II. THE MODERN BAPTISTS

1. _Great Britain and Ireland._--If the Anabaptists of England were not the

progenitors of the modern Baptist church, we must look abroad for the

beginnings of that movement. Although there were doubtless many who held

Baptist views scattered among the Independent communities, it was not until

the time of John Smith or Smyth (d. 1612) that the modern Baptist movement

in England broke away from Brownism. Smyth was appointed preacher of the

city of Lincoln in 1600 as an ordained clergyman, but became a separatist

in 1605 or 1606, and, soon after, emigrated under stress of persecution

with the Gainsborough Independents to Amsterdam. With Thomas Helwys (_ca._

1560-_ca._ 1616) and Morton he joined the "Ancient" church there, but,

coming under Mennonite teaching in 1609, he separated from the

Independents, baptized himself (hence he is called the "Se-baptist"),

Helwys and others probably according to the Anabaptist or Mennonite fashion

of pouring. These then formed the first English Baptist Church which in

1611 published "a declaration of faith of English people remaining at

Amsterdam in Holland." The article relating to baptism is as

follows:--"That every church is to receive in all their members by baptism

upon the confession of their faith and sins, wrought by the preaching of

the gospel according to the primitive institution and practice. And

therefore churches constituted after any other manner, or of any other

persons, are not according to Christ's testament. That baptism or washing

with water is the outward manifestation of dying unto sin and walking in

newness of life; and therefore in no wise appertaineth to infants." They

held "that no church ought to challenge any prerogative over any other";

and that "the magistrate is not to meddle with religion, or matters of

conscience nor compel men to this or that form of religion." This is the

first known expression of absolute liberty of conscience in any confession

of faith.

Smyth died in Holland, but in 1612 Helwys returned to England with his

church and formed the first Baptist church worshipping on English soil. The

church met in Newgate Street, London, and was the origin of the "General"

Baptist denomination. Helwys and his followers were Arminians, repudiating

with heat the Calvinistic doctrine of predestination. They thus differed

from other Independents. "They also differed on the power of the magistrate

in matters of belief and conscience. It was, in short, from their little

dingy meeting house ... that there flashed out, first in England, the

absolute doctrine of Religious Liberty" (Prof. Masson). Leonard Busher, the

author of "Religious Peace: or a Plea for Liberty of Conscience," was a

member of this church.

The next great event in the history of the Baptists (though it should be

mentioned that the last execution for heresy in England by burning was that

of a Baptist, Edward Wightman, at Lichfield 1612) is the rise of the first

Calvinistic or Particular Baptist Church. This was the Jacob church in

Southwark, which numbered among its members John Lothropp or Lathrop (d.

1653), Praise-God Barbon (_ca._ 1596-1679), Henry Jessey (1601-1663),

Hanserd Knollys (_ca._ 1599-1691) and William Kiffin (1616-1701). It was

originally Independent but then became Baptist. From this six other

churches sprang, five of which were Baptist. Before the Jacob church,

however, had itself become Baptist, it dismissed from its membership a

group of its members (the church having grown beyond what was regarded as

proper limits) who, in 1633, became the first Particular Baptist Church.

Thus there were now in existence in England two sets of Baptists whose

origins were quite distinct and who never had any real intercourse as

churches. They differed in many respects. The General Baptists were

Arminian, owing to the influence of the Mennonite Anabaptists. The

Particular Baptists were Calvinist, springing as they did from the

Independents. But on the question of Baptism both groups, while they

utterly rejected the baptism of infants, were as yet unpledged to immersion

and rarely practised it. The development of their doctrine as to baptism

was marked along three lines of dispute:--(1) who is the proper

administrator of baptism? (2) who are the proper subjects? and (3) what is

the proper mode? Eventually agreement was reached, and in 1644 a Confession

of Faith was published in the names of the Particular Baptist churches of

London, now grown to seven, "commonly (though falsely) called Anabaptist."

The article on baptism is as follows:--"That baptism is an ordinance of the

New Testament given by Christ to be dispensed only upon persons professing

faith, or that are disciples, or taught, who, upon a profession of faith,

ought to be baptized." "The way and manner of dispensing this ordinance the

Scripture holds out to be dipping or plunging the whole body under water."

They further declare (particularly in order that they may avoid the charge

of being Anabaptists) that "a civil magistracy is an ordinance of God,"

which they are bound to obey. They speak of the "breathing time" which they

have had of late, and their hope that God would, as they say, "incline the

magistrates' hearts so for to tender our consciences as that we might be

protected by them from wrong, injury, oppression and molestation"; and then

they proceed: "But if God withhold the magistrates' allowance and

furtherance herein, yet we must, notwithstanding, proceed together in

Christian communion, not daring to give place to suspend our practice, but

to walk in obedience to Christ in the profession and holding forth this

faith before mentioned, even in the midst of all trials and afflictions,

not accounting our goods, lands, wives, children, fathers, mothers,

brethren, sisters, yea, and our own lives, dear unto us, so that we may

finish our course with joy; remembering always that we ought to obey God

rather than men." They end their confession thus: "If any take this that we

have said to be heresy, then do we with the apostle freely confess, that

after the way which they call heresy worship we the God of our fathers,

believing all things which are written in the Law and in the Prophets and

Apostles, desiring from our souls to disclaim all heresies and opinions

which are not after Christ, and to be stedfast, unmovable, always abounding

in the work of the Lord, as knowing our labour shall not be in vain in the

Lord." The "breathing time" was not of long continuance. Soon after the

Restoration (1660) the meetings of nonconformists were continually

disturbed and preachers were fined or imprisoned. One instance of these

persecutions will, perhaps, be more impressive than any general statements.

In the records of the Broadmead Baptist Church, Bristol, we find this

remark: "On the 29th of November 1685 our pastor, Brother Fownes, died in

Gloucester jail, having been kept there for two years and about nine months

a prisoner, unjustly and maliciously, for the testimony of Jesus and

preaching the gospel. He was a man of great learning, of a sound judgment,

an able preacher, having great knowledge in divinity, law, physic, &c.; a

bold and patient sufferer for the Lord Jesus and the gospel he preached."

[v.03 p.0373] With the Revolution of 1688, and the passing of the Act of

Toleration in 1689, the history of the persecution of Baptists, as well as

of other Protestant dissenters, ends. The removal of the remaining

disabilities such as those imposed by the Test and Corporation Acts

repealed in 1828, has no special bearing on Baptists more than on other

nonconformists. The ministers of the "three denominations of

dissenters,"--Presbyterians, Independents and Baptists,--resident in London

and the neighbourhood, had the privilege accorded to them of presenting on

proper occasions an address to the sovereign in state, a privilege which

they still enjoy under the name of "the General Body of Protestant

Dissenting Ministers of the three Denominations." The "General Body" was

not organized until 1727.

The Baptists, having had a double origin, continued for many years in two

sections--those who in accordance with Arminian views held the doctrine of

"General Redemption," and those who, agreeing with the Calvinistic theory,

held the doctrine of "Particular Redemption"; and hence they were known

respectively as General Baptists and Particular Baptists. In the 18th

century many of the General Baptists gradually adopted the Arian, or,

perhaps, the Socinian theory; whilst, on the other hand, the Calvinism of

the Particular Baptists in many of the churches became more rigid, and

approached or actually became Antinomianism. In 1770 the orthodox portion

of the General Baptists, mainly under the influence of Dan Taylor (b.

1738), formed themselves into a separate association, under the name of the

General Baptist New Connection, since which time the "Old Connection" has

gradually merged into the Unitarian denomination. By the beginning of the

19th century the New Connection numbered 40 churches and 3400 members. The

old General Baptists "still keep up a shadowy legal existence." Towards the

end of the 18th century many of the Particular Baptist churches became more

moderate in their Calvinism, a result largely attributable to the writings

of Andrew Fuller. Up to this time a great majority of the Baptists admitted

none either to membership or communion who were not baptized, the principal

exception being the churches in Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire, founded or

influenced by Bunyan, who maintained that difference of opinion in respect

to water baptism was no bar to communion. At the beginning of the 19th

century this question was the occasion of great and long-continued

discussion, in which the celebrated Robert Hall (1764-1831) took a

principal part. The practice of mixed communion gradually spread in the

denomination. Still more recently many Baptist churches have considered it

right to admit to full membership persons professing faith in Christ, who

do not agree with them respecting the ordinance of baptism. Such churches

justify their practice on the ground that they ought to grant to all their

fellow-Christians the same right of private judgment as they claim for

themselves. It may not be out of place here to correct the mistake, which

is by no means uncommon, that the terms Particular and General as applied

to Baptist congregations were intended to express this difference in their

practice, whereas these terms related, as has been already said, to the

difference in their doctrinal views. The difference now under consideration

is expressed by the terms "strict" and "open," according as communion (or

membership) is or is not confined to persons who, according to their view,

are baptized.

In 1891, largely under the influence of Dr John Clifford, a leading General

Baptist, the two denominations, General and Particular, were united, there

being now but one body called "The Baptist Union of Great Britain and

Ireland." This Union, however, is purely voluntary, and some Baptist

churches, a few of them prosperous and powerful, hold aloof from their

sister churches so far as organization is concerned.

There are other Baptist bodies outside the Baptist Union beside certain

isolated churches. Throughout England there are many "Strict" Baptist

churches which really form a separate denomination. For the most part they

are linked together according to geographical distribution in associations,

such as the "Metropolitan Association of Strict Baptist Churches," and the

"Suffolk and Norfolk Association of Particular Baptist Churches." In the

latter case the name "Particular" is preferred, but the association holds

aloof from other Baptist churches because its principles are "strict."

There is, however, no national Union. Indeed, the Strict Baptists are

themselves divided into the "Standard" and "Vessel" parties--names derived

from the "Gospel Standard" and "Earthen Vessel," the organs of the rival

groups.

The general characteristic of the Strict Baptists is their rigorous

adherence to a type of Calvinistic theology now generally obsolete, and

their insistence upon baptism as the condition of Christian communion.

Their loose organization makes it impossible to obtain accurate statistics,

but the number of their adherents is small. There is a strict Baptist

Missionary Society (founded 1860, refounded 1897) which conducts mission

work in South India. The income of this society was L1146 in 1905. It

comprises 730 church members and 72 pastors and workers.

The Baptists early felt the necessity of providing an educated ministry for

their congregations. Some of their leading pastors had been educated in one

or other of the English universities. Others had by their own efforts

obtained a large amount of learning, amongst whom Dr John Gill was eminent

for his knowledge of Hebrew, as shown in his _Exposition of the Holy

Scriptures_, a work in 9 vols. folio, 1746-1766. Edward Terrill, who died

in 1685, left a considerable part of his estate for the instruction of

young men desiring to be trained for the ministry, under the

superintendence of the pastor of the Broadmead Church, Bristol, of which he

was a member. Other bequests for the same purpose were made, and from the

year 1720 the Baptist Academy, as it was then called, received young men as

students for the ministry among the Baptists. In 1770 the Bristol Education

Society was formed to enlarge this academy; and about the year 1811 the

present Bristol Baptist College was erected. In the north of England a

similar education society was formed in 1804 at Bradford, Yorkshire, which

has since been removed to Rawdon, near Leeds. In London another college was

formed in 1810 at Stepney; it was removed to Regent's Park in 1856. The

Pastors' College in connexion with the Metropolitan Tabernacle was

instituted in 1856, and in 1866 the present Baptist College at Manchester

was instituted at Bury in the interests of the "Strict" Baptist views.

Besides these, which were voluntary colleges not under denominational

control, the General Baptists maintained a college since 1797, which, since

the amalgamation of the two Baptist bodies, has become also a voluntary

institution, though previously supported by the General Baptist

Association. It is called the "Midland Baptist College," and is situated in

Nottingham. There is also a Baptist theological college in Glasgow, and

there are two colleges in Wales and one in Ireland. The total number of

students in these institutions is about 210.

The Baptists were the first denomination of British Christians to undertake

in a systematic way that work of missions to the heathen, which became so

prominent a feature in the religious activity of the 19th century. As early

as the year 1784 the Northamptonshire Association of Baptist churches

resolved to recommend that the first Monday of every month should be set

apart for prayer for the spread of the gospel. Shortly after, in 1792, the

Baptist Missionary Society was formed at Kettering in Northamptonshire,

after a sermon on Isaiah lii. 2, 3, preached by William Carey (1761-1834),

the prime mover in the work, in which he urged two points: "Expect great

things from God; attempt great things for God." In the course of the

following year Carey sailed for India, where he was joined a few years

later by Marshman and Ward, and the mission was established at Serampore.

