase exceeded 200,000, while the average yearly number of emigrants was
below 2000. In point of education this province is quite among the first in
Spain, and as far back as 1880 there were 97,077 children enrolled on the
school registers; the figures have since steadily increased.
BARCELONA, formerly the capital of Catalonia, and since 1833 the capital of
the province of Barcelona in eastern Spain, in 41deg 23' N. and 2deg 11'
E., on the Mediterranean Sea, and at the head of railways from Madrid,
Saragossa, and Perpignan in France. Pop. (1900) 533,000. Barcelona is a
flourishing city and the principal seaport of Spain. It is built on the
sloping edge of a small plain between the rivers Besos, on the north, and
Llobregat, on the south. Immediately to the south-west the fortified hills
of Montjuich rise to an altitude of 650 ft., while the view is bounded on
the west by the heights which culminate in Tibidabo (1745 ft.), and on the
north-east by the Montanas Matas. The greater part of the space thus
enclosed is occupied by comparatively modern suburbs and gardens of almost
tropical luxuriance, strongly contrasting with the huge factories and busy
port of the original city in their midst.
Barcelona was formerly surrounded by a strong line of ramparts, and
defended, or more correctly, overawed by a citadel on the north-east,
erected in 1715 by Philip V.; but these fortifications being felt as a
painful restriction on the natural development of the city, were, in spite
of the opposition of the central government, finally abolished by the local
authorities in 1845. The walls of the moat were utilized for the cellars of
the houses which soon occupied the site of the ramparts, and the ground,
which had been covered by the citadel, was laid out in gardens. A rapid
extension of the city to the north-west took place, and in 1860 an
elaborate plan for the laying out of new districts received the royal
sanction. Barcelona thus comprises an old town, still consisting for the
most part of irregular and narrow streets, and a new town built with all
the symmetry and precision of a premeditated scheme. The buildings of the
old town are chiefly of brick, from four to five storeys in height, with
flat roofs, and other oriental peculiarities; while in the new town hewn
stone is very largely employed, and the architecture is often of a modern
English style. To the east, on the tongue of land that helps to form the
port, lies the suburb of Barceloneta. It owes its origin to the marquis de
la Mina, who, about 1754, did much for the city, and is regularly laid out,
the houses being built of brick after a uniform pattern. The main street or
axis of the old town is the Rambla, which has a fine promenade planted with
plane-trees running down the middle, and contains the principal hotels and
theatres of the city. The most important suburbs are Gracia, Las Corts de
Sarria, Horta, San Andres de Palomar, San Gervasio de Cassolas, San Martin
de Provensals and Sans. Exclusive of these, the city contains about 334,000
inhabitants, an increase of nearly 150,000 since 1857. Large numbers of
immigrant artisans joined the population during the latter half of the 19th
century, attracted by the great development of industry. Barcelona is the
see of a bishop, and, like most Spanish towns, has a large number of
ecclesiastical buildings, though by no means so many as it once possessed.
No fewer than eighteen convents were still standing in 1873. The cathedral,
erected between 1298 and 1448 on Monte Taber, an oval hill which forms the
highest point of the Rambla, is one of the finest examples of Spanish
Gothic; although it is not designed on a great scale and some parts have
been freely modernized. It contains the early 14th-century tomb of Santa
Eulalia, the patron saint of the city, besides many other monuments of
artistic or historical interest. Its stained glass windows are among the
finest in Spain, and it possesses archives of great value. Santa Maria del
Mar, Santa Ana, Santos Justo y Pastor, San Pedro de las Puellas, and San
Pablo del Campo are all churches worthy of mention.
The educational institutions of Barcelona have from an early period been
numerous and important. The university (_Universidad Literaria_), which was
originally founded in 1430 by the magistracy of the city, and received a
bull of confirmation from Pope Nicholas V. in 1450, possessed at that time
four faculties and thirty-one chairs all endowed by the corporation. It was
suppressed in 1714, but restored in 1841, and now occupies an extensive
building in the new town. There are, besides, an academy of natural
sciences, a college of medicine and surgery--confirmed by a bull of
Benedict XIII. in 1400--an academy of fine arts, a normal school, a
theological seminary, an upper industrial school, an institution for the
education of deaf-mutes, a school of navigation and many minor
establishments. Gratuitous instruction of a very high order is afforded by
the Board of Trade to upwards of 2000 pupils. The principal charitable
foundations are the Casa de Caridad or house of charity, the hospital
general, dating from 1401, and the foundling hospital. The principal civic
and commercial buildings are the [v.03 p.0392] Casa Consistorial, a fine
Gothic hall (1369-1378), the Lonja or exchange (1383), and the Aduana or
custom-house (1792). At the seaward end of the Rambla is a large ancient
structure, the Atarazanas or Arsenals, which was finished about 1243, and
partly demolished in the 19th century to give a better view to the
promenade. Remains of the former royal state of Barcelona are found in the
Palacio Real of the kings of Aragon and the Palacio de la Reina. At the
highest part of the city, in the Calle del Paradis, are some magnificent
columns, and other Roman remains, which, however, are hidden by the
surrounding buildings. Means of public recreation are abundantly supplied.
There are many theatres, the two most important being the Teatro Principal,
and the Teatro del Liceo, a very fine building, originally erected in 1845
on the site of a convent of Trinitarian monks. The number of restaurants
and similar places of evening resort is very great, and there are several
public courts where the Basque game of pelota can be witnessed.
