241

knowledge in connection with a person, so as to make them a

system of experience. This principle of intelligence is called

puru@sa. There is a separate puru@sa in Sâ@mkhya for each individual,

and it is of the nature of pure intelligence. The Vedânta

âtman however is different from the Sâ@mkhya puru@sa in this that

it is one and is of the nature of pure intelligence, pure being,

and pure bliss. It alone is the reality and by illusory mâyâ it

appears as many.

Thought and Matter.

A question naturally arises, that if the knowledge forms are

made up of some sort of stuff as the objective forms of matter

are, why then should the puru@sa illuminate it and not external

material objects. The answer that Sâ@mkhya gives is that the

knowledge-complexes are certainly different from external objects

in this, that they are far subtler and have a preponderance

of a special quality of plasticity and translucence (_sattva_), which

resembles the light of puru@sa, and is thus fit for reflecting and

absorbing the light of the puru@sa. The two principal characteristics

of external gross matter are mass and energy. But it

has also the other characteristic of allowing itself to be photographed

by our mind; this thought-photograph of matter has

again the special privilege of being so translucent as to be able

to catch the reflection of the _cit_--the super-translucent transcendent

principle of intelligence. The fundamental characteristic

of external gross matter is its mass; energy is common to

both gross matter and the subtle thought-stuff. But mass is

at its lowest minimum in thought-stuff, whereas the capacity

of translucence, or what may be otherwise designated as the

intelligence-stuff, is at its highest in thought-stuff. But if the

gross matter had none of the characteristics of translucence that

thought possesses, it could not have made itself an object of

thought; for thought transforms itself into the shape, colour,

and other characteristics of the thing which has been made its

object. Thought could not have copied the matter, if the matter

did not possess some of the essential substances of which the

copy was made up. But this plastic entity (_sattva_) which is

so predominant in thought is at its lowest limit of subordination

in matter. Similarly mass is not noticed in thought, but some

such notions as are associated with mass may be discernible in

242

thought; thus the images of thought are limited, separate, have

movement, and have more or less clear cut forms. The images

do not extend in space, but they can represent space. The translucent

and plastic element of thought (_sattva_) in association with

movement (_rajas_) would have resulted in a simultaneous revelation

of all objects; it is on account of mass or tendency of obstruction

(_tamas_) that knowledge proceeds from image to image and discloses

things in a successive manner. The buddhi (thought-stuff)

holds within it all knowledge immersed as it were in utter darkness,

and actual knowledge comes before our view as though

by the removal of the darkness or veil, by the reflection of the

light of the puru@sa. This characteristic of knowledge, that all its

stores are hidden as if lost at any moment, and only one picture

or idea comes at a time to the arena of revelation, demonstrates

that in knowledge there is a factor of obstruction which manifests

itself in its full actuality in gross matter as mass. Thus both

thought and gross matter are made up of three elements, a

plasticity of intelligence-stuff (_sattva_), energy-stuff (_rajas_), and

mass-stuff (_tamas_), or the factor of obstruction. Of these the last

two are predominant in gross matter and the first two in thought.

Feelings, the Ultimate Substances [Footnote ref 1].

Another question that arises in this connection is the position

of feeling in such an analysis of thought and matter. Sâmkhya

holds that the three characteristic constituents that we have

analyzed just now are feeling substances. Feeling is the most

interesting side of our consciousness. It is in our feelings that

we think of our thoughts as being parts of ourselves. If we

should analyze any percept into the crude and undeveloped

sensations of which it is composed at the first moment of its

appearance, it comes more as a shock than as an image, and

we find that it is felt more as a feeling mass than as an image.

Even in our ordinary life the elements which precede an act of

knowledge are probably mere feelings. As we go lower down

the scale of evolution the automatic actions and relations of

matter are concomitant with crude manifestations of feeling

which never rise to the level of knowledge. The lower the scale

of evolution the less is the keenness of feeling, till at last there

comes a stage where matter-complexes do not give rise to feeling

_________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: _Kârikâ_, 12, with Gau@dpâda and Nârâya@natîrtha.]

243

reactions but to mere physical reactions. Feelings thus mark

the earliest track of consciousness, whether we look at it from the

point of view of evolution or of the genesis of consciousness in

ordinary life. What we call matter complexes become at a certain

stage feeling-complexes and what we call feeling-complexes at

a certain stage of descent sink into mere matter-complexes with

matter reaction. The feelings are therefore the things-in-themselves,

the ultimate substances of which consciousness and gross

matter are made up. Ordinarily a difficulty might be felt in

taking feelings to be the ultimate substances of which gross

matter and thought are made up; for we are more accustomed

to take feelings as being merely subjective, but if we remember

the Sâ@mkhya analysis, we find that it holds that thought and

matter are but two different modifications of certain subtle substances

which are in essence but three types of feeling entities.