The great work of Dr Carey's life was the translation of the Bible into the

various languages and dialects of India. The society's operations are now

carried on, not only in the East, but in the West Indies, China, Africa

(chiefly on the Congo river), and Europe.

In regard to church government, the Baptists agree with the

Congregationalists that each separate church is complete in itself, and

has, therefore, power to choose its own ministers and to make such

regulations as it deems to be most in accordance with the purpose of its

existence, that is, the advancement of the kingdom of Christ. A

comparatively small section of the denomination maintain that a "plurality

of elders" or pastors is required for the complete organization of every

separate church. This is the distinctive peculiarity of those churches in

Scotland and the north of England which are known as _Scotch Baptists_. The

largest church of this section, consisting of approximately 500 members,

originated in Edinburgh in 1765, before which date only one Baptist

church--that of Keiss in Caithness, formed about 1750--appears to have

existed in Scotland. The greater number of the churches are united in

association voluntarily formed, all of them determined by geographical

limits. The associations, as well as the churches not in connexion with

them, are united together in the Baptist Union of Great Britain and

Ireland, formed in 1813 by the Particular Baptists. This union, however,

exerts no authoritative action over the separate churches. One important

part of the work of the union is the collection of information in which all

the churches are interested. In 1909 there were in the United Kingdom:

Baptist churches, 3046; chapels, 4124; sittings, 1,450,352; members,

424,008; Sunday school teachers, 58,687; Sunday scholars, 578,344; local

preachers, 5615; and pastors in charge, 2078.

At the beginning of the 20th century the Baptist Union collected a

"Twentieth Century Fund" of L250,000, which has largely assisted the

formation of new churches, and gives an indication of [v.03 p.0374] the

unity and virility of the denomination. A still stronger evidence to the

same effect was given by the Religious Census taken in 1904. While this

only applied to London, its results are valuable as showing the comparative

strength of the Baptist Church. These results are to the effect that in all

respects the Baptists come second to the Anglicans in the following three

particulars:--(1) Percentage of attendances at public worship contributed

by Baptists, 10.81 (London County), 10.70 (Greater London); (2) aggregate

of attendances, 54,597; (3) number of places of worship, 443.

2. _The Continent of Europe._--During the 19th century what we have called

the modern Baptist movement made its appearance in nearly every European

country. In Roman Catholic countries Baptist churches were formed by

missionaries coming from either England or America: work in France began in

1832, in Italy missions were started in 1866 (Spezia Mission) and in 1884

(Baptist Missionary Society, which also has a mission in Brittany), and in

Spain in 1888. In Protestant countries and in Russia the Baptist movement

began without missionary intervention from England or America. J. G. Oncken

(1800-1884) formed the first church in Hamburg in 1834, and thereafter

Baptist churches were formed in other countries as follows:--Denmark

(1839), Holland and Sweden (1848), Switzerland (1849), Norway (1860),

Austria and Rumania (1869), Hungary (1871), and Bulgaria (1884). Baptist

churches also began to be formed in Russia and Finland in the 'fifties and

'sixties.

3. _British Colonies._--In every colony the Baptists have a considerable

place. There are unions of Baptist churches in the following colonies:--New

South Wales, Victoria, S. Australia, Western Australia, Queensland, New

Zealand, Tasmania, Canada (four Unions) and S. Africa. The work in S.

Africa is assisted by the Baptist South African Missionary and Colonial Aid

Society, having its seat in London.

_The Baptist World Alliance_ was formed in 1905, when the first Baptist

World Congress was held in London. The preamble of the constitution of this

Alliance sufficiently indicates its nature: "Whereas, in the providence of

God, the time has come when it seems fitting more fully to manifest the

essential oneness in the Lord Jesus Christ, as their God and Saviour, of

the churches of the Baptist order and faith throughout the world, and to

promote the spirit of fellowship, service and co-operation among them,

while recognizing the independence of each particular church and not

assuming the functions of any existing organization, it is agreed to form a

Baptist alliance, extending over every part of the world." This alliance

does in fact include Baptists in every quarter of the globe, as will be

seen from the following statistics:--

Churches. Members.

United States--

National Baptist Convention 16,996 2,110,269

Southern Baptist Convention 20,431 1,832,638

"Disciples of Christ" 11,157 1,235,798

Thirty-five Northern States 8,894 986,821

Fourteen other Bodies 7,921 414,775

Australasia 270 23,253

Canada 985 103,062

S. Africa 52 4,865

United Kingdom 2,934 426,563

Austria Hungary 37 9,783

Denmark 29 3,954

Finland 43 2,301

France 28 2,278

Germany 180 32,462

Italy 53 1,375

Mexico and Central America 58 1,820

Netherlands 22 1,413

Norway 39 2,849

Rumania and Bulgaria 5 374

Russia and Poland[1] 131 24,136

S. America 63 3,641

Spain 7 245

Sweden 567 43,305

Switzerland 8 796

West Indies 318 42,310

Ceylon 25 1,044

China 137 12,160

India 1,215 121,716

Japan 40 2,326

Palestine 1 106

Philippines 4 425

Congo 21 4,673

West Africa 10 629

------ ---------

Total 72,681 7,454,165

====== =========

In 1909 the comparative totals were roughly:--72,988 churches; 7,480,940

members. In both sets of figures the Disciples of Christ (U.S.A.) are

included.

LITERATURE.--Thomas Crosby, _The History of the English Baptists_ (4 vols.

London, 1738-1740); D. Masson, _Life of John Milton in Connexion with the

History of his Time_ (6 vols. 1859-1880, new ed. 1881, &c.); B. Evans, _The

Early English Baptists_, i. ii. (1862-1864); H. C. Vedder, _A Short History

of the Baptists_ (London, 1897); A. H. Newman, _A Manual of Church History_

(Philadelphia, 1900-1903); R. Heath, _Anabaptism_ (1895); C. Williams, _The

Principles and Practices of the Baptists_ (1903); E. C. Pike, _The Story of

the Anabaptists_ (1904); J. H. Shakespeare, _Baptist and Congregational

Pioneers_; J. G. Lehmann, _Geschichte der deutschen Baptisten_ (1896-1900);

G. Tumbuelt, _Die Wiedertaeufer_ (Bielefeld, 1899); _The Baptist Handbook_

(annually); _The Baptist World Congress_, 1905; _The Religious Census of

London_ (1904).

(N. H. M.)

4. _United States of America._--The first Baptist Church in America was

that founded in the Providence settlement on Narragansett Bay under the

leadership of Roger Williams (_q.v._). Having been sentenced to banishment

(October 1635) by the Massachusetts Court because of his persistence in

advocating separatistic views deemed unsettling and dangerous, to escape

deportation to England he betook himself (January 1636) to the wilderness,

where he was hospitably entertained by the natives who gave him a tract of

land for a settlement. Having been joined by a few friends from

Massachusetts, Williams founded a commonwealth in which absolute religious

liberty was combined with civil democracy. In the firm conviction that

churches of Christ should be made up exclusively of regenerate members, the

baptism of infants appeared to him not only valueless but a perversion of a

Christian ordinance. About March 1639, with eleven others, he decided to

restore believers' baptism and to form a church of baptized believers.

Ezekiel Holliman, who had been with him at Plymouth and shared his

separatist views, first baptized Williams and Williams baptized the rest of

the company. Williams did not long continue to find satisfaction in the

step he had taken. Believing that the ordinances and apostolic church

organization had been lost in the general apostasy, he became convinced

that it was presumptuous for any man or company of men to undertake their

restoration without a special divine commission. He felt compelled to

withdraw from the church and to assume the position of a seeker. He

continued on friendly terms with the Baptists of Providence, and in his

writings he expressed the conviction that their practice came nearer than

that of other communities to the first practice of Christ.

In November 1637 John Clarke (1609-1676), a physician, of religious zeal

and theological acumen, arrived at Boston, where, instead of the religious

freedom he was seeking, he found the dominant party in the Antinomian

controversy on the point of banishing the Antinomian minority, including

Mrs Anne Hutchinson (_q.v._) and her family, John Wheelwright (_c._

1592-1679), and William Coddington (1601-1678). Whether from sympathy with

the persecuted or aversion to the persecutors, he cast in his lot with the

former and after two unsuccessful attempts at settlement assisted the

fugitives in forming a colony on the island of Aquidnek (Rhode Island),

procured from the Indians through the good offices of Williams. By 1641

there were, according to John Winthrop, "professed Anabaptists" on the

island, and Clarke was probably their leader. Robert Lenthall, who joined

the Newport company in 1640 when driven from Massachusetts, probably

brought with him antipaedobaptist convictions. Mrs Scott, sister of Mrs

Hutchinson, is thought to have been an aggressive antipaedobaptist when the

colony was founded. Mark Lucar, who was baptized by immersion in London in

January 1642 (N.S.) and was a member of a Baptist church there, reached

Newport about 1644. A few years later we find [v.03 p.0375] him associated

with Clarke as one of the most active members of the Newport church, and as

the date of the organization is uncertain, there is some reason to suspect

that he was a constituent member, and that as a baptized man he took the

initiative in baptizing and organizing. At any rate we have in Lucar an

interesting connecting link between early English and American Baptists.

The Providence church maintained a rather feeble existence after Williams's

withdrawal, with Thomas Olney (d. 1682), William Wickenden, Chad Brown (d.

1665) and Gregory Dexter as leading members. A schism occurred in 1652, the

last three with a majority of the members contending for general redemption

and for the laying on of hands as indispensable to fellowship, Olney, with

the minority, maintaining particular redemption and rejecting the laying on

of hands as an ordinance. Olney's party became extinct soon after his death

in 1682. The surviving church became involved in Socinianism and

Universalism, but maintained a somewhat vigorous life and, through

Wickenden and others, exerted considerable influence at Newport, in

Connecticut, New York and elsewhere. Dexter became, with Williams and

Clarke, a leading statesman in Rhode Island and Providence Plantations.

The Newport church extended its influence into Massachusetts, and in 1649

we find a group of Baptists at Rehoboth, with Obadiah Holmes as leader. The

intolerance of the authorities rendered the prosecution of the work

impracticable and these Massachusetts Baptists became members of the

Newport church. In 1651 Clarke, Holmes and Joseph Crandall of the Newport

church made a religious visit to Lynn, Mass. While holding a meeting in a

private house they were arrested and were compelled to attend the church

services of the standing order. For holding an unlawful meeting and

refusing to participate quietly in the public service they were fined,

imprisoned and otherwise maltreated. While in England on public business in

1652, Clarke published _Ill News from New England_, which contained an

impressive account of the proceedings against himself and his brethren at

Lynn, and an earnest and well-reasoned plea for liberty of conscience.

Henry Dunster (1612-1659), the first president of the college at Cambridge

(Harvard), had by 1653 become convinced that "visible believers only should

be baptized." Being unwilling to hold his views in abeyance, he

relinquished in 1654, under circumstances of considerable hardship, the

work that he greatly loved.

In 1663 John Myles (1621-1683), a Welsh Baptist who had been one of

Cromwell's Tryers, with his congregation, took refuge in Massachusetts from

the intolerance of the government of Charles II. They were allowed to

settle in Rehoboth, Mass., and even after they were discovered to be

Baptists they were allowed to remain on condition of establishing their

meeting-place at a considerable distance from that of the standing order.

Myles did much to promote the growth of the Baptist Church in

Massachusetts, and was of service to the denomination in Boston and

elsewhere. Thomas Gould of Charlestown seems to have been in close touch

with President Dunster and to have shared his antipaedobaptist views as

early as 1654. Some time before 1665 several English Baptists had settled

in the neighbourhood of Boston and several others had adopted Baptist

views. These, with Gould, were baptized (May 1665) and joined with those

who had been baptized in England in a church covenant. The church was

severely persecuted, the members being frequently imprisoned and fined and

denied the use of a building they had erected as a meeting-house. Long

after the Act of Toleration (1689) was in full force in England, the Boston

Baptists pleaded in vain for the privileges to which they were thereby

entitled, and it required the most earnest efforts of English Baptists and

other dissenters to gain for them a recognition of the right to exist. A

mandate from Charles II. (July 1679), in which the Massachusetts

authorities were sharply rebuked for denying to others the liberty to

secure which they themselves had gone into exile, had produced little

effect.

In 1682 William Screven (1629-1713) and Humphrey Churchwood, members of the

Boston church, gathered and organized, With the co-operation of the mother

church, a small congregation at Kittery, Me. Persecution led to migration,

Screven and some of the members making their way to South Carolina, where,

with a number of English Baptists of wealth and position, what became the

First Baptist church in Charleston, was organized (about 1684). This became

one of the most important of early Baptist centres, and through Screven's

efforts Baptist principles became widely disseminated throughout that

region. The withdrawal of members to form other churches in the

neighbourhood and the intrusion of Socinianism almost extinguished the

Charleston church about 1746.