The so-called port of Barcelona was at first only an open beach, on the
east, slightly sheltered by the neighbouring hills, but at an early period
the advantage of some artificial protection was felt. In 1438 Don Alphonso
V. granted the magistracy a licence to build a mole; and in 1474 the Moll
de Santa Creu was officially begun. Long after this, however, travellers
speak of Barcelona as destitute of a harbour; and it is only in the 17th
century that satisfactory works were undertaken. Until modern times all the
included area was shut off from the open sea by a sand-bank, which rendered
the entrance of large vessels impossible. An extension of the former mole,
and the construction of another from the foot of Montjuich, have embraced a
portion of the sea outside of the bank, and a convenient shelter is thus
afforded for the heaviest battleships. From 1873 the work of extension and
improvement was carried on systematically, with the addition of new quays,
greater storage room, and better means for handling cargo. After thirty
years of steady development, further plans were approved in 1903. At this
time the port included an inner harbour, with a depth of 18 to 30 ft. at
low tide, and an outer harbour with a depth of 20 to 35 ft. In the
following year 8075 vessels of nearly 5,000,000 tons entered the port.
Barcelona is well supplied with inland communication by rail, and the
traffic of its streets is largely facilitated by tramway lines running from
the port as far as Gracia and the other chief suburbs.
Barcelona has long been the industrial and commercial centre of eastern
Spain--a pre-eminence which dates from the 12th and 13th centuries. It
received a temporary check from the disasters of the Spanish-American War
of 1898; but less than a year later it paid about L550,000 in industrial
and commercial taxes, or more than 11% of the whole amount thus collected
in the kingdom; and within five years it had become a port of regular call
for thirty-five important shipping companies. It also contained the head
offices of thirteen other lines, notably those of the Transatlantic Mail
Company, which possessed a fleet of twenty-five fine steamships. Trades and
industries give occupation to more than 150,000 hands of both sexes. The
spinning and weaving of wool, cotton and silk are the principal industries,
but the enterprising spirit of the Catalans has compelled them to try
almost every industry in which native capital could attempt to compete with
foreign, especially since the institution of the protectionist tariffs of
1892. The native manufacturers are quite able to compete in peninsular
markets with foreign rivals. This prosperity has been in part due to the
great development of means of communication around the city and in the four
Catalan provinces. Comestibles, raw materials, and combustibles form the
greater part of the imports, but this great manufactory also imports a
considerable quantity of foreign manufactured goods. The principal exports
are wines, cereals, olive-oil, cotton goods, soap, cigarette-paper,
furniture and barrels, boots, shoes and leather goods, and machinery.
Barcino, the ancient name of the city, is usually connected with that of
the Carthaginian Hamilcar Barca, its traditional founder in the 3rd century
B.C. After the Roman conquest, it received from Augustus (27 B.C.-A.D. 14)
the name of Julia Faventia (afterwards Augusta and Pia), with the status of
a Roman colony; and thenceforward it rapidly grew to be the leading mart of
the western Mediterranean, rivalling Tarraco (Tarragona) and Massilia
(Marseilles) as early as the 2nd century A.D. As its remains testify, the
Roman city occupied Monte Taber. The bishopric of Barcelona was founded in
343. In 415 and 531, the Visigoths chose Barcelona as their temporary
capital; in 540 and 599 church councils were held there. Barcinona or
Bardjaluna, as it was then called, was captured by the Moors in 713, and in
801 it passed, with the rest of Catalonia, under the dominion of the
Franks. From 874 the counts of Barcelona ruled as independent monarchs. But
the accession of larger resources due to the union between Catalonia and
Aragon in 1149, brought the city to the zenith of its fame and wealth. Its
merchant ships vied with those of Genoa, Venice and Ragusa, trading as far
west as the North Sea and the Baltic, and as far east as Alexandria. In
1258 James I. of Aragon empowered Barcelona to issue its famous _Consulado
del Mar_, a code of maritime law recognized as authoritative by many
European states. Consuls represented Barcelona at the principal commercial
centres on or near the Mediterranean; and the city was among the first
communities to adopt the practice of marine insurance. But the union of
Castile and Aragon in 1479 favoured other cities of Spain at the expense of
Barcelona, whose commercial supremacy was transferred to the ports of
western Spain by the discovery of America in 1492. The citizens attributed
their misfortunes to the "Castilian" government, and a strong party among
them favoured annexation by France. In 1640 Barcelona was the centre of the
Catalonian rebellion against Philip IV., and threw itself under French
protection. In 1652 it returned to its allegiance, but was captured by the
duke of Vendome in 1697. At the peace of Ryswick, in the same year, it was
restored to the Spanish monarchy. During the War of the Succession
(1701-1714) Barcelona adhered to the house of Austria. The seizure of
Montjuich in 1705, and the subsequent capture of the city by the earl of
Peterborough, formed one of his most brilliant achievements. In 1714 it was
taken after an obstinate resistance by the duke of Berwick in the interests
of Philip V., and at the close of the war was reluctantly reconciled to the
Bourbon dynasty. In 1809 the French invaders of Spain obtained possession
of the fortress and kept the city in subjection until 1814. Since then it
has shared in most of the revolutionary movements that have swept over
Spain, and has frequently been distinguished by the violence of its civic
commotions. For the historic antagonism between the Catalans and the other
inhabitants of Spain was strengthened by the industrial development of
Barcelona. Among the enterprising and shrewd Catalans, who look upon their
rulers as reactionary, and reserve all their sympathies for the Provencal
neighbours whom they so nearly resemble in race, language and temperament,
French influence and republican ideals spread rapidly; taking the form
partly of powerful labour and socialist organizations, partly of less
reputable bodies, revolutionary and even anarchist. Strikes are very
common, seventy-three having occurred in such a year of comparative quiet
as 1903; but the causes of disturbance are almost as often political as
economic, and the annals of the city include a long list of revolutionary
riots and bomb outrages. A strange contrast is presented by the
co-existence of these turbulent elements with the more old-fashioned
Spanish society of Barcelona. Church festivals, civic and ecclesiastical
processions are almost as animated and picturesque as in Seville itself;
and many medieval customs continue to flourish side by side with the most
modern features of industrial life, giving to Barcelona a character
altogether unique among Spanish cities.