The three principal characteristics of thought and matter that we

have noticed in the preceding section are but the manifestations

of three types of feeling substances. There is the class of feelings

that we call the sorrowful, there is another class of feelings that

we call pleasurable, and there is still another class which is neither

sorrowful nor pleasurable, but is one of ignorance, depression

(_vi@sâda_) or dullness. Thus corresponding to these three types of

manifestations as pleasure, pain, and dullness, and materially as

shining (_prakâs'a_), energy (_prav@rtti_), obstruction (_niyama_), there

are three types of feeling-substances which must be regarded as

the ultimate things which make up all the diverse kinds of gross

matter and thought by their varying modifications.

The Gu@nas [Footnote ref 1].

These three types of ultimate subtle entities are technically

called _gu@na_ in Sâ@mkhya philosophy. Gu@na in Sanskrit has three

meanings, namely (1) quality, (2) rope, (3) not primary. These

entities, however, are substances and not mere qualities. But it

may be mentioned in this connection that in Sâ@mkhya philosophy

there is no separate existence of qualities; it holds that each

and every unit of quality is but a unit of substance. What

we call quality is but a particular manifestation or appearance

of a subtle entity. Things do not possess quality, but quality

_________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: _Yogavârttika_, II. 18; Bhâvâga@nes'a's

_Tattvayâthârthyadîpana_, pp. 1-3; _Vijñânâm@rtabhâ@sya_,

p. 100; _Tattvakaumudî_, 13; also Gau@dapâda and Nârâya@natîrtha, 13.]

244

signifies merely the manner in which a substance reacts; any

object we see seems to possess many qualities, but the Sâ@mkhya

holds that corresponding to each and every new unit of quality,

however fine and subtle it may be, there is a corresponding

subtle entity, the reaction of which is interpreted by us as a

quality. This is true not only of qualities of external objects

but also of mental qualities as well. These ultimate entities

were thus called gu@nas probably to suggest that they are the

entities which by their various modifications manifest themselves

as gu@nas or qualities. These subtle entities may also be

called gu@nas in the sense of ropes because they are like ropes

by which the soul is chained down as if it were to thought and

matter. These may also be called gu@nas as things of secondary

importance, because though permanent and indestructible, they

continually suffer modifications and changes by their mutual

groupings and re-groupings, and thus not primarily and unalterably

constant like the souls (_puru@sa_). Moreover the object of the

world process being the enjoyment and salvation of the puru@sas,

the matter-principle could not naturally be regarded as being of

primary importance. But in whatever senses we may be inclined

to justify the name gu@na as applied to these subtle entities, it

should be borne in mind that they are substantive entities or

subtle substances and not abstract qualities. These gu@nas are

infinite in number, but in accordance with their three main characteristics

as described above they have been arranged in three classes or types

called _sattva_ (intelligence-stuff), _rajas_ (energy-stuff) and _tamas_

(mass-stuff). An infinite number of subtle substances which agree in

certain characteristics of self-shining or plasticity are called the

_sattva-gu@nas_ and those which behave as units of activity are called

the _rajo-gu@nas_ and those which behave as factors of obstruction,

mass or materiality are called _tamo-gu@nas_. These subtle gu@na

substances are united in different proportions (e.g. a larger number

of sattva substances with a lesser number of rajas or tamas, or a

larger number of tamas substances with a smaller number of rajas and

sattva substances and so on in varying proportions), and as a result

of this, different substances with different qualities come into being.

Though attached to one another when united in different proportions,

they mutually act and react upon one another, and thus by their combined

resultant produce new characters, qualities and substances. There is

however

245

one and only one stage in which the gu@nas are not compounded

in varying proportions. In this state each of the gu@na

substances is opposed by each of the other gu@na substances, and

thus by their equal mutual opposition create an equilibrium, in

which none of the characters of the gu@nas manifest themselves.

This is a state which is so absolutely devoid of all characteristics

that it is absolutely incoherent, indeterminate, and indefinite. It

is a qualitiless simple homogeneity. It is a state of being which

is as it were non-being. This state of the mutual equilibrium

of the gu@nas is called prak@rti [Footnote ref 1]. This is a state which

cannot be said either to exist or to non-exist for it serves no purpose,

but it is hypothetically the mother of all things. This is however the

earliest stage, by the breaking of which, later on, all modifications

take place.

Prak@rti and its Evolution.

Sâ@mkhya believes that before this world came into being there

was such a state of dissolution--a state in which the gu@na compounds

had disintegrated into a state of disunion and had by their

mutual opposition produced an equilibrium the prak@rti. Then

later on disturbance arose in the prak@rti, and as a result of that a

process of unequal aggregation of the gu@nas in varying proportions

took place, which brought forth the creation of the manifold.