A few Baptists of the general (Arminian) type appeared in Virginia from

1714 onward, and were organized and fostered by missionaries from the

English General Baptists. By 1727 they had invaded North Carolina and a

church was constituted there.

From 1643 onward antipaedobaptists from New England and elsewhere had

settled in the New Netherlands (New York). Lady Deborah Moody left

Massachusetts for the New Netherlands in 1643 because of her

antipaedobaptist views and on her way stopped at New Haven, where she won

to her principles Mrs Eaton, the wife of the governor, Theophilus Eaton.

She settled at Gravesend (now part of Brooklyn) having received from the

Dutch authorities a guarantee of religious liberty. Francis Doughty, an

English Baptist, who had spent some time in Rhode Island, laboured in this

region in 1656 and baptized a number of converts. This latter proceeding

led to his banishment. Later in the same year William Wickenden of

Providence evangelized and administered the ordinances at Flushing, but was

heavily fined and banished. From 1711 onward Valentine Wightman (1681-1747)

of Connecticut (General Baptist) made occasional missionary visits to New

York at the invitation of Nicolas Eyres, a business man who had adopted

Baptist views, and in 1714 baptized Eyres and several others, and assisted

them in organizing a church. The church was well-nigh wrecked (1730) by

debt incurred in the erection of a meeting-house. A number of Baptists

settled on Block Island about 1663. Some time before 1724 a Baptist church

(probably Arminian) was formed at Oyster Bay.

The Quaker colonies, with their large measure of religious liberty, early

attracted a considerable number of Baptists from New England, England and

Wales. About 1684 a Baptist church was founded at Cold Spring, Bucks

county, Pa., through the efforts of Thomas Dungan, an Irish Baptist

minister who had spent some time in Rhode Island. The Pennepek church was

formed in 1688 through the labours of Elias Keach, son of Benjamin Keach

(1640-1704), the famous English evangelist. Services were held in

Philadelphia under the auspices of the Pennepek church from 1687 onward,

but independent organization did not occur till 1698. Several Keithian

Quakers united with the church, which ultimately became possessed of the

Keithian meeting-house. Almost from the beginning general meetings had been

held by the churches of these colonies. In 1707 the Philadelphia

Association was formed as a delegated body "to consult about such things as

were wanting in the churches and to set them in order." From its inception

this body proved highly influential in promoting Baptist co-operation in

missionary and educational work, in efforts to supply the churches with

suitable ministers and to silence unworthy ones, and in maintaining sound

doctrine. Sabbatarianism appeared within the bounds of the association at

an early date and Seventh-day Baptist churches were formed (1705 onward).

The decades preceding the "Great Awakening" of 1740-1743 were a time of

religious declension. A Socinianized Arminianism had paralysed evangelistic

effort. The First Church, Providence, had long since become Arminian and

held aloof from the evangelism of Edwards, Whitefield and their coadjutors.

The First Church, Boston, had become Socinianized and discountenanced the

revival. The First Church, Newport, had been rent asunder by Arminianism,

and the nominally Calvinistic remnant had itself become divided on the

question of the laying on of hands and showed no sympathy with the Great

Awakening. The First Church, Charleston, had been wrecked by Socinianism.

The General (Six Principles) Baptists of Rhode Island and [v.03 p.0376]

Connecticut had increased their congregations and membership, and before

the beginning of the 18th century had inaugurated annual associational

meetings. But the fact that the Great Awakening in America was conducted on

Calvinistic principles was sufficient to prevent their hearty co-operation.

The churches of the Philadelphia Association were organized and engaged to

some extent in missionary endeavour, but they showed little interest in the

Edwards-Whitefield movement. And yet the Baptists ultimately profited by

the Great Awakening beyond almost any of the denominations. In many New

England communities a majority in the churches of the standing order

bitterly opposed the new evangelism, and those who came under its influence

felt constrained to organize "Separate" or "New Light" churches. These were

severely persecuted by the dominant party and were denied even the scanty

privileges that Baptists had succeeded in gaining. As the chief objection

of the "Separates" to the churches of the standing order was their refusal

to insist on personal regeneration as a term of membership, many of them

were led to feel that they were inconsistent in requiring regenerate

membership and yet administering baptism to unconscious infants. In several

cases entire "Separate" churches reached the conviction that the baptism of

infants was not only without Scriptural warrant but was a chief

corner-stone of state-churchism, and transformed themselves into Baptist

churches. In many cases a division of sentiment came to prevail on the

matter of infant-baptism, and for a while mutual toleration prevailed; but

mixed churches had their manifest disadvantages and separation ultimately

ensued.

Among the Baptist leaders gained from Congregationalism as a result of the

awakening was Isaac Backus (1724-1806), who became the New England champion

in the cause of religious liberty and equality, and the historian of his

denomination. To Daniel Marshall (d. 1784) and Shubael Stearns, "New Light"

evangelists who became Baptists, the spread of Baptist principles and the

multiplication of Baptist churches throughout the southern colonies were in

great measure due. The feeble Baptist cause in Virginia and North Carolina

had been considerably strengthened by missionaries from the churches of the

Philadelphia Association, including Benjamin Griffith, John Gano

(1727-1804), John Thomas, Benjamin Miller, Samuel Eaton, John Garrard and

David Thomas, and several churches, formed or reformed under their

influence, united with the association. In 1776 the Ketockton Association

was formed by this group of churches. The Virginia colonial government, in

earlier days cruelly intolerant, gave a limited toleration to Baptists of

this type; but the "Separate" Baptists were too enthusiastic and too much

alive to the evils of state control in religious matters to be willing to

take out licences for their meetings, and soon came into sharp conflict

with the authorities. Stearns was an evangelist of great power. With

Marshall, his brother-in-law, and about a dozen fellow-believers he settled

at Sandy Creek, North Carolina, and in a few years had built up a church

with a membership of more than six hundred. Marshall afterward organized

and ministered to a church at Abbott's Creek about 30 m. distant. From

these centres "Separate" Baptist influence spread throughout North and

South Carolina and across the Georgia border, Marshall himself finally

settling and forming a church at Kiokee, Georgia. From North Carolina as a

centre "Separate" Baptist influence permeated Virginia and extended into

Kentucky and Tennessee. The Sandy Creek Association came to embrace

churches in several colonies, and Stearns, desirous of preserving the

harmonious working of the churches that recognized his leadership, resisted

with vehemence all proposals for the formation of other associations.

From 1760 to 1770 the growth of the "Separate" Baptist body in Virginia and

the Carolinas was phenomenal. Evangelists like Samuel Harris

(1724-_c._1794) and John Waller (1741-1802) stirred whole communities and

established Baptist churches where the Baptist name had hitherto been

unknown. The Sandy Creek Association, with Stearns as leader, undertook to

"unfellowship ordinations, ministers and churches that acted

independently," and provoked such opposition that a division of the

association became necessary. The General Association of Virginia and the

Congaree Association of South Carolina now took their places side by side

with the Sandy Creek. The Virginia "Separate" Baptists had more than

doubled their numbers in the two years from May 1771 to May 1773. In 1774

some of the Virginia brethren became convinced that the apostolic office

was meant to be perpetuated and induced the association to appoint an

apostle. Samuel Harris was the unanimous choice and was solemnly ordained.

Waller and Elijah Craig (1743-1800) were made apostles soon afterward for

the northern district. This arrangement, soon abandoned, was no doubt

suggested by Methodist superintendency. In 1775 Methodist influence

appeared in the contention of two of the apostles and Jeremiah Walker for

universal redemption. Schism was narrowly averted by conciliatory

statements on both sides. As a means of preserving harmony the Philadelphia

Confession of Faith, a Calvinistic document, with provision against too

rigid a construction, was adopted and a step was thus taken toward

harmonizing with the "Regular" Baptists of the Philadelphia type. When the

General Association was sub-divided (1783), a General Committee, made up of

delegates from each district association, was constituted to consider

matters that might be for the good of the whole society. Its chief work was

to continue the agitation in which for some years the body had been

successfully engaged in favour of religious equality and the entire

separation of church and state. Since 1780 the "Separate" Baptists had had

the hearty co-operation of the "Regular" Baptists in their struggle for

religious liberty and equality. In 1787 the two bodies united and agreed to

drop the names "Separate" and "Regular." The success of the Baptists of

Virginia in securing step by step the abolition of everything that savoured

of religious oppression, involving at last the disestablishment and the

disendowment of the Episcopal Church, was due in part to the fact that

Virginia Baptists were among the foremost advocates of American

independence, while the Episcopal clergy were loyalists and had made

themselves obnoxious to the people by using the authority of Great Britain

in extorting their tithes from unwilling parishioners, and that they

secured the co-operation of free-thinking statesmen like Thomas Jefferson

and James Madison and, in most measures, that of the Presbyterians.

The Baptist cause in New England that had profited so largely from the

Great Awakening failed to reap a like harvest from the War of Independence.

The standing order in New England represented the patriotic and popular

party. Baptists lost favour by threatening to appeal to England for a

redress of their grievances at the very time when resistance to English

oppression was being determined upon. The result was slowness of growth and

failure to secure religious liberty. Though a large proportion of the New

England Baptists co-operated heartily in the cause of independence, the

denomination failed to win the popularity that comes from successful

leadership.

About 1762 the Philadelphia Association began to plan for the establishment

of a Baptist institution of learning that should serve the entire

denomination. Rhode Island was finally fixed upon, partly as the abode of

religious liberty and because of its intelligent, influential and

relatively wealthy Baptist constituency, the consequent likelihood of

procuring a charter from its legislature, and the probability that the

co-operation of other denominations in an institution under Baptist control

would be available. James Manning (1738-1791), who had just been graduated

from Princeton with high honours, was thought of as a suitable leader in

the enterprise, and was sent to Rhode Island (1763) to confer with leading

men, Baptist and other. As a result a charter was granted by the

legislature in 1764, and after a few years of preliminary work at Warren

(where the first degrees ever bestowed by a Baptist institution were

conferred in 1769), Providence was chosen as the home of the college

(1770). Here, with Manning as president and Hezekiah Smith (1737-1805), his

class-mate at Princeton, as financial agent and influential supporter, the

institution (since 1804 known as Brown University) was for many years the

only degree-conferring [v.03 p.0377] institution controlled by Baptists.

The Warren Association (1767) was organized under the influence of Manning

and Smith on the model of the Philadelphia, and became a chief agency for

the consolidation of denominational life, the promotion of denominational

education and the securing of religious liberty. Hezekiah Smith was a

highly successful evangelist, and through his labours scores of churches

were constituted in New England. As chaplain in the American Revolutionary

Army he also exerted a widespread influence.

The First Church, Charleston, which had become almost extinct through

Arminianism in 1746, entered upon a career of remarkable prosperity in 1749

under the leadership of Oliver Hart (1723-1795), formerly of the

Philadelphia Association. In 1751 the Charleston Association was formed,

also on the model of the Philadelphia, and proved an element of

denominational strength. The association raised funds for domestic

missionary work (1755 onward) and for the education of ministers (1756

onward). Brown University shared largely in the liberality of members of

this highly-cultivated and progressive body. Among the beneficiaries of the

education fund was Samuel Stillman (1737-1807), afterward the honoured

pastor of the Boston church. The most noted leader of the Baptists of South

Carolina during the four decades following the War of Independence was

Richard Furman (1755-1825), pastor of the First Church, Charleston. The

remarkable numerical progress of Baptists in South Carolina from 1787 to

1812 (from 1620 members to 11,325) was due to the "Separate" Baptist

movement under Stearns and Marshall far more than to the activity of the

churches of the Charleston Association. Both these types of Baptist life

permeated Georgia, the latter making its influence felt in Savannah,

Augusta and the more cultivated communities, the former evangelizing the

masses. Many negro slaves became Baptists in Virginia, the Carolinas and

Georgia. In most cases they became members of the churches of the white

Baptists; but in Richmond, Savannah and some other towns they were

encouraged to have churches of their own.

By 1812 there were in the United States 173,972 Baptist church members, the

denominational numerical strength having considerably more than doubled

since the beginning of the 19th century.