The literature relating to Barcelona is extensive. For a general
description of the city, see A. A. P. Arimon, _Barcelona antigua y
moderna_, two illustrated folio volumes (Madrid, 1850); and J. Artigas y
Feiner, _Guia itineraria de Barcelona_ (Barcelona, 1888). For the
antiquities, see S. Sampere, _Topografia antigua de Barcelona_ (1890). The
economic history of the city is dealt with by A. Capmany in his _Memorias
historicas sobra la marina, comercio, y artes de la antigua ciudad de
Barcelona_ (Madrid, 1779-1792); and, for its political history, the same
work should be consulted, together with _Historias e conquestas dels comtes
de Barcelona_, by T. Tomich (Barcelona, 1888), and the _Coleccio de
documents inedits del Arxin [v.03 p.0393] municipal de la ciutat de
Barcelona_ (Barcelona, 1892). The spread of the revolutionary movement is
traced by M. Gil Maestre, in his _El Anarquismo en Espana, y el especial de
Barcelona_ (Madrid, 1897), and in his _La Criminalidad en Barcelona_
(Barcelona, 1886).
BARCELONA, a town and port of Venezuela, capital of the state of Bermudez,
on the Neveri river, 3 m. from its mouth and 12 m. by rail from the port of
Guanta, which has superseded the incommodious river port in the trade of
this district. Pop. (est. 1904) 13,000. Built on the border of a low plain
and having a mean annual temperature of 82deg F., the town has the
reputation of being unhealthy. There are salt works and important coal
deposits in its vicinity, the latter at Naricual and Capiricual, 12 m.
distant by rail. Though the adjacent country is fertile, its prosperity has
greatly declined, and the exports of coffee, sugar, cacao and forest
products are much less important than formerly. The town dates from 1637,
when it was located at the foot of the Cerro Santo and was called Nueva
Barcelona; it reached a state of much prosperity and commercial importance
before the end of the century. The War of Independence, however, and the
chronic political disorders that followed nearly ruined its industries and
trade.
BARCELONNETTE, a town in the department of Basses-Alpes, in the S.E. of
France. Pop. (1906) 2075. It is built at a height of 3717 ft. on the right
bank of the Ubaye river, on which it is the most important place. It is
situated in a wide and very fertile valley, and is surrounded by many
villas, built by natives who have made their fortune in Mexico, and are
locally known as _les Americains_. The town itself is mainly composed of a
long street (flanked by two others), which is really the road from Grenoble
to Cuneo over the Col de l'Argentiere (6545 ft.). The only remarkable
buildings in the town are a striking clock-tower of the 15th century (the
remains of a Franciscan convent) and the Musee Chabrand, which contains a
very complete collection of birds, both European and extra-European.
Refounded in 1231 by Raymond Berenger IV., count of Provence (he was of the
family of the counts of Barcelona, whence the name of the town he rebuilt),
Barcelonnette passed to Savoy in 1388 (formal cession in 1419), and in 1713
by the treaty of Utrecht was ceded to France in exchange for the valleys of
Exilles, Fenestrelles, and Chateau Dauphin (Casteldelfino). It was the
birth-place of J. A. Manuel (1775-1827), the well-known Liberal orator at
the time of the Restoration of 1815, after whom the principal square of the
town is named.
See F. Arnaud, _Barcelonnette et ses environs_ (_Guide du C. A. F._)
(1898), and _La Vallee de Barcelonnette_ (1900).
(W. A. B. C.)
BARCLAY, ALEXANDER (_c._ 1476-1552), British poet, was born about 1476. His
nationality is matter of dispute, but William Bulleyn, who was a native of
Ely, and probably knew him when he was in the monastery there, asserts that
he was born "beyonde the cold river of Twede"; moreover, the spelling of
his name and the occasional Scottish words in his vocabulary point to a
northern origin. His early life was spent at Croydon, but it is not certain
whether he was educated at Oxford or Cambridge. It may be presumed that he
took his degree, as he uses the title of "Syr" in his translation of
Sallust, and in his will he is called doctor of divinity. From the numerous
incidental references in his works, and from his knowledge of European
literature, it may be inferred that he spent some time abroad. Thomas
Cornish, suffragan bishop in the diocese of Bath and Wells, and provost of
Oriel College, Oxford, from 1493 to 1507, appointed him chaplain of the
college of St Mary Ottery, Devonshire. Here he translated Sebastian Brant's
_Ship of Fools_, and even introduced his neighbours into the satire:--
"For if one can flatter, and beare a Hauke on his fist,
He shall be parson of Honington or Cist."
The death of his patron in 1513 apparently put an end to his connexion with
the west, and he became a monk in the Benedictine monastery of Ely. In this
retreat he probably wrote his eclogues, but in 1520 "Maistre Barkleye, the
Blacke Monke and Poete" was desired to devise "histoires and convenient
raisons to florisshe the buildings and banquet house withal" at the meeting
between Henry VIII. and Francis I. at the Field of the Cloth of Gold. He at
length became a Franciscan monk of Canterbury. It is presumed that he
conformed with the change of religion, for he retained under Edward VI. the
livings of Great Baddow, Essex, and of Wokey, Somerset, which he had
received in 1546, and was presented in 1552 by the dean and chapter of
Canterbury to the rectory of All Hallows, Lombard Street, London. He died
shortly after this last preferment at Croydon, Surrey, where he was buried
on the 10th of June 1552. All the evidence in Barclay's own work goes to
prove that he was sincere in his reproof of contemporary follies and vice,
and the gross accusations which John Bale[1] brings against his moral
character may be put down to his hatred of Barclay's cloth.