Prak@rti, the state of perfect homogeneity and incoherence of the

gu@nas, thus gradually evolved and became more and more determinate,

differentiated, heterogeneous, and coherent. The gu@nas are

always uniting, separating, and uniting again [Footnote ref 2]. Varying

qualities of essence, energy, and mass in varied groupings act on one

another and through their mutual interaction and interdependence evolve

from the indefinite or qualitatively indeterminate the definite or

qualitatively determinate. And though co-operating to produce

the world of effects, these diverse moments with diverse tendencies

never coalesce. Thus in the phenomenal product whatever energy

there is is due to the element of rajas and rajas alone; all matter,

resistance, stability, is due to tamas, and all conscious manifestation

to sattva. The particular gu@na which happens to be predominant

in any phenomenon becomes manifest in that phenomenon and

others become latent, though their presence is inferred by their

____________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: _Yogavârttika,_ II. 19, and _Pravacanabhâ@sya,_ I. 61.]

[Footnote 2: _Kaumudî_ 13-16; _Tattvavais'âradî_ II. 20, IV. 13, 14; also

_Yogavârttika,_ IV. 13,14.]

246

effect. Thus, for example, in a body at rest mass is patent, energy

latent and potentiality of conscious manifestation sublatent. In a

moving body, the rajas is predominant (kinetic) and the mass is

partially overcome. All these transformations of the groupings of

the gu@nas in different proportions presuppose the state of prak@rti

as the starting point. It is at this stage that the tendencies to

conscious manifestation, as well as the powers of doing work, are

exactly counterbalanced by the resistance of inertia or mass,

and the process of cosmic evolution is at rest. When this equilibrium

is once destroyed, it is supposed that out of a natural

affinity of all the sattva reals for themselves, of rajas reals for other

reals of their type, of tamas reals for others of their type, there

arises an unequal aggregation of sattva, rajas, or tamas at different

moments. When one gu@na is preponderant in any particular

collocation, the others are co-operant. This evolutionary series

beginning from the first disturbance of the prak@rti to the final

transformation as the world-order, is subject to "a definite law

which it cannot overstep." In the words of Dr B.N.Seal [Footnote ref 1],

"the process of evolution consists in the development of the differentiated

(_vai@samya_) within the undifferentiated (_sâmyâvasthâ_) of the

determinate (_vies'a_) within the indeterminate (_avis'esa_) of the

coherent (_yutasiddha_) within the incoherent (_ayutasiddha_). The

order of succession is neither from parts to whole nor from whole to the

parts, but ever from a relatively less differentiated, less determinate,

less coherent whole to a relatively more differentiated,

more determinate, more coherent whole." The meaning of such

an evolution is this, that all the changes and modifications in

the shape of the evolving collocations of gu@na reals take place

within the body of the prak@rti. Prak@rti consisting of the infinite

reals is infinite, and that it has been disturbed does not

mean that the whole of it has been disturbed and upset, or

that the totality of the gu@nas in the prak@rti has been unhinged

from a state of equilibrium. It means rather that a very vast

number of gu@nas constituting the worlds of thought and matter

has been upset. These gu@nas once thrown out of balance begin to

group themselves together first in one form, then in another, then

in another, and so on. But such a change in the formation of

aggregates should not be thought to take place in such a way

that the later aggregates appear in supersession of the former ones,

so that when the former comes into being the latter ceases to exist.

_____________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: Dr B.N. Seal's _Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus_,

1915, p.7.]

247

For the truth is that one stage is produced after another; this

second stage is the result of a new aggregation of some of the

reals of the first stage. This deficiency of the reals of the first

stage which had gone forth to form the new aggregate as the

second stage is made good by a refilling from the prak@rti. So also,

as the third stage of aggregation takes place from out of the reals

of the second stage, the deficiency of the reals of the second stage

is made good by a refilling from the first stage and that of the

first stage from the prak@rti. Thus by a succession of refillings the

process of evolution proceeds, till we come to its last limit, where

there is no real evolution of new substance, but mere chemical

and physical changes of qualities in things which had already

evolved. Evolution (_tattvântarapari@nâma_) in Sâ@mkhya means the

development of categories of existence and not mere changes of

qualities of substances (physical, chemical, biological or mental).

Thus each of the stages of evolution remains as a permanent

category of being, and offers scope to the more and more differentiated

and coherent groupings of the succeeding stages. Thus

it is said that the evolutionary process is regarded as a differentiation

of new stages as integrated in previous stages (_sa@ms@rstaviveka_).

Pralaya and the disturbance of the Prak@rti Equilibrium.

But how or rather why prak@rti should be disturbed is the most

knotty point in Sâ@mkhya. It is postulated that the prak@rti or the

sum-total of the gu@nas is so connected with the puru@sas, and there

is such an inherent teleology or blind purpose in the lifeless prak@rti,

that all its evolution and transformations tike place for the sake

of the diverse puru@sas, to serve the enjoyment of pleasures and

sufferance of pain through experiences