_Foreign Missions_.--Baptists in Boston and vicinity, Philadelphia and

Charleston, and a few other communities had from the beginning of the 19th

century taken a deep interest in the missionary work of William Carey, the

English missionary, and his coadjutors in India, and had contributed

liberally to its support. The conversion to Baptist views of Adoniram

Judson (_q.v._) and Luther Rice (1812), who had just been sent, with

others, by the newly-formed American Board of Commissioners for Foreign

Missions to open up missionary work in India, marks an epoch in American

Baptist history. Judson appealed to his American brethren to support him in

missionary work among the heathen, and Rice returned to America to organize

missionary societies to awaken interest in Judson's mission. In January

1813 there was formed in Boston "The Baptist Society for the Propagation of

the Gospel in India and other Foreign Parts." Other societies in the

Eastern, Middle and Southern states speedily followed. The desirability of

a national organization soon became manifest, and in May 1814 thirty-three

delegates, representing eleven states, met in Philadelphia and organized

the "General Missionary Convention of the Baptist Denomination in the

United States of America for Foreign Missions." As its meetings were to be

held every three years it came to be known as the "Triennial Convention." A

Board of Commissioners was appointed with headquarters in Philadelphia

(transferred in 1826 to Boston). The need of a larger supply of educated

ministers for home and for mission work alike soon came to be profoundly

felt, and resulted in the establishment of Columbian College, Washington

(now George Washington University), with its theological department (1821),

intended to be a national Baptist institution. Destitution on the frontiers

led the Triennial Convention to engage extensively in home mission work

(1817 onward), and in 1832 the American Baptist Home Mission Society was

constituted for the promotion of this work. The need of an organ for the

dissemination of information, and the quickening of interest in the

missionary and educational enterprises of the Triennial Convention, led

Rice to establish the _Latter Day Luminary_ (1816) and the _Columbian

Star_, a weekly journal (1822). From the first the attempt to rouse the

denomination to organized effort for the propagation of the gospel met with

much opposition, agents of the Convention being looked upon by the less

intelligent pastors and churches as highly-paid and irresponsible

collectors of money to be used they knew not how, or for purposes of which

they disapproved. The fact that Rice was unduly optimistic and allowed the

enterprises of the Convention to become almost hopelessly involved in debt,

and was constrained to use some of the fund collected for missions to meet

the exigencies of his educational and journalistic work, intensified the

hostility of those who had suspected from the beginning the good faith of

the agents and denied the scriptural authority of boards, paid agents, paid

missionaries, &c. So virulent became the opposition that in several states,

as Tennessee and Kentucky, the work of the Convention was for years

excluded, and a large majority in each association refused to receive into

their fellowship those who advocated or contributed to its objects.

Hyper-Calvinism, ignorance and avarice cooperated in making the very name

"missions" odious, ministerial education an impertinent human effort to

supplant a spirit-called and spirit-endowed ministry, Sunday-schools and

prayer-meetings as human institutions, the aim of which was to interfere

with the divine order, and the receiving of salaries for ministerial work

as serving God for hire or rather as serving self. To counteract this

influence, Baptist State Conventions were formed by the friends of missions

and education, only contributing churches, associations, missionary

societies and individuals being invited to membership (1821

onward--Massachusetts had effected state organization in 1802). These

became highly efficient in promoting foreign and domestic missions,

Sunday-school organization, denominational literature and education. Nearly

every state soon had its institutions of learning, which aspired to become

universities.

Before 1844 the sessions of the Triennial Convention had occasionally been

made unpleasant by harsh anti-slavery utterances by Northern members

against their Southern brethren and somewhat acrimonious rejoinders by the

latter. The controversy between Francis Wayland and Richard Fuller

(1804-1876) on the slavery question ultimately convinced the Southern

brethren that separate organization for missionary work was advisable. The

Southern Baptist Convention, with its Home and Foreign Missionary Boards,

and (later) its Sunday-school Board, was formed in 1845. Since then

Northern and Southern Baptists, though in perfect fellowship with each

other, have found it best to carry on their home and foreign missionary

work through separate boards and to have separate annual meetings. In 1905

a General Baptist Convention for America was formed for the promotion of

fellowship, comity and denominational _esprit de corps_, but this

organization is not to interfere with the sectional organizations or to

undertake any kind of administrative work.

Since 1845 Northern and Southern Baptists alike have greatly increased in

numbers, in missionary work, in educational institutions, in literary

activity and in everything that pertains to the equipment and organization

of a great religious denomination. Since 1812 they have increased in

numbers from less than 200,000 to more than 5,000,000. In 1812 American

Baptists had no theological seminary; in 1906 they had 11 with more than

100 instructors, 1300 students, and endowments and equipments valued at

about $7,000,000. In 1812 they had only one degree-conferring college with

a small faculty, a small student body and almost no endowment; in 1906 they

had more than 100 universities and colleges with endowment and equipment

valued at about $30,000,000, and an annual income of about $3,000,000. In

1812 the value of church property was small; in 1906 it was estimated at

$100,000,000. Then a single monthly magazine, with a circulation of a few

hundreds, was all that the denomination possessed in the way of periodical

literature; in 1906 its quarterlies, monthlies and weeklies were numbered

by hundreds. The denomination has a single publishing concern (the American

Baptist Publication Society) with an annual business of nearly $1,000,000

and assets of $1,750,000.

Baptists in the Dominion of Canada had their rise about the close of the

18th century in migrations from the United States. They have been

reinforced by considerable numbers of English, Welsh and Scottish Baptists.

They are divided into four sections:--those of the Maritime Provinces, with

their Convention, their Home and Foreign Mission Boards, an Education Board

and a Publication Board, and with McMaster University (Arts, Theological

and [v.03 p.0378] Academic departments) as its educational institution;

those of Manitoba and the North-west, with Brandon College as its

educational institution; and those of British Columbia. Canadian Baptists

numbered 120,000 in 1909, and are considered in the above general

estimates.

(A. H. N.)

[1] The figures for Russia include only the German-speaking Baptists. It

is impossible to ascertain the numbers of properly Russian Baptists.

Estimates have been made which vary from 60,000 to 100,000.

BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606), French scholar, was born at Seizencourt, near

St Quentin, and having studied at the university of Paris entered the order

of St Benedict. He soon became prior of the abbey of Anchin, near

Pecquencourt, and passed much of his time in the valuable library of the

abbey, studying ecclesiastical history, especially that of Flanders. He

also made a catalogue of the manuscripts at Anchin and annotated many of

them. During the French Revolution his manuscripts passed to the library at

Douai. Bar died at Anchin on the 25th of March 1606.

See J. Lelong, _Bibliotheque historique de la France_ (Paris, 1768-1778);

C. C. A. Dehaisnes, "Catalogue des manuscrits de Douai," in the _Catalogue

general des manuscrits des bibliotheques des departements_, t. vi. (Paris,

1849-1885).

BAR, a town of Russia, in the government of Podolia, 50 m. N.E. of

Kamenets, on an affluent of the Bug. Pop. (1897) 10,614. It was formerly

called Rov. Its present designation was bestowed upon it in memory of Bari

in Italy (where she was born) by Bona Sforza, the consort of Sigismund I.

of Poland, who rebuilt the town after its destruction in 1452 by the

Tatars. From 1672 to 1699 it remained in possession of the Turks. In 1768 a

confederation of the Polish nobles (see next article) against the Russians

was formed in the town, which was shortly after taken by storm, but did not

become finally united to Russia till the partition of 1793.

BAR, CONFEDERATION OF, a famous confederation of the Polish nobles and

gentry formed at the little fortress of Bar in Podolia in 1768 to defend

the internal and external independence of Poland against the aggressions of

the Russian government as represented by her representative at Warsaw,

Prince Nicholas Repnin. The originators of this confederation were Adam

Krasinski, bishop of Kamenets, Osip Pulawski and Michael Krasinski. King

Stanislaus was at first inclined to mediate between the confederates and

Russia; but finding this impossible, sent a force against them under the

grand hetman Ksawery Branicki and two generals, who captured Bar.

Nevertheless, a simultaneous outbreak of a _jacquerie_ in Little-Russia

contributed to the extension of the confederation throughout the eastern

province of Poland and even in Lithuania. The confederates, thereupon,

appealed for help abroad and contributed to bring about a war between

Russia and Turkey. So serious indeed was the situation that Frederick II.

advised Catherine to come to terms with the confederates. Their bands under

Ignaty Malchewsky, Michael Pac and Prince Charles Radziwill ravaged the

land in every direction, won several engagements over the Russians, and at

last, utterly ignoring the king, sent envoys on their own account to the

principal European powers. In 1770 the Council of the Confederation was

transferred from its original seat in Silesia to Hungary, from whence it

conducted diplomatic negotiations with France, Austria and Turkey with the

view of forming a league against Russia. The court of Versailles sent

Dumouriez to act as commander-in-chief of the confederates, but neither as

a soldier nor as a politician did this adroit adventurer particularly

distinguish himself, and his account of his experiences is very unfair to

the confederates. Among other blunders, he pronounced King Stanislaus a

tyrant and a traitor at the very moment when he was about to accede to the

Confederation. The king thereupon reverted to the Russian faction and the

Confederation lost the confidence of Europe. Nevertheless, its army,

thoroughly reorganized by Dumouriez, gallantly maintained the hopeless

struggle for some years, and it was not till 1776 that the last traces of

it disappeared.

See Alexander Kraushar, _Prince Repnin in Poland_ (Pol.) (Warsaw, 1900);

F. A. Thesby de Belcour, _The Confederates of Bar_ (Pol.) (Cracow, 1895);

Charles Francois Dumouriez, _Memoires et correspondance_ (Paris, 1834).

(R. N. B.)

BAR (O. Fr. _barre_, Late Lat. _barra_, origin unknown), in physical

geography, a ridge of sand or silt crossing an estuary under water or

raised by wave action above sea-level, forming an impediment to navigation.

When a river enters a tidal sea its rate of flow is checked and the

material it carries in suspension is deposited in a shifting bar crossing

the channel from bank to bank. Where the channel is only partly closed, a

spur of this character is called a "spit." A bar may be produced by tidal

action only in an estuary or narrow gulf (as at Port Adelaide) where the

tides sweep the loose sand backwards and forwards, depositing it where the

motion of the water is checked. Nahant Bay, Mass., is bordered by the ridge

of Lynn Beach, which separates it from Lynn Harbor, and ties Nahant to the

mainland by a bar formed in this way.

BAR, THE. This term, as equivalent to the profession of barrister (_q.v._),

originated in the partition or bar dividing the English law-courts into two

parts, for the purpose of separating the members and officials of the court

from the prisoners or suitors, their advocates and the general public.

Theoretically, this division of the court is still maintained in England,

those who are entitled to sit within the bar including king's counsel,

barristers with patents of precedence, serjeants (till the order died out)

and solicitors, while the other members of the bar and the general public

remain without. Parties in civil suits who appear in person are allowed to

stand on the floor within the bar instead of, as formerly, appearing at the

bar itself. In criminal trials the accused still stands forward at the bar.

There is also a "bar" in parliament. In the House of Commons it remains

literally a bar--a long brass rod hidden in a tube from which it is pulled

out when required to mark the technical boundary of the House. Before it

appear those who are charged with having violated the privileges of the

House; below it also sit those members who have been returned at

bye-elections, to await their introduction to the House and the taking of

the oath of allegiance. In the House of Lords the place where Mr Speaker

and the members of the House of Commons stand when summoned by Black Rod is

called "the bar."

The "call to the bar" in England, by which a law student at one of the Inns

of Court is converted into a barrister, is dealt with under INNS OF COURT.

The exclusive privilege of calling to the bar belongs to those bodies,

which also exercise disciplinary power over their members; but it was

widely felt by members of the bar in recent years that the benchers or

governing body with their self-elected members did not keep a sufficiently

watchful eye on the minutiae of the profession. Consequently, in 1883, a

bar committee was formed for the purpose of dealing with all matters

relating to the profession, such as the criticizing of proposed legal

reforms, and the expression of opinions on matters of professional

etiquette, conduct and practice. In 1894 the committee was dissolved, and

succeeded by the general council of the bar, elected on a somewhat wider

basis. It is composed of a due proportion of king's counsel and outer

barristers elected by voting-papers sent to all barristers having an

address in the _Law List_ within the United Kingdom. Its expenses are paid

by contributions from the four Inns of Court. Its powers are not

disciplinary, but it would draw the attention of the benchers to any gross

violation of the professional etiquette of the bar.

Each state in America has its own bar, consisting of all attorneys-at-law

residing within it who have been admitted to practice in its courts.

Generally attorneys are admitted in one court to practice in all courts.

Each of the United States courts has a bar of its own. An attorney of a

state cannot practise in a court of the United States unless he has been

admitted to it, or to one of the same class in another district or circuit.