The _Ship of Fools_ was as popular in its English dress as it had been in
Germany. It was the starting-point of a new satirical literature. In itself
a product of the medieval conception of the fool who figured so largely in
the Shrovetide and other pageants, it differs entirely from the general
allegorical satires of the preceding centuries. The figures are no longer
abstractions; they are concrete examples of the folly of the bibliophile
who collects books but learns nothing from them, of the evil judge who
takes bribes to favour the guilty, of the old fool whom time merely
strengthens in his folly, of those who are eager to follow the fashions, of
the priests who spend their time in church telling "gestes" of Robin Hood
and so forth. The spirit of the book reflects the general transition
between allegory and narrative, morality and drama. The _Narrenschiff_ of
Sebastian Brant was essentially German in conception and treatment, but his
hundred and thirteen types of fools possessed, nevertheless, universal
interest. It was in reality sins and vices, however, rather than follies
that came under his censure, and this didactic temper was reflected in
Barclay. The book appeared in 1494 with woodcuts said to have been devised
and perhaps partly executed by Brant himself. In these illustrations, which
gave an impulse to the production of "enblems" and were copied in the
English version, there appears a humour quite absent from the text. In the
Latin elegiacs of the _Stultifera Navis_ (1497) of Jacob Locher the book
was read throughout Europe. Barclay's _The Shyp of Folys of the Worlde_ was
first printed by Richard Pynson in 1509. He says he translated "oute of
Laten, Frenche, and Doche," but he seems to have been most familiar with
the Latin version. He used a good deal of freedom in his translation,
"sometyme addynge, sometyme detractinge and takinge away suche thinges as
semeth me necessary and superflue." The fools are given a local colour, and
Barclay appears as the unsparing satirist of the social evils of his time.
At the end of nearly every section he adds an _envoi_ of his own to drive
home the moral more surely. The poem is written in the ordinary Chaucerian
stanza, and in language which is more modern than the common literary
English of his day.
_Certayne Ecloges of Alexander Barclay, Priest_, written in his youth, were
probably printed as early as 1513, although the earliest extant edition is
that in John Cawood's reprint (1570) of the _Ship of Fools_. They form,
with the exception of Henryson's _Robin and Makyn_, the earliest examples
of the English pastoral. The first three eclogues, in the form of dialogues
between Coridon and Cornix, were borrowed from the _Miseriae Curialium_ of
Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini (Pope Pius II.), and contain an eulogy of John
Alcock, bishop of Ely, the founder of Jesus College, Cambridge. The fourth
is based on Mantuan's eclogue, _De consuetudine divitum erga poetas_, with
large additions. It contains the "Descrypcion of the towre of Virtue and
Honour," an elegy on Sir Edward Howard, lord high admiral of England, who
perished in the attack on the French fleet in the harbour of Brest in 1513.
The fifth, printed by Wynkyn de Worde, also without date, is entitled the
"Fyfte Eglog of Alexandre Barclay of the Cytezen and the uplondyshman" and
is also based on Mantuan. Two shepherds, Amintas and Faustus, discuss the
familiar theme of the respective merits of town and country life, and
relate a quaint fable of the origin of the different classes of society.
Barclay's pastorals contain many pictures of rustic life as he knew it. He
describes for instance the Sunday games in the village, football, and the
struggle for food at great feasts; [v.03 p.0394] but his eclogues were,
like his Italian models, also satires on social evils. The shepherds are
rustics of the Colin Clout type, and discuss the follies and corruptions
around them. Barclay had, however, no sympathy with the anti-clerical
diatribes of John Skelton, whom he more than once attacks. Bale mentions an
_Anti-Skeltonum_ which is lost. His other works are:--_The Castell of
Laboure_ (Wynkyn de Worde, 1506), from the French of Pierre Gringoire; the
_Introductory to write and to pronounce Frenche_ (Robert Copland, 1521);
_The Myrrour of Good Maners_ (Richard Pynson, not dated), a translation of
the _De quatuor virtutibus_ of Dominicus Mancinus; _Cronycle compyled in
Latyn_ by the renowned Sallust (Richard Pynson, no date), a translation of
the _Bellum Jugurthinum, The Lyfe of the glorious Martyr Saynt George_ (R.
Pynson, _c._ 1530). _The Lyfe of Saynte Thomas_, and _Haython's Cronycle_,
both printed by Pynson, are also attributed to Barclay, but on very
doubtful grounds.
See T. H. Jamieson's edition of the _Ship of Fools_ (Edinburgh, 1874),
which contains an account of the author and a bibliography of his works;
and J. W. Fairholt's edition of _The Cytezen and Uplondyshman_ (Percy Soc.
1847), which includes large extracts from the other eclogues; also
Zarncke's edition of Brant (Leipzig, 1854); and Dr Fedor Fraustadt, _Ueber
das Verhaeltnis von Barclays Ship of Fools zu den lateinischen,
franzoesischen und deutschen Quellen_ (1894). A prose version of Locher's
_Stultifera Navis_, by Henry Watson, was printed by Wynkyn de Worde in
1518.
[1] _Script. Ill. Maj. Brit._ (1557, Cent. ix. No. 66).
BARCLAY, JOHN (1582-1621), Scottish satirist and Latin poet, was born, on
the 28th of January 1582, at Pont-a-Mousson, where his father William
Barclay held the chair of civil law. His mother was a Frenchwoman of good
family. His early education was obtained at the Jesuit College. While
there, at the age of nineteen, he wrote a commentary on the _Thebaid_ of
Statius. In 1603 he crossed with his father to London. Barclay had
persistently maintained his Scottish nationality in his French
surroundings, and probably found in James's accession an opportunity which
he would not let slip. He did not remain long in England, where he is
supposed to have published the first part of his _Satyricon_, for in 1605
when a second edition of that book appeared in Paris, he was there, having
already spent some time in Angers, and being now the husband of a French
girl, Louise Debonaire. He returned to London with his wife in 1606, and
there published his _Sylvae_, a collection of Latin poems. In the following
year the second part of the _Satyricon_ appeared in Paris. Barclay remained
on in London till 1616. In 1609 he edited the _De Potestate Papae_, an
anti-papal treatise by his father, who had died in the preceding year, and
in 1611 he issued an _Apologia_ or "third part" of the _Satyricon_, in
answer to the attacks of the Jesuits and others who were probably
embittered by the tone of the earlier parts of the satire. A so-called
"fourth part," with the title of _Icon Animorum_, appeared in 1614. James
I. is said to have been attracted by his scholarship, but particulars of
this, or of his life in London generally, are not available. In 1616 he
went to Rome, for some reason unexplained, and there resided till his death
on the 15th of August 1621. He appears to have been on better terms with
the Church and notably with Bellarmine; for in 1617 he issued, from a press
at Cologne, a _Paraenesis ad Sectarios_, an attack on the position of
Protestantism. The literary effort of his closing years was his best-known
work the _Argenis_, completed about a fortnight before his death, which has
been said to have been hastened by poison. The romance was printed in Paris
in the same year.