He cannot appear in the Supreme Court of the United States unless specially

admitted and sworn as an attorney of that court, which is done on motion in

case of any one who has practised for three years in the highest courts of

his state and is in good standing at its bar. In most of the states there

is a state bar association, and in some cities and counties local bar

associations. These consist of such members of its bar as desire thus to

associate, the object being to guard and advance the standards of the

profession. Some own valuable libraries. These associations have no

official recognition, but their influence is considerable in [v.03 p.0379]

recommending and shaping legislation respecting the judicial establishment

and procedure. They also serve a useful purpose in instituting or promoting

proceedings to discipline or expel unworthy attorneys from the bar. There

is an American Bar Association, founded in 1878, composed of over 3500

members of different states of like character and position. Some of these

associations publish annually a volume of transactions. The rights, duties

and liabilities of counsellor-at-law are stated under ATTORNEY. As members

of the bar of the state in which they practise they are subject to its laws

regulating such practice, _e.g._ in some states they are forbidden to

advertise for divorce cases (New York Penal Code [1902] s. 148a) (1905,

_People_ v. _Taylor_ [Colorado], 75 Pac. Rep. 914). It is common throughout

the United States for lawyers to make contracts for "contingent fees,"

_i.e._ for a percentage of the amount recovered. Such contracts are not

champertous and are upheld by the courts, but will be set aside if an

unconscionable bargain be made with the client (_Deering_ v. _Scheyer_

[N.Y.], 58 App. D. 322). So also by the U.S. Supreme Court (_Wright_ v.

_Tebbets_, 91 U.S. 252; _Taylor_ v. _Benis_, 110 U.S. 42). The reason for

upholding such contracts is that otherwise poor persons would often fail of

securing or protecting their property or rights. In fact such contracts are

seldom set aside, though no doubt the practice is capable of abuse.

BARA BANKI, a town and district of British India in the Fyzabad division of

the United Provinces. The town, which forms one municipality with

Nawabganj, the administrative headquarters of the district, is 17 m. E. of

Lucknow by railway. The population of Bara Banki alone in 1901 was 3020.

There is some trade in sugar and cotton.

The district has an area of 1758 sq. m. It stretches out in a level plain

interspersed with numerous _jhils_ or marshes. In the upper part of the

district the soil is sandy, while in the lower part it is clayey and

produces finer crops. The principal rivers are the Gogra, forming the

northern boundary, and the Gumti, flowing through the middle of the

district. In 1856 it came, with the rest of Oudh, under British rule.

During the Sepoy war of 1857-1858 the whole of the Bara Banki talukdars

joined the mutineers, but offered no serious resistance after the capture

of Lucknow. The cultivators are still, for the most part, tenants-at-will,

rack-rented and debt-ridden. In 1901 the population was 1,179,323, showing

an increase of 4% in the decade. The principal crops are rice, wheat, pulse

and other food-grains, sugar-cane and opium. Both the bordering rivers are

navigable; and the district is traversed by two lines of the Oudh and

Rohilkhand railway, with branches. Trade in agricultural produce is active.

BARABOO, a city and the county-seat of Sauk county, Wisconsin, U.S.A.,

about 37 m. N.W. of Madison, on the Baraboo river, a tributary of the

Wisconsin. Pop. (1890) 4605; (1900) 5751, of whom 732 were foreign-born;

(1905) 5835; (1910) 6324. The city is served by the Chicago & North-Western

railway, which maintains here an engine house and extensive machine shops,

and of which it is a division headquarters. Baraboo has an attractive

situation on a series of hills about 1000 ft. above sea-level. In the

vicinity are Devil's Lake (3 m. S.) and the famous Dells of the Wisconsin

river (near Kilbourn, about 12 m. N.), two summer resorts with picturesque

scenery. The principal public buildings are the court-house (in a small

public park), the public library and a high school. Dairying and the

growing of small fruits are important industries in the surrounding region;

and there is a large nursery here. Stone quarried in the vicinity is

exported, and the city is near the centre of the Sauk county iron range.

Among the manufactures are woollen goods, towels, canned fruit and

vegetables, dairy products, beer, and circus wagons (the city is the

headquarters of the Ringling and the Gollmar circuses). The first permanent

settlement here was made in 1839. Baraboo was named in honour of Jean

Baribault, an early French trapper, and was chartered as a city in 1882.

BARABRA, a name for the complex Nubian races of the Egyptian Sudan, whose

original stock is Hamitic-Berber, long modified by negro crossings. The

word is variously derived from _Berberi_, _i.e._ people of Berber, or as

identical with _Barabara_, figuring in the inscription on a gateway of

Tethmosis I. as the name of one of the 113 tribes conquered by him. In a

later inscription of Rameses II. at Karnak (_c._ 1300 B.C.) _Beraberata_ is

given as that of a southern conquered people. Thus it is suggested that

Barabra is a real ethnical name, confused later with Greek and Roman

_barbarus_, and revived in its proper meaning subsequent to the Moslem

conquest. A tribe living on the banks of the Nile between Wadi Haifa and

Assuan are called Barabra. (See further NUBIA.)

BARACALDO, a river-port of north-eastern Spain, in the province of Biscay;

on the left bank of the river Nervion or Ansa (in Basque, Ibaizabal), 5 m.

by rail N.W. of Bilbao. Pop. (1900) 15,013. Few Spanish towns have

developed more rapidly than Baracaldo, which nearly doubled its population

between 1880 and 1900. During this period many immigrant labourers settled

here; for the ironworks and dynamite factory of Baracaldo prospered

greatly, owing to the increased output of the Biscayan mines, the extension

of railways in the neighbourhood, and the growth of shipping at Bilbao. The

low flat country round Baracaldo is covered with maize, pod fruit and

vines.

BARACOA, a seaport city of N.E. Cuba, in Santiago province. Pop. (1907)

5633. The town lies under high hills on a small circular harbour accessible

to small craft. The country round about is extremely rugged. The hill

called the "Anvil of Baracoa" (about 3000 ft.) is remarkable for its

extremely regular formation. It completely dominates the city's background,

and is a well-known sailors' landmark. The town is the trading centre of a

large plantation region behind it and is the centre of the banana and

cocoanut export trade. There is a fort dating from the middle of the 18th

century. Baracoa is the oldest town in Cuba, having been settled by Diego

Velazquez in 1512. It held from its foundation the honours of a city. From

1512 to 1514 it was the capital of the island, and from 1518 to 1522 its

church was the cathedral of the island's first diocese. Both honours were

taken from it to be given to Santiago de Cuba; and for two centuries after

this Baracoa remained an obscure village, with little commerce. In the 16th

century it was repeatedly plundered by pirates until it came to terms with

them, gave them welcome harbourage, and based a less precarious existence

upon continuous illicit trade. Until the middle of the 18th century Baracoa

was almost without connexion with Havana and Santiago. In the wars of the

end of the century it was a place of deposit for French and Spanish

corsairs. At this time, too, about 100 fugitive immigrant families from

Santo Domingo greatly augmented its industrial importance. In 1807 an

unsuccessful attack was made upon the city by an English force. In 1826 the

port was opened to foreign commerce.

BARAHONA DE SOTO, LUIS (1535?-1595), Spanish poet, was born about 1535 at

Lucena (Cordova), was educated at Granada, and practised as a physician at

Cordova. His principal poem is the _Primera parte de la Angelica_ (1586), a

continuation of the _Orlando furioso_; the second part was long believed to

be lost, but fragments of it have been identified in the anonymous

_Dialogos de la monteria_, first printed in 1890; the _Dialogos_ also

embody fragments of a poem by Barahona entitled _Los Principios del mundo_,

and many graceful lyrics by the same writer have been published by

Francisco Rodriguez Marin. Cervantes describes Barahona as "one of the best

poets not only in Spain, but in the whole world"; this is friendly

hyperbole. Nevertheless Barahona has high merits: poetic imagination,

ingenious fancy, and an exceptional mastery of the methods transplanted to

Spain from Italy. His _Angelica_ has been reproduced in facsimile (New

York, 1904) by Archer M. Huntington.

See F. Rodriguez Marin, _Luis Barahona de Solo, estudio biografico,

bibliografico, y critico_ (Madrid. 1903); _Dialogos de la monteria_, edited

by F. R. de Uhagon (Madrid, 1890).

(J. F.-K.)

BARANTE, AMABLE GUILLAUME PROSPER BRUGIERE, BARON DE (1782-1866), French

statesman and historian, the son of an advocate, was born at Riom on the

16th of June 1782. At the age of sixteen he entered the Ecole Polytechnique

at [v.03 p.0380] Paris, and at twenty obtained his first appointment in the

civil service. His abilities secured him rapid promotion, and in 1806 he

obtained the post of auditor to the council of state. After being employed

in several political missions in Germany, Poland and Spain, during the next

two years, he became prefect of Vendee. At the time of the return of

Napoleon I. he held the prefecture of Nantes, and this post he immediately

resigned. On the second restoration of the Bourbons he was made councillor

of state and secretary-general of the ministry of the interior. After

filling for several years the post of director-general of indirect taxes,

he was created in 1819 a peer of France and was prominent among the

Liberals. After the revolution of July 1830, M. de Barante was appointed

ambassador to Turin, and five years later to St Petersburg. Throughout the

reign of Louis Philippe he remained a supporter of the government; and

after the fall of the monarchy, in February 1848, he withdrew from

political affairs and retired to his country seat in Auvergne. Shortly

before his retirement he had been made grand cross of the Legion of Honour.

Barante's _Histoire des ducs de Bourgogne de la maison de Valois_, which

appeared in a series of volumes between 1824 and 1828, procured him

immediate admission to the French Academy. Its narrative qualities, and

purity of style, won high praise from the romantic school, but it exhibits

a lack of the critical sense and of scientific scholarship. Amongst his

other literary works are a _Tableau de la litterature francaise au

dixhuitieme siecle_, of which several editions were published; _Des

communes et de l'aristocratie_ (1821); a French translation of the dramatic

works of Schiller; _Questions constitutionnelles_ (1850); _Histoire de la

Convention Nationale_, which appeared in six volumes between 1851 and 1853;

_Histoire du Directoire de la Republique francaise_ (1855); _Etudes

historiques et biographiques_ (1857); _La Vie politique de M.

Royer-Collard_ (1861). The version of _Hamlet_ for Guizot's _Shakespeare_

was his work. He died on the 22nd of November 1866.

His _Souvenirs_ were published by his grandson (Paris, 1890-99). See also

the article by Guizot in the _Revue des deux Mondes_, July 1867.

BARASAT, a subdivisional town in the district of the Twenty-four Parganas,

Bengal, India. For a considerable time Barasat town was the headquarters of

a joint magistracy, known as the "Barasat District," but in 1861, on a

readjustment of boundaries Barasat district was abolished by order of

government, and was converted into a subdivision of the Twenty-four

Parganas. Pop. (1901) 8634. It forms a striking illustration of the rural

character of the so-called "towns" in Bengal, and is merely an

agglomeration of 41 separate villages, in which all the operations of

husbandry go on precisely as in the adjacent hamlets.

BARATIER, JOHANN PHILIPP (1721-1740), German scholar of precocious genius,

was born at Schwabach near Nuremberg on the 10th of January 1721. His early

education was most carefully conducted by his father, the pastor of the

French church at Schwabach, and so rapid was his progress that by the time

he was five years of age he could speak French, Latin and Dutch with ease,

and read Greek fluently. He then studied Hebrew, and in three years was

able to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin or French. He collected

materials for a dictionary of rare and difficult Hebrew words, with

critical and philological observations; and when he was about eleven years

old translated from the Hebrew Tudela's _Itinerarium_. In his fourteenth

year he was admitted master of arts at Halle, and received into the Royal

Academy at Berlin. The last years of his short life he devoted to the study

of history and antiquities, and had collected materials for histories of

the Thirty Years' War and of Antitrinitarianism, and for an _Inquiry

concerning Egyptian Antiquities_. His health, which had always been weak,

gave way completely under these labours, and he died on the 5th of October

1740. He had published eleven separate works, and left a great quantity of

manuscript.

BARATYNSKI, JEWGENIJ ABRAMOVICH (1800-1844), Russian poet, was educated at

the royal school at St Petersburg and then entered the army. He served for

eight years in Finland, where he composed his first poem _Eda_. Through the

interest of friends he obtained leave from the tsar to retire from the

army, and settled in 1827 near Moscow. There he completed his chief work

_The Gipsy_, a poem written in the style of Pushkin. He died in 1844 at

Naples, whither he had gone for the sake of the milder climate.

A collected edition of his poems appeared at St Petersburg, in 2 vols. in

1835; later editions, Moscow 1869, and Kazan 1884.

BARB. (1) (From Lat. _barba_, a beard), a term used in various senses, of

the folds of mucous membrane under the tongue of horses and cattle, and of

a disease affecting that part, of the wattles round the mouth of the

barbel, of the backward turned points of an arrow and of the piece of

folded linen worn over the neck by nuns. (2) (From Fr. _barbe_, meaning

"from Barbary"), a name applied to a breed of horses imported by the Moors

into Spain from Barbary, and to a breed of pigeons.

BARBACENA, an inland town of Brazil, in the state of Minas Geraes, 150 m.

N.N.W. of Rio de Janeiro and about 3500 ft. above sea-level. The

surrounding district is chiefly agricultural, producing coffee, sugar-cane,

Indian corn and cattle, and the town has considerable commercial

importance. It is also noted for its healthiness and possesses a large

sanatorium much frequented by convalescents from Rio de Janeiro during the

hot season. Barbacena was formerly a principal distributing centre for the

mining districts of Minas Geraes, but this distinction was lost when the

railways were extended beyond that point.

BARBADOS, or BARBADOES, an island in the British West Indies. It lies 78 m.

E. of St Vincent, in 13deg 4' N. and 59deg 37' W.; is 21 m. long, 14-1/2 m.

at its broadest, and 166 sq. m. (106,470 acres) in extent (roughly

equalling the Isle of Wight). Its coasts are encircled with coral reefs,

extending in some places 3 m. seaward. In its configuration the island is

elevated but not mountainous. Near the centre is its apex, Mount Hillaby

(1100 ft.), from which the land falls on all sides in a series of terraces

to the sea. So gentle is the incline of the hills that in driving over the

well-constructed roads the ascent is scarcely noticeable. The only natural

harbour is Carlisle Bay on the south-western coast, which, however, is

little better than a shallow roadstead, only accessible to light draught

vessels.

_Geology_.--The oldest rocks of Barbados, known as the Scotland series, are

of shallow water origin, consisting of coarse grits, brown sandstones and

sandy clays, in places saturated with petroleum and traversed by veins of

manjak. They have been folded and denuded, so as to form the foundation on

which rest the later beds of the island. Upon the denuded edges of the

Scotland beds lies the Oceanic series. It includes chalky limestones,

siliceous earths, red clay, and, at the top, a layer of mudstone composed

mainly of volcanic dust. The limestones contain Globigerina and other

Foraminifera, the siliceous beds are made of Radiolaria, sponge spicules

and diatoms, while the red clay closely resembles the red clay of the

deepest parts of the oceans. There can be no doubt that the whole series

was laid down in deep waters. The Oceanic series is generally overlaid

directly, and unconformably, by coral limestones; but at Bissex Hill, at

the base of the coral limestones, and resting unconformably upon the

Oceanic series, there is a Globigerina marl. The Coral Limestone series

lies indifferently upon the older beds. Although of no great thickness it

covers six-sevenths of the island, rising in a series of steps or platforms

to a height of nearly 1100 ft.

Even the Scotland series probably belongs to the Tertiary system, but owing

to the want of characteristic fossils, it is impossible to determine with

any degree of certainty the precise homotaxis of the several formations.

Jukes-Browne and Harrison ascribe the Scotland beds to the Eocene or

Oligocene period, the Oceanic series to the Miocene, the Bissex Hill marls

to the Pliocene, and the coral limestones partly to the Pliocene and partly

to the Pleistocene. But these correlations rest upon imperfect evidence.

Sandstone, and clays suitable for brick-making, are found in the district

of Scotland, so called from a fancied resemblance to the Highlands of North

Britain. The only other mineral product is manjak, a species of asphalt,

also found in this district and to some extent exported.

_Climate, &c_.--The climate of Barbados is pleasant. The [v.03 p.0381]

seasons are divided into wet and dry, the latter (extending from December

to the end of May) being also the cold season. The temperature ranges from

70deg F. to 86deg F., rarely, even on the coldest days, falling below 65deg

F. The average annual rainfall is about 60 in., September being the wettest

month. For eight months the invigorating N.E. trade winds temper the

tropical heat. The absence of swamps, the porous nature of the soil, and

the extent of cultivation account for the freedom of the island from

miasma. Fever is unknown. The climate has a beneficial effect on pulmonary

diseases, especially in their earlier stages, and is remarkable in

arresting the decay of vital power consequent upon old age. Leprosy occurs

amongst the negroes, and elephantiasis is so frequent as to be known as

"Barbados leg."

_Industries_.--The cultivation of sugar was first introduced in the middle

of the 17th century, and owing to the cheapness of labour, the extreme

fertility of the soil and the care bestowed on its cultivation, became the

staple product of the island. Cotton growing has recently become of

importance. The few other industries include rum distilleries and factories

for chemicals, ice and tobacco. A railway 28 m. long runs from Bridgetown

partly round the coast. The island is a place of call for almost all the

steamships plying to and from the West Indies, and is a great centre of

distribution. There is direct communication at frequent intervals with

England, the United States, Canada and the other West Indian islands.

_Population and Administration._--The greater part of the inhabitants

belong to the Church of England, which exceeds in numbers the combined

total of all other denominations. The island is the see of a bishop, who,

with the clergy of all creeds, is paid by the government. The chief

educational establishment is Codrington College, founded by Colonel

Christopher Codrington, who in 1710 bequeathed two estates to the Society

for the Propagation of the Gospel. It trains young men for holy orders and

is affiliated to the university of Durham. Harrison College and The Lodge

are secondary schools for boys, Queen's College for girls. There are

several second grade and a large number of primary schools. The colony

possesses representative institutions but not responsible government. The

crown has a veto on legislation and the home government appoints the public

officials, excepting the treasurer. The island is administered by a

governor, assisted by an executive council, a legislative council of 9

nominated members, and a house of assembly of 24 members elected on a

limited franchise. Barbados is the headquarters of the Imperial

Agricultural Department of the West Indies, to which (under Sir Daniel

Morris) the island owes the development of cotton growing, &c. The majority

of the population consists of negroes, passionately attached to the island,

who have a well-marked physiognomy and dialect of their own, and are more

intelligent than the other West Indian negroes. They outnumber the whites

by 9 to 1. Barbados is one of the most densely populated areas in the

world. In 1901 the numbers amounted to 195,588, or 1178 to the sq. m., and

in 1906 they were 196,287. There are no crown lands nor forests.

_Towns._--Bridgetown (pop. 21,000), the capital, situated on the S.W.

coast, is a pretty town nestling at the foot of the hills leading to the

uplands of the interior. It has a cathedral, St Michael's, which also

serves as a parish church. In Trafalgar Square stands the earliest monument

erected to the memory of Nelson. There are a good many buildings, shops,

pleasure grounds, a handsome military parade and exquisite beaches.

Pilgrim, the residence of the governor, is a fine mansion about a mile from

the city. Fontabelle and Hastings are fashionable suburban watering-places

with good sea-bathing. Speighstown (1500) is the only other town of any

size.

_History_.--Opinions differ as to the derivation of the name of the island.

It may be the Spanish word for the hanging branches of a vine which strike

root in the ground, or the name may have been given from a species of

bearded fig-tree. In the 16th-century maps the name is variously rendered

St Bernardo, Bernados, Barbudoso, Barnodos and Barnodo. There are more

numerous traces of the Carib Indians here than in any other of the

Antilles. Barbados is thought to have been first visited by the Portuguese.

Its history has some special features, showing as it does the process of

peaceful colonization, for the island, acquired without conquest, has never

been out of the possession of the British. It was touched in 1605 by the

British ship "Olive Blossom," whose crew, finding it uninhabited, took

possession in the name of James I.; but the first actual settlement was

made in 1625, at the direction of Sir William Courteen under the patent of

Lord Leigh, afterwards earl of Marlborough, to whom the island had been

granted by the king. Two years later, a compromise having been effected

with Lord Marlborough, a grant of the island was obtained by the earl of

Carlisle, whose claim was based on a grant, from the king, of all the

Caribbean islands in 1624; and in 1628 Charles Wolferstone, a native of

Bermuda, was appointed governor. In the same year sixty-four settlers

arrived at Carlisle Bay and the present capital was founded. During the

Civil War in England many Royalists sought refuge in Barbados, where, under

Lord Willoughby (who had leased the island from the earl of Carlisle), they

offered stout resistance to the forces of the Commonwealth. Willoughby,

however, was ultimately defeated and exiled. After the Restoration, to

appease the planters, doubtful as to the title under which they held the

estates which they had converted into valuable properties, the proprietary

or patent interest was abolished, and the crown took over the government of

the island; a duty of 4-1/2% on all exports being imposed to satisfy the

claims of the patentees. In 1684, under the governorship of Sir Richard

Dutton, a census was taken, according to which the population then

consisted of 20,000 whites and 46,000 slaves. The European wars of the 18th

century caused much suffering, as the West Indies were the scene of

numerous battles between the British and the French. During this period a

portion of the 4-1/2% duty was returned to the colony in the form of the

governor's salary. In the course of the American War of Independence

Barbados again experienced great hardships owing to the restrictions placed

upon the importation of provisions from the American colonies, and in 1778

the distress became so acute that the British government had to send

relief. For three years after the peace of Amiens in 1802 the colony

enjoyed uninterrupted calm, but in 1805 it was only saved from falling into

the hands of the French by the timely arrival of Admiral Cochrane. Since

that date, however, it has remained unthreatened in the possession of the

British. The rupture between Great Britain and the United States in 1812

caused privateering to be resumed, the trade of the colony being thereby

almost destroyed. This led to an agitation for the repeal of the 4-1/2%

duty, but it was not till 1838 that the efforts to secure this were

successful. The abolition of slavery in 1834 was attended by no ill

results, the slaves continuing to work for their masters as hired servants,

and a period of great prosperity succeeded. The proposed confederation of

the Windward Islands in 1876, however, provoked riots, which occasioned

considerable loss of life and property, but secured for the people their

existence as a separate colony. Hurricanes are the scourge of Barbados,

those of 1780, 1831, and 1898 being so disastrous as to necessitate relief

measures on the part of the home government.

See Ligon, _History of Barbados_ (1657); Oldmixon, _British Empire in

America_ (1741); _A Short History of Barbados_ (1768); _Remarks upon the

Short History_ (1768); Poyer, _History of Barbados_ (1808); Capt. Thom.

Southey, _Chron. Hist. of W. Indies_ (1827); Schomburgk, _History of

Barbados_ (1848); J. H. S. Moxby, _Account of a West Indian Sanatorium_

(1886); N. D. Davis, _The Cavaliers and Roundheads of Barbados_ (1887);

J. H. Stark, _History and Guide to Barbados_ (1893); R. T. Hill, _Cuba and

Porto Rico_ (1897). For geology, see A. J. Jukes-Browne and J. B. Harrison,

"The Geology of Barbados," _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London_ vol. xlvii.

(1891), pp. 197-250, vol. xlviii. (1892), pp. 170-226; J. W. Gregory,

"Contributions to the Palaeontology and Physical Geology of the West

Indies," _ibid_. vol. li. (1895), pp. 255-310; G. F. Franks and J. B.

Harrison, "The Globigerina-marls and Basal Reef-rocks of Barbados," _ibid_.

vol. liv. (1898), pp. 540-555; J. W. Spencer, "On the Geological and

Physical Development of Barbados; with Notes on Trinidad," _ibid_. vol.

lviii. (1902), pp. 354-367.

BARBARA, SAINT, a virgin martyr and saint of the Roman Catholic and

Orthodox Eastern Churches, whose festival day is December 4th. Her legend

is that she was immured in a tower [v.03 p.0382] by her father who was

opposed to her marriage; that she was converted to Christianity by a

follower of Origen, and that when her father learnt this, he beheaded her.

The place of her martyrdom is variously given as Heliopolis, as a town of

Tuscany, and as Nicomedia, Bithynia, about the year 235. St Barbara is the

patron saint of armourers and gunsmiths, and her protection is sought

specially against lightning.

BARBARIAN (Gr. [Greek: barbaros], the name among the early Greeks for all

foreigners. The word is probably onomatopoetic, designed to represent the

uncouth babbling of which languages other than their own appeared to the

Greeks to consist. Even the Romans were included in the term. The word soon

assumed an evil meaning, becoming associated with the vices and savage

natures of which they believed their enemies to be possessed. The Romans

adopted the word for all peoples other than those under Graeco-Roman

influence and domination. It has long become synonymous with a general lack

of civilization.