Barclay's contemporary reputation as a writer was of the highest; by his
strict scholarship and graceful style he has deserved the praise of modern
students. The _Satyricon_, a severe satire on the Jesuits, is modelled on
Petronius and catches his lightness of touch, though it shows little or
nothing of the tone of its model, or of the unhesitating severity and
coarseness of the humanistic satire of Barclay's age. The _Argenis_ is a
long romance, with a monitory purpose on the dangers of political intrigue,
probably suggested to him by his experiences of the league in France, and
by the catholic plot in England after James's accession. The work has been
praised by all parties; and it enjoyed for more than a century after his
death a remarkable popularity. Most of the innumerable editions are
supplied with a key to the characters and names of the story. Thus
Aneroetus is Clement VIII; _Arx non eversa_ is the Tower of London;
Hippophilus and Radirobanes are the names of the king of Spain; Hyanisbe is
Queen Elizabeth; Mergania, by an easy anagram, is Germany; Usinulca, by
another, is Calvin. The book is of historical importance in the development
of 17th century romance, including especially Fenelon's Telemaque. Ben
Jonson appears, from an entry at Stationers' Hall on the 2nd of October
1623, to have intended to make a translation. Barclay's shorter poems, in
two books, were printed in the _Delitiae Poetarum Scotorum_ (Amsterdam,
1637, i. pp. 76-136). In the dedication, to Prince Charles of England, he
refers to his earlier publication, the _Sylvae_.
The best account of Barclay is the preface by Jules Dukas in his
bibliography of the _Satyricon_ (Paris, 1889). This supersedes the life in
Bayle's _Dictionary_, which had been the sole authority. A "fifth part" of
the _Satyricon_ appears in most of the editions, by Alethophilus (Claude
Morisot). For the _Argenis_, see the dissertations by Leon Boucher (Paris,
1874), and Dupond (Paris, 1875). The _Icon Animorum_ was Englished by
Thomas May in 1631 (_The Mirrour of Mindes, or Barclay's Icon Animorum_).
Barclay's works have never been collected.
BARCLAY, JOHN (1734-1798), Scottish divine, was born in Perthshire and died
at Edinburgh. He graduated at St Andrews, and after being licensed became
assistant to the parish minister of Errol in Perthshire. Owing to
differences with the minister, he left in 1763 and was appointed assistant
to Antony Dow of Fettercairn, Kincardine. In this parish he became very
popular, but his opinions failed to give satisfaction to his presbytery. In
1772 he was rejected as successor to Dow, and was even refused by the
presbytery the testimonials requisite in order to obtain another living.
The refusal of the presbytery was sustained by the General Assembly, and
Barclay thereupon left the Scottish church and founded congregations at
Sauchyburn, Edinburgh and London. His followers were sometimes called
Bereans, because they regulated their conduct by a diligent study of the
Scriptures (Acts xvii. 11). They hold a modified form of Calvinism.
His works, which include many hymns and paraphrases of the psalms, and a
book called _Without Faith, without God_, were edited by J. Thomson and D.
Macmillan, with a memoir (1852).
BARCLAY, ROBERT (1648-1690), one of the most eminent writers belonging to
the Society of Friends, or Quakers, was born in 1648 at Gordonstown in
Morayshire. His father had served under Gustavus Adolphus, and pursued a
somewhat tortuous course through the troubles of the civil war. Robert was
sent to finish his education in Paris, and it appears he was at one time
inclined to accept the Roman Catholic faith. In 1667, however, he followed
the example of his father, and joined the recently-formed Society of
Friends. In 1670 he married a Quaker lady, Christian Mollison of Aberdeen.
He was an ardent theological student, a man of warm feelings and
considerable mental powers, and he soon came prominently forward as the
leading apologist of the new doctrine, winning his spurs in a controversy
with one William Mitchell. The publication of fifteen _Theses Theologiae_
(1676) led to a public discussion in Aberdeen, each side claiming a
victory. The most prominent of the _Theses_ was that bearing on immediate
revelation, in which the superiority of this inner light to reason or
scripture is sharply stated. His greatest work, _An Apology for the True
Christian Divinity_, was published in Latin at Amsterdam in 1676, and was
an elaborate statement of the grounds for holding certain fundamental
positions laid down in the _Theses_. It was translated by its author into
English in 1678, and is "one of the most impressive theological writings of
the century." It breathes a large tolerance and is still perhaps the most
important manifesto of the Quaker Society. Barclay experienced to some
extent the persecutions inflicted on the new society, and was several times
thrown into prison. He travelled extensively in Europe (once with Penn and
George Fox), and had several interviews with Elizabeth, princess palatine.
In later years he had much influence with James II., who as duke of York
had given to twelve members of the society a patent of the province of East
New Jersey, Barclay being made governor (1682-88). He is said to have
visited James with a view to making terms of accommodation with William of
Orange, [v.03 p.0395] whose arrival was then imminent. He died on the 3rd
of October 1690.
BARCLAY, WILLIAM (1546-1608) Scottish jurist, was born in Aberdeenshire in
1546. Educated at Aberdeen University, he went to France in 1573, and
studied law under Cujas, at Bourges, where he took his doctor's degree.
Charles III., duke of Lorraine, appointed him professor of civil law in the
newly-founded university of Pont-a-Mousson, and also created him counsellor
of state and master of requests. In 1603, however, he was obliged to quit
France, having incurred the enmity of the Jesuits, through his opposition
to their proposal to admit his son John (_q.v._) a member of their society.
Returning to England, he was offered considerable preferment by King James
on condition of becoming a member of the Church of England. This offer he
refused, and returned to France in 1604, when he was appointed professor of
civil law in the university of Angers. He died at Angers in 1608. His
principal works were _De Regno et Regali Potestate, &c._ (Paris, 1600), a
strenuous defence of the rights of kings, in which he refutes the doctrines
of George Buchanan, "Junius Brutus" (Hubert Languet) and Jean Boucher; and
_De Potestate Papae, &c._ (London, 1609), in opposition to the usurpation
of temporal powers by the pope, which called forth the celebrated reply of
Cardinal Bellarmine; also commentaries on some of the titles of the
Pandects.
BARCLAY DE TOLLY, MICHAEL ANDREAS, called by the Russians MICHAEL, PRINCE
BOGDANOVICH (1761-1818), Russian field marshal, was born in Livonia in
1761. He was a descendant of a Scottish family which had settled in Russia
in the 17th century. He entered the Russian army at an early age. In
1788-1789 he served against the Turks, in 1790 and 1794 against the Swedes
and Poles. He became colonel in 1798 and major-general in 1799. In the war
of 1806 against Napoleon, Barclay took a distinguished part in the battle
of Pultusk and was wounded at Eylau, where his conduct won him promotion to
the rank of lieut.-general. In 1808 he commanded against the Swedes in
Finland, and in 1809 by a rapid and daring march over the frozen Gulf of
Bothnia he surprised and seized Umeo. In 1810 he was made minister of war,
and he retained the post until 1813. In 1812 Barclay was given command of
one of the armies operating against Napoleon. There was very keen
opposition to the appointment of a foreigner as commander-in-chief, and
after he was defeated at Smolensk the outcry was so great that he resigned
his command and took a subordinate place under the veteran Kutusov. Barclay
was present at Borodino, but left the army soon afterwards. In 1813 he was
re-employed in the field and took part in the campaign in Germany. After
the battle of Bautzen he was reinstated as commander-in-chief of the
Russian forces, and in this capacity he served at Dresden, Kulm and
Leipzig. After the last battle he was made a count. He took part in the
invasion of France in 1814 and at Paris received the baton of a field
marshal. In 1815 he was again commander-in-chief of the Russian army which
invaded France, and he was made a prince at the close of the war. He died
at Insterburg in Prussia on the 14th (16th) of May 1818.
BARCOCHEBAS, BAR-COCHAB, or BAR KOKBA ("son of a star"), the name given in
Christian sources to one Simeon, the leader in the Jewish revolt against
Rome in the time of Hadrian (A.D. 132-135). The name does not appear in the
Roman historians. In Rabbinic sources he is called Bar (Ben) Coziba, "son
of deceit," which perhaps reflects the later verdict of condemnation
recorded after his failure (root [Hebrew: KZB] "to be false"). Cochab is,
therefore, the name either of his father or of his home. But it is recorded
that the Rabbi 'Aq[=i]ba (_q.v._), who recognized him as Messiah, applied
Num. xxiv. 17 to him, reading not _Cochab_ ("a star"), but _Cosiba_ ("goes
forth from Jacob"); thus Bar-cochab is a Messianic title of the "man of
Cozeba" (_cf._ Chron. iv. 22) whose original name was recalled by later
Rabbis with sinister intention. At first the Romans paid little attention
to the insurgents, who were able to strike coins in the name of Simeon,
prince of Israel, and Eleazar the priest, and to persecute the Christians,
who refused to join the revolt. But troops were collected and the various
fortresses occupied by the Jews were successively reduced. The end came
with the fall of Beth-thar (Bethar). Extraordinary stories were told of the
prowess of Barcochebas and of the ordeals to which he subjected his
soldiers in the way of training.
See Eusebius _H.E._ iv. 6; Dio Cassius xix. 12-14; Schuerer, _Gesch. d.
jued. Volkes_, 3rd ed. i. 682 ff.; Derenbourg, _Hist. de la Palest._ 423
ff. (distinguishes Barcochebas from Simeon); Schlattler, _Gesch. Israels_,
2nd ed. 303 ff.; articles JEWS and PALESTINE, _History_; also art. s.v.
"Bar Kokba" in _Jewish Encyc._ (S. Krauss).
BARD, a word of Celtic derivation (Gaelic _baird_, Cymric _bardh_, Irish
_bard_) applied to the ancient Celtic poets, though the name is sometimes
loosely used as synonymous with poet in general. So far as can be
ascertained, the title _bards_, and some of the privileges peculiar to that
class of poets, are to be found only among Celtic peoples. The name itself
is not used by Caesar in his account of the manners and customs of Gaul and
Britain, but he appears to ascribe the functions of the bards to a section
of the Druids, with which class they seem to have been closely connected.
Later Latin authors, such as Lucan (_Phar._ p. 447), Festus (_De Verb.
Sign._ s.v.), and Ammianus Marcellinus (bk. xv.), used the term _Bardi_ as
the recognized title of the national poets or minstrels among the peoples
of Gaul and Britain. In Gaul, however, the institution soon disappeared;
the purely Celtic peoples were swept back by the waves of Latin and
Teutonic conquest, and finally settled in Wales, Ireland, Brittany and the
north of Scotland. There is clear evidence of the existence of bards in all
these places, though the known relics belong almost entirely to Wales and
Ireland, where the institution was more distinctively national. In Wales
they formed an organized society, with hereditary rights and privileges.
They were treated with the utmost respect and were exempt from taxes or
military service. Their special duties were to celebrate the victories of
their people and to sing hymns of praise to God. They thus gave poetic
expression to the religious and national sentiments of the people, and
therefore exercised a very powerful influence. The whole society of bards
was regulated by laws, said to have been first distinctly formulated by
Hywell Dha, and to have been afterwards revised by Gruffydd ap Conan. At
stated intervals great festivals were held, at which the most famous bards
from the various districts met and contended in song, the umpires being
generally the princes and nobles. Even after the conquest of Wales, these
congresses, or _Eisteddfodau_, as they were called (from the Welsh
_eistedd_, to sit), continued to be summoned by royal commission, but from
the reign of Elizabeth the custom has been allowed to fall into abeyance.
They have not been since summoned by royal authority, but were revived
about 1822, and are held regularly at the present time. In modern Welsh, a
bard is a poet whose vocation has been recognized at an Eisteddfod. In
Ireland also the bards were a distinct class with peculiar and hereditary
privileges. They appear to have been divided into three great sections: the
first celebrated victories and sang hymns of praise; the second chanted the
laws of the nation; the third gave poetic genealogies and family histories.
The Irish bards were held in high repute, and frequently were brought over
to Wales to give instruction to the singers of that country.
In consequence, perhaps, of Lucan's having spoken of _carmina bardi_, the
word bard began to be used, early in the 17th century, to designate any
kind of a serious poet, whether lyric or epic, and is so employed by
Shakespeare, Milton and Pope. On the other hand, in Lowland Scots it grew
to be a term of contempt and reproach, as describing a class of frenzied
vagabonds.
See Ed. Jones, _Relics of the Welsh Bards_ (1784); Walker, _Memoirs of the
Irish Bards_ (1786); Owen Jones, _Myvyrian Archaeology of Wales_ (3 vols.,
1801-1807); W. F. Skene, _Four Ancient Books of Wales_ (2 vols., 1868).
BARDAI[S.][=A]N, an early teacher of Christianity in Mesopotamia, the
writer of numerous Syriac works which have entirely perished[1] (with one
possible exception, the _Hymn of the Soul_ in the _Acts of Thomas_), and
the founder of a school which was soon branded as heretical. According to
the trustworthy _Chronicle of Edessa_, he was born in that city on the 11th
Tammuz (July), A.D. 154. [v.03 p.0396] His parents were of rank and
probably pagan; according to Barhebraeus, he was in youth a priest in a
heathen temple at Mabb[=o]g. Another probable tradition asserts that he
shared the education of a royal prince who afterwards became king of
Edessa--perhaps Abgar bar Manu, who reigned 202-217. He is said to have
converted the prince to Christianity, and may have had an important share
in christianizing the city. Epiphanius and Barhebraeus assert that he was
first an orthodox Christian and afterwards an adherent of Valentinus; but
Eusebius and the Armenian Moses of Chorene reverse the order, stating that
in his later days he largely, but not completely, purged himself of his
earlier errors. The earliest works attributed to him (by Eusebius and
others) are polemical dialogues against Marcionism and other heresies;
these were afterwards translated into Greek. He also wrote, probably under
Caracalla, an apology for the Christian religion in a time of persecution.
But his greatest title to fame was furnished by his hymns, which, according
to St Ephrem, numbered 150 and were composed in imitation of the Davidic
psalter. He thus became the father of Syriac hymnology, and from the favour
enjoyed by his poems during the century and a half that intervened between
him and St Ephrem we may conclude that he possessed original poetic genius.
This would be clearly proved if (as is not unlikely) the beautiful _Hymn of
the Soul_ incorporated in the apocryphal _Acts of Thomas_ could be regarded
as proceeding from his pen; it is practically the only piece of real poetry
in Syriac that has come down to us. Perhaps owing to the persecution under
Caracalla mentioned above, Bardai[s.][=a]n for a time retreated into
Armenia, and is said to have there preached Christianity with indifferent
success, and also to have composed a history of the Armenian kings.
Porphyry states that on one occasion at Edessa he interviewed an Indian
deputation who had been sent to the Roman emperor, and questioned them as
to the nature of Indian religion. He was undoubtedly a man of wide culture.
He died (according to the patriarch Michael) in 222.
For our knowledge of Bardai[s.][=a]n's doctrine we are mainly dependent on
the hostile witness of St Ephrem, and on statements by Greek writers who
had no acquaintance with his works in their original form. His teaching had
certain affinities with gnosticism. Thus he certainly denied the
resurrection of the body; and so far as we can judge by the obscure
quotations from his hymns furnished by St Ephrem he explained the origin of
the world by a process of emanation from the supreme God whom he called
"the Father of the living." On the other hand the dialogue known as the
_Book of the Laws of the Countries_, which was written by a disciple and is
quoted by Eusebius as a genuine exposition of the master's teaching--while
it recognizes the influence of the celestial bodies over the body of man
and throughout the material sphere and attributes to them a certain
delegated authority[2]--upholds the freedom of the human will and can in
the main be reconciled with orthodox Christian teaching. On this M. Nau has
based his effort (see _Une Biographie inedite de Bardesane l'astrologue_,
Paris, 1897; _Le Livre des lois des pays_, Paris, 1899) to clear
Bardai[s.][=a]n of the reproach of gnosticism, maintaining that the charge
of heresy arises from a misunderstanding of certain astrological
speculations. It must be admitted that it is impossible to reconstruct
Bardai[s.][=a]n's system from the few fragments remaining of his own work
and therefore a certain verdict cannot be given. But the ancient testimony
to the connexion of Bardai[s.][=a]n with Valentinianism is strong, and the
dialogue probably represents a modification of Bardesanist teaching in the
direction of orthodoxy. The later adherents of the school appear to have
moved towards a Manichean dualism.
The subject is exhaustively discussed in Hort's article "Bardaisan" in
_Dict. Christ. Biog._, and a full collection of the ancient testimonies
will be found in Harnack's _Altchristliche Litteratur_, vol. i. pp. 184 ff.
(N. M.)
[1] The _Book of the Laws of the Countries_, referred to below, is the work
of a disciple of Bardai[s.][=a]n.
[2] Even Ephrem allows that Bardai[s.][=a]n was in principle a monotheist.
BARDILI, CHRISTOPH GOTTFRIED (1761-1808), German philosopher, was born at
Blaubeuren in Wuerttemberg, and died at Stuttgart. His system has had
little influence in Germany; Reinhold (_q.v._) alone expounded it against
the attacks of Fichte and Schelling. Yet in some respects his ideas opened
the way for the later speculations of Schelling and Hegel. He dissented
strongly from the Kantian distinction between matter and form of thought,
and urged that philosophy should consider only thought in itself, pure
thought, the ground or possibility of being. The fundamental principle of
thought is, according to him, the law of identity; logical thinking is real
thinking. The matter upon which thought operated is in itself indefinite
and is rendered definite through the action of thought. Bardili worked out
his idea in a one-sided manner. He held that thought has in itself no power
of development, and ultimately reduced it to arithmetical computation. He
published _Grundriss der ersten Logik_ (Stuttgart, 1800); _Ueber die
Gesetze der Ideenassociation_ (Tuebingen, 1796); _Briefe ueber den Ursprung
der Metaphysik_ (Altona, 1798); _Philos. Elementarlehre_ (Landshut,
1802-1806); _Beitraege zur Beurteilung des gegenwaertigen Zustandes der
Vernunftlehre_ (Landshut, 1803).
See C. L. Michelet, _Geschichte der letzten Systeme_; J. E. Erdmann,
_Versuch einer Geschichte d. neu. Phil._ Bd. iii. pt. i.; _B's und
Reinholds Briefwechsel._
BARDOUX, AGENOR (1820-1897), French statesman, was a native of Bourges.
Established as an advocate at Clermont, he did not hesitate to proclaim his
republican sympathies. In 1871 he was elected deputy of the National
Assembly, and re-elected in 1876 and in 1877. In the chamber he was
president of the group of the left centre, standing strongly for the
republic but against anti-clericalism. After the _coup d'etat_ of the 16th
of May, he was one of the leaders of the "363." In the republican chamber
elected after the 16th of May, he became minister of public instruction
(December 1877), and proposed various republican laws, notably on
compulsory primary education. He resigned in 1879. He was not re-elected in
1881, but in December 1882 was named senator for life. He wrote essays on
_Les Legistes et leur influence sur la societe francaise_ (1878); _Le Comte
de Montlosier et le Gallicanisme_ (1881); and published in 1882 his _Dix
Annees de vie politique_.
BARDOWIEK, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, 3 m.
N. of Lueneburg on the navigable Ilmenau. Pop. 2000. Its trade consists
entirely in agricultural produce. The Gothic parish church (_c._ 1400)
incorporates remains of a cathedral of vast dimensions.
Bardowiek was founded in the 8th century by Charlemagne, who established a
bishopric in it, and until its destruction by Henry the Lion in 1189, it
was the most prosperous commercial city of north Germany. Its name is
derived from the Longobardi, the tribe for whom it was the home and centre,
and from it the colonization of Lombardy started.
BARDSEY (_i.e._ "Bards' Island": cf. Anglesey, "Angles' Island"; Welsh,
_Ynys Enlli_, "isle of the current"), an island at the northern extremity
of Cardigan Bay. The "sound" between Aberdaron point and the island is some
4 m. wide. Bardsey is included in Carnarvonshire, North Wales (but
traditionally in S. Wales). On the N.W. side it has high cliffs. It is
about 2-1/2 m. long by 3/4 m. broad, with an area of some 370 acres, a
third of which is hilly. Barley and oats are grown. On the S.E. side is a
fairly deep harbour. On the N.E. are the ruins of the tower of St Mary's
abbey (13th century). There is no Anglican church, the inhabitants being
Dissenters. They are farmers and fishermen. The lighthouse, with fixed
light, 140 ft. high and visible for 17 m., is locally celebrated. The
rectory of Aberdaron (on the mainland, opposite Bardsey), Penmachno and
Llangwnadl (Llangwynhoedl), in Lleyn (S. Carnarvonshire), belong to St
John's College, Cambridge. St Dubricius made the sanctuary famous, and died
here in 612. Here was the burial-place of all the monks whose friends could
afford to go thither with their bodies. All the great abbeys of England
sent their quota. Roads to Bardsey--with the monks' wells, found at
intervals of 7 to 9 m.--run from north, east and south. The remnant of
priests fled thither (after the great massacre of Bangor-is-coed in 613, by
Ethelfride of Northumbria) by the road of the Rivals (_Yn Eifl_) [v.03
p.0397] hill, S. Carnarvonshire, on which Pistyll farm still gives food
gratis to all pilgrims or travellers. A part of the isle is one great
cemetery of about 3 to 4 acres, with rude, rough graves as close to each
other as possible, with slabs upon them. Though Aberdaron rectory does not
belong to the isle, the farm "Cwrt" (Court), where the abbot held his
court, still goes with Bardsey, which was granted to John Wynn of Bodvel,
Carnarvonshire, after the battle and partial sack of Norwich by the
Puritans in the Civil War; passing through Mary Bodvel to her husband, the
earl of Radnor, who sold it to Dr Wilson of York. The doctor, in turn, sold
it to Sir John Wynn, of Glynllifon and Bodfean Hall, Carnarvonshire. One of
the Wynns, the 3rd Baron Newborough, was, at his wish, buried here. The
archaeology and history of the isle are voluminous. Lady Guest's
_Mabinogion_ translation (i. p. 115, ed. of 1838) gives an account of the
(legendary) Bardsey House of Glass, into which Merlin (Myrddin) took a
magic ring, originally kept at Caerleon-on-Usk.