BARBARO, ERMOLAO (HERMOLAUS BARBARUS) (1454-1493), Italian scholar, was

born at Venice on the 21st of May 1454. At an early age he was sent to

Rome, where he studied under Pomponius Laetus. He completed his education

at the university of Padua, where he was appointed professor of philosophy

in 1477. Two years later he revisited Venice, but returned to Padua when

the plague broke out in his native city. He was sent on various missions to

persons of high rank, amongst them Pope Innocent VIII., by whom he was

nominated to the important office of patriarch of Aquileia (1491). The

Venetian senate, however, refused to ratify the appointment, which,

contrary to the law, he had accepted without first obtaining its sanction.

He was banished and forced to resign the patriarchate, under the threat of

being punished vicariously by the confiscation of his father's property.

Barbarus remained at Rome, in receipt of a small pension from the

pontifical government, until his death (probably from the plague) on the

14th of June 1493 (according to some, two years later). He edited and

translated a number of classical works, of which the most important were:

_Castigationes Plinianae_ (1492), in which he boasted of having made 5000

corrections in the text of Pliny's _Natural History_; Themistius'

_Paraphrases_ of certain works of Aristotle (1480); Aristotle's _Rhetorica_

(published in 1544); _Castigationes in Pomponium Melam_ (1493).

BARBAROSSA ("Redbeard"), the name given by the Christians to a family of

Turkish admirals and sea rovers of the 16th century,--Arouj and Khizr

(_alias_ Khair-ed-Din) and Hassan the son of Khair-ed-Din. As late as 1840,

Captain Walsin Esterhazy, author of a history of the Turkish rule in

Africa, ventured the guess that "Barbarossa" was simply a mispronunciation

of Baba Arouj, and the supposition has been widely accepted. But the prefix

Baba was not applied to Arouj by contemporaries. His name is given in

Spanish or Italian form as "Orux" or "Harrach" or "Ordiche." The

contemporary Arab chronicle published by S. Rang and F. Denis in 1837 says

explicitly that Barbarossa was the name applied by Christians to

Khair-ed-Din. It was no doubt a nickname given to the family on account of

their red or tawny beards (Lat. _barba_). The founder of the family was

Yakub, a Roumeliot, probably of Albanian blood, who settled in Mitylene

after its conquest by the Turks. He was a coasting trader and skipper, and

had four sons--Elias, Isaak, Arouj and Khizr, all said to have been born

after 1482. Khizr became a potter and Isaak a trader. Elias and Arouj took

to sea roving. In an action with a galley of the Knights of Saint John,

then established at Rhodes, Elias was killed and Arouj taken prisoner; the

latter was ransomed by a Turkish pasha and returned to the sea. For some

time he served the Mamelukes who still held Egypt. During the conflict

between the Mamelukes and the sultan Selim I., he considered it more

prudent to transfer himself to Tunis. The incessant conflicts among the

Berber princes of northern Africa gave him employment as a mercenary, which

he varied by piratical raids on the trade of the Christians. At Tunis he

was joined by Khizr, who took, or was endowed with, the name of

Khair-ed-Din. Isaak soon followed his brothers. Arouj and Khair-ed-Din

joined the exiled Moors of Granada in raids on the Spanish coast. They also

pushed their fortunes by fighting for, or murdering and supplanting, the

native African princes. Their headquarters were in the island of Jerba in

the Gulf of Gabes. They attempted in 1512 to take Bougie from the

Spaniards, but were beaten off, and Arouj lost an arm, shattered by an

arquebus shot. In 1514 they took Jijelli from the Genoese, and after a

second beating at Bougie in 1515 were called in by the natives of Cherchel

and Algiers to aid them against the Spaniards. They occupied the towns and

murdered the native ruler who called them in. The Spaniards still held the

little rocky island which gives Algiers its name and forms the harbour. In

1518 Arouj was drawn away to take part in a civil war in Tlemcen. He

promptly murdered the prince he came to support and seized the town for

himself. The rival party then called in the Spaniards, by whom Arouj was

expelled and slain while fleeing at the Rio Salado. Khair-ed-Din clung to

his possessions on the coast and appealed to the sultan Selim I. He was

named beylerbey by the sultan, and with him began the establishment of

Turkish rule in northern Africa. For years he was engaged in subduing the

native princes, and in carrying on warfare with the Christians. In 1519 he

repelled a Spanish attack on Algiers, but could not expel his enemies from

the island till 1529. As a combatant in the forefront of the war with the

Christians he became a great hero in Islam, and dreaded by its enemies

under his name of Barbarossa. In 1534 he seized Tunis, acting as capitan

pasha for the sultan Suleiman. The emperor Charles V. intervened on behalf

of the native prince, retook the town, and destroyed great part of

Barbarossa's fleet. The corsair retaliated by leading what remained of his

navy on a plundering raid to the Balearic Islands. During the remainder of

his life--till 1547--Barbarossa, though still beylerbey of northern Africa,

was mainly engaged as capitan pasha in co-operating with the armies of the

sultan Suleiman in the east. He was absent from Algiers when it was

attacked by Charles V. in 1541. In 1543-1544 he commanded the fleet which

Suleiman sent to the coast of Provence to support Francis I. Barbarossa

would not allow the bells of the Christian churches to be rung while his

fleet was at anchor in the ports. He plundered the coast of Italy on his

way back to Constantinople. When he died in his palace at Constantinople he

was succeeded as beylerbey of Africa by his son Hassan. Hassan Barbarossa,

like his father, spent most of his life in the Levant, but was occasionally

in Africa when the influence of his family was required to suppress the

disorders of the Turkish garrisons. He left it for the last time in 1567,

and is said by Hammer-Purgstall to have been present at Lepanto in 1571.

His last years are obscure.

AUTHORITIES.--_The History of the Ottoman Empire_, by Joseph von

Hammer-Purgstall (French translation J. J. Hellert, 1835-1843), contains

accounts of the Barbarossas, but requires to be corrected by other

authorities. See _La Fondation de la regence d'Alger, histoire des

Barberousse, chronique arabe du XVI^{_eme_} siecle_ published by Sander

Rang and Ferdinand Denis, Paris, 1837--for a curious Moslem version of

their story. H. D. de Grammont has collected later evidence in his

_Histoire d'Alger_ (Paris, 1887); and he discusses the origin of the name

in a paper contributed to the _Revue Africaine_, No. 171. Their campaigns

are told in a readable way with the advantage of technical knowledge by Ad.

Jurien de la Graviere in _Les Corsaires barbaresques et la marine de

Soliman le Grand_ (1887), and _Doria et Barberousse_ (1886). _The History

of the Maritime Wars of the Turks_, by Hajji Khalifa (translated by J.

Mitchell for the Oriental Translation Fund, 1831), is said to have been

founded on evidence collected by order of the sultan Suleiman.

BARBAROUX, CHARLES JEAN MARIE (1767-1794), French revolutionist, was

educated at first by the Oratorians of Marseilles, then studied law, and

became a successful advocate. He was appointed secretary (_greffier_) to

the commune of Marseilles, and in 1792 was commissioned to go to the

Legislative Assembly and demand the accusation of the directory of the

department of Bouches-du-Rhone, as accomplice in a royalist movement in

Arles. At Paris he was received in the Jacobin club and entered into

relations with J. P. Brissot and the Rolands. It was at his instigation

that Marseilles sent to Paris the battalion of volunteers which contributed

to the insurrection of the 10th of August 1792 against the king. Returning

to Marseilles he helped to repress a royalist movement at Avignon and an

ultra-Jacobin movement [v.03 p.0383] at Marseilles, and was elected deputy

to the Convention by 775 votes out of 776 voting. From the first he posed

as an opponent of the Mountain, accused Robespierre of aiming at the

dictatorship (25th of September 1792), attacked Marat, and proposed to

break up the commune of Paris. Then he got the act of accusation against

Louis XVI. adopted, and in the trial voted for his death "without appeal

and without delay." During the final struggle between the Girondists and

the Mountain, he refused to resign as deputy and rejected the offer made by

the sections of Paris to give hostages for the arrested representatives. He

succeeded in escaping, first to Caen, where he organized the civil war,

then to Saint-Emilion near Bordeaux, where he wrote his _Memoires_, which

were published in 1822 by his son, and re-edited in 1866. Discovered, he

attempted to shoot himself, but was only wounded, and was taken to

Bordeaux, where he was guillotined when his identity was established.

See Ch. Vatel, _Charlotte Corday et les Girondins_ (Paris, 1873); A.

Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention_ (Paris, 2nd

ed., 1906).

BARBARY, the general designation of that part of northern Africa bounded E.

by Egypt, W. by the Atlantic, S. by the Sahara and N. by the Mediterranean,

comprising the states of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Tripoli. The name is

derived from the Berbers, the chief inhabitants of the region.

BARBARY APE, a tailless monkey inhabiting Algeria, Morocco, and the rock of

Gibraltar (where it may have been introduced), and referable to the

otherwise Asiatic group of macaques, in which it alone represents the

subgenus _Inuus_. This monkey, _Macacus inuus_, is light yellowish-brown

above and yellowish-white below, with the naked part of the face

flesh-coloured. It is entirely terrestrial in habits, at least on

Gibraltar, and goes about in droves.

BARBARY PIRATES. The coast population of northern Africa has in past ages

been addicted to piratical attacks on the shores of Europe opposite.

Throughout the decline of the Roman empire, the barbarian invasions, the

Mahommedan conquest and the middle ages, mere piracy always existed by the

side of the great strife of peoples and religions. In the course of the

14th century, when the native Berber dynasties were in decadence, piracy

became particularly flagrant. The town of Bougie was then the most

notorious haunt of these "skimmers of the sea." But the savage robber

powers which, to the disgrace of Europe, infested the commerce and the

coasts, not only of the Mediterranean but even for a time of the ocean; who

were not finally suppressed till the 19th century was well advanced; and

who are properly known as the Barbary pirates, arose in the 16th century,

attained their greatest height in the 17th, declined gradually throughout

the 18th and were extinguished about 1830. Isolated cases of piracy have

occurred on the Rif coast of Morocco even in our time, but the pirate

communities which lived by plunder and could live by no other resource,

vanished with the French conquest of Algiers in 1830. They are intimately

connected with the general history of northern Africa from about 1492 to

their end. The story of the establishment of Turkish rule in northern

Africa and of the revolutions of Morocco must be sought under the heads of

TURKEY, TRIPOLI, TUNISIA, ALGERIA and MOROCCO.

In dealing with the pirates, it will be sufficient to note a few leading

dates. The conquest of Granada in 1492 by the Catholic sovereigns of Spain

drove many Moors into exile. They revenged themselves by piratical attacks

on the Spanish coast. They had the help of Moslem adventurers from the

Levant, of whom the most successful were Arouj and his brother

Khair-ed-Din, natives of Mitylene, both of whom were known to the

Christians by the nickname of Barbarossa (_q.v._) or "Redbeard." Spain in

self-defence began to conquer the coast towns of Oran, Algiers and Tunis.

Arouj having fallen in battle with the Spaniards in 1518, his brother

Khair-ed-Din appealed to Selim, the sultan of Turkey, who sent him troops.

He drove the Spaniards in 1529 from the rocky island in front of Algiers,

where they had a fort, and was the founder of the Turkish power. From about

1518 till the death of Uluch Ali in 1587, Algiers was the main seat of

government of the beylerbeys of northern Africa, who ruled over Tripoli,

Tunisia and Algeria. From 1587 till 1659, they were ruled by Turkish

pashas, sent from Constantinople to govern for three years; but in the

latter year a military revolt in Algiers reduced the pashas to nonentities.

From 1659 onwards, these African cities, though nominally forming parts of

the Turkish empire, were in fact anarchical military republics which chose

their own rulers and lived by plunder.

It may be pointed out that during the first period (1518-1587) the

beylerbeys were admirals of the sultan, commanding great fleets and

conducting serious operations of war for political ends. They were

slave-hunters and their methods were ferocious, but their Christian enemies

were neither more humane nor more chivalrous. After 1587, plunder became

the sole object of their successors--plunder of the native tribes on land

and of all who went upon the sea. The maritime side of this long-lived

brigandage was conducted by the captains, or _reises_, who formed a class

or even a corporation. Cruisers were fitted out by capitalists and

commanded by the _reises_. Ten per cent of the value of the prizes was paid

to the treasury of the pasha or his successors, who bore the titles of Agha

or Dey or Bey. Bougie was the chief shipbuilding port and the timber was

mainly drawn from the country behind it. Until the 17th century the pirates

used galleys, but a Flemish renegade of the name of Simon Danser taught

them the advantage of using sailing ships. In this century, indeed, the

main strength of the pirates was supplied by renegades from all parts of

Christendom. An English gentleman of the distinguished Buckinghamshire

family of Verney was for a time among them at Algiers. This port was so

much the most formidable that the name of Algerine came to be used as

synonymous with Barbary pirate, but the same trade was carried on, though

with less energy, from Tripoli and Tunis--as also from towns in the empire

of Morocco, of which the most notorious was Salli. The introduction of

sailing ships gave increased scope to the activity of the pirates. While

the galleys, being unfit for the high seas, were confined to the

Mediterranean and the coast, the sailing vessels ranged into the Atlantic

as far as the Canaries or even to Iceland. In 1631 a Flemish renegade,

known as Murad Reis, sacked Baltimore in Ireland, and carried away a number

of captives who were seen in the slave-market of Algiers by the French

historian Pierre Dan.

The first half of the 17th century may be described as the flowering time

of the Barbary pirates. More than 20,000 captives were said to be

imprisoned in Algiers alone. The rich were allowed to redeem themselves,

but the poor were condemned to slavery. Their masters would not in many

cases allow them to secure freedom by professing Mahommedanism. A long list

might be given of people of good social position, not only Italians or

Spaniards, but German or English travellers in the south, who were captives

for a time. The chief sufferers were the inhabitants of the coasts of

Sicily, Naples and Spain. But all traders belonging to nations which did

not pay blackmail in order to secure immunity were liable to be taken at

sea. The payment of blackmail, disguised as presents or ransoms, did not

always secure safety with these faithless barbarians. The most powerful

states in Europe condescended to make payments to them and to tolerate

their insults. Religious orders--the Redemptionists and Lazarites--were

engaged in working for the redemption of captives and large legacies were

left for that purpose in many countries. The continued existence of this

African piracy was indeed a disgrace to Europe, for it was due to the

jealousies of the powers themselves. France encouraged them during her

rivalry with Spain; and when she had no further need of them they were

supported against her by Great Britain and Holland. In the 18th century

British public men were not ashamed to say that Barbary piracy was a useful

check on the competition of the weaker Mediterranean nations in the

carrying trade. When Lord Exmouth sailed to coerce Algiers in 1816, he

expressed doubts in a private letter whether the suppression of piracy

would be acceptable to the trading community. Every power was, indeed,

desirous to secure immunity for itself and more or less ready to compel

Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, Salli and [v.03 p.0384] the rest to respect its

trade and its subjects. In 1655 the British admiral, Robert Blake, was sent

to teach them a lesson, and he gave the Tunisians a severe beating. A long

series of expeditions was undertaken by the British fleet during the reign

of Charles II., sometimes single-handed, sometimes in combination with the

Dutch. In 1682 and 1683 the French bombarded Algiers. On the second

occasion the Algerines blew the French consul from a gun during the action.

An extensive list of such punitive expeditions could be made out, down to

the American operations of 1801-5 and 1815. But in no case was the attack

pushed home, and it rarely happened that the aggrieved Christian state

refused in the end to make a money payment in order to secure peace. The

frequent wars among them gave the pirates numerous opportunities of

breaking their engagements, of which they never failed to take advantage.

After the general pacification of 1815, the suppression of African piracy

was universally felt to be a necessity. The insolence of a Tunisian

squadron which sacked Palma in the island of Sardinia and carried off 158

of its inhabitants, roused widespread indignation. Other influences were at

work to bring about their extinction. Great Britain had acquired Malta and

the Ionian Islands and had now many Mediterranean subjects. She was also

engaged in pressing the other European powers to join with her in the

suppression of the slave trade which the Barbary states practised on a

large scale and at the expense of Europe. The suppression of the trade was

one of the objects of the congress of Vienna. Great Britain was called on

to act for Europe, and in 1816 Lord Exmouth was sent to obtain treaties

from Tunis and Algiers. His first visit produced diplomatic documents and

promises and he sailed for England. While he was negotiating, a number of

British subjects had been brutally ill-treated at Bona, without his

knowledge. The British government sent him back to secure reparation, and

on the 27th of August, in combination with a Dutch squadron under Admiral

Van de Capellen, he administered a smashing bombardment to Algiers. The

lesson terrified the pirates both of that city and of Tunis into giving up

over 3000 prisoners and making fresh promises. But they were not reformed

and were not capable of reformation. Algiers renewed its piracies and

slave-taking, though on a smaller scale, and the measures to be taken with

it were discussed at the conference or congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818.

In 1824 another British fleet under Admiral Sir Harry Neal had again to

bombard Algiers. The great pirate city was not in fact thoroughly tamed

till its conquest by France in 1830.

AUTHORITIES.--The _Histoire d'Alger_ of H. D. de Grammont (Paris, 1887) is

based on original authorities. Sir R. L. Playfair's _Scourge of

Christendom_ (London, 1884) gives the history of the British consulate in

Algiers. The main authorities for the early history of the Barbary states

are:--Luis del Marmol Carvajal, _Descripcion de Africa_ (Granada, 1573);

Diego de Haedo, _Topographia e Historia General de Argel_ (Valladolid,

1612); and Pere Pierre Dan, _Histoire de Barbarie et de ses corsaires_

(Paris, 1637). The readable treatises of Ad. Jurien de la Graviere, all

published in Paris, _Doria et Barberousse_ (1886), _Les Corsaires

barbaresques_ (1887), _Les Chevaliers de Malte_ (1887), and _La Guerre de

Chypre_ (1888), deal with the epoch of the beylerbeys and the regular wars.

For American work see Gardner Weld Allen, _Our Navy and the Barbary

Corsairs_ (New York, 1905).

(D. H.)

BARBAULD, ANNA LETITIA (1743-1825), English poet and miscellaneous writer,

was born at Kibworth-Harcourt, in Leicestershire, on the 20th of June 1743.

Her father, the Rev. John Aikin, a Presbyterian minister and schoolmaster,

taught his daughter Latin and Greek. In 1758 Mr Aikin removed his family to

Warrington, to act as theological tutor in a dissenting academy there. In

1773 Miss Aikin published a volume of _Poems_, which was very successful,

and co-operated with her brother, Dr John Aikin, in a volume of

_Miscellaneous Pieces in Prose_. In 1774 she married Rochemont Barbauld, a

member of a French Protestant family settled in England. He had been

educated in the academy at Warrington, and was minister of a Presbyterian

church at Palgrave, in Suffolk, where, with his wife's help, he established

a boarding school. Her admirable _Hymns in Prose and Early Lessons_ were

written for their pupils. In 1785 she left England for the continent with

her husband, whose health was seriously impaired. On their return about two

years later, Mr Barbauld was appointed to a church at Hampstead. In 1802

they removed to Stoke Newington. Mrs Barbauld became well known in London

literary circles. She collaborated with Dr Aikin in his _Evenings at Home_;

in 1795 she published an edition of Akenside's _Pleasures of Imagination_,

with a critical essay; two years later she edited Collins's _Odes_; in 1804

she published a selection of papers from the English Essayists, and a

selection from Samuel Richardson's correspondence, with a biographical

notice; in 1810 a collection of the _British Novelists_ (50 vols.) with

biographical and critical notices; and in 1811 her longest poem, _Eighteen

Hundred and Eleven_, giving a gloomy view of the existing state and future

prospects of Britain. This poem anticipated Macaulay in contemplating the

prospect of a visitor from the antipodes regarding at a future day the

ruins of St Paul's from a broken arch of Blackfriars Bridge. Mrs Barbauld

died on the 9th of March 1825; her husband had died in 1808. A collected

edition of her works, with memoir, was published by her niece, Lucy Aikin,

in 2 vols., 1825.

See A. L. le Breton, _Memoir of Mrs Barbauld_ (1874); G. A. Ellis, _Life

and Letters of Mrs A. L. Barbauld_ (1874); and Lady Thackeray Ritchie, _A

Book of Sibyls_ (1883).

BARBECUE (Span. _barbacoa_), originally a framework on posts placed over a

fire on which to dry or smoke meat; hence, a gridiron for roasting whole

animals, and in Cuba an upper floor on which fruit or grain is stored. In

the United States the word means an open-air feast, either political or

social, where whole animals are roasted and eaten and hogsheads of beer and

other vast quantities of food and drink consumed.

BARBED WIRE, a protective variety of fencing, consisting usually of several

strands of wire twisted together with sharp spikes or points clinched or

fastened into the strands.

In the United States, barbed wire for fencing was originally suggested to

meet conditions existing in the western states, by reason of the large

cattle-raising industry in sections where timber was scarce. Prior to its

introduction, a No. 9 round or oval iron wire was popular on the frontier

of the United States and in South America, as a fencing material. Large

amounts were used annually for this purpose, but iron lacked strength, and

single wire strand was not fully satisfactory on account of stretching in

warm and contracting in cold weather, and of thus being broken. Cattle

would rub against a smooth fence, and this constant pressure loosened the

posts and broke the wire. To overcome this defect, ingenious people--the

most successful being farmers--set themselves to find a way by which wire

could be used and at the same time be free from destruction by the animals

it was intended to confine. This investigation resulted in the invention of

barbed wire. Soon after, automatic machinery was invented for rapidly and

cheaply placing the barb upon the smooth wire, so that the cost of barbed

wire is much less than the cost of smooth wire when it was in general use.

So immediately did barbed wire find favour with the farmers of the United

States, and, in fact, all over the world, that the manufacture of wire was

revolutionized.

The history of barbed wire fencing is of recent date. In the United

States--the real home of this industry--patents were taken out by Lucien B.

Smith, Kent, Ohio, in 1867; by William B. Hunt, of Scott, N.Y., at almost

the same time; and by Michael Kelly, of New York, a year later. The

practical beginning of the industry, however, was in the patents issued to

Joseph F. Glidden, De Kalb, Ill., 1874, on barbed fence wire, and during

the same year, to Joseph F. Glidden and Phineas W. Vaughan, for a machine

to manufacture the same. These inventions were the foundation of the system

of patents under which barbed wire has been protected and sold. The

development of the barbed wire industry would hardly have been possible

without steel. Iron wire, used for fencing prior to the introduction of

steel, was not suitable, seeing that iron does not possess sufficient

tensile strength and lacks homogeneity, qualities which Bessemer and

open-hearth steels possess in a high degree.

The advantages of galvanized barbed wire fencing are that it is almost

imperishable, is no burden on the posts; does not [v.03 p.0385] oppose the

wind with enough surface to rack the posts, thus allowing water to settle

around them and rot them; is economical, not only in the comparative

cheapness of its first cost but also in the amount of land covered by it;

and is effective as a barrier against all kinds of stock and a protection

against dogs and wild beasts. Cattle, once discovering what it is, will not

press against it, nor even go near it, and thus it becomes an effective

means of dividing the farmer's ranch into such fields as he may desire. It

is quickly and cheaply constructed, and has the advantage of freedom from

harbouring weeds. It affords no impediment to the view. A man can see

across his farm, and ascertain what is going on in every portion within the

scope of vision, as plainly as if there were no fences. It does not

contribute to the formation of snow drifts as do other kinds of efficient

fence. This makes it a favourite form of fencing for railroads and along

highways. Finally, barbed wire composed of two wires twisted together, once

firmly put in place, will retain its taut condition through many seasons

without repair. The fact of the wire being twisted allows it to adapt

itself to all the varying temperatures.

The introduction of barbed wire met with some opposition in America on

supposed humanitarian grounds, but ample and extended tests, both of the

economy and the humanity of the new material, silenced this objection. Now

no American farmer, especially in the west, ever thinks of putting any

other kind of fencing on his farm, unless it may be the new types of meshed

wire field fencing which have been coming so generally into use since 1899.

Generally speaking, the use of barbed wire fencing in other countries has

not been as extensive as in the western United States. While it has been

used on a comparatively large scale in Argentina and Australia, both these

countries use a much larger quantity of plain wire fence, and in Argentina

there is an important consumption of high-carbon oval fence wire of great

strength, which apparently forms the only kind of fence that meets the

conditions in a satisfactory manner.

It is interesting to note the largely increased demand for meshed wire

field fencing in the more thickly settled-portions of the United States,

and along the lines of railway. Beginning with 1899, there has been an

annual increase in this demand, owing to the scarcity and high cost of

labour, and the discontinuing of the building of rail fences. Meshed wire

is considered by many a better enclosure for small animals, like sheep and

hogs, than the barbed wire fence. Barbed wire has been popular with

railroads, but of late meshed wire fencing has been substituted with

advantage, the fabric being made of wires of larger diameter than formerly,

to insure greater stability. The popularity of barbed wire is best shown by

the following statistics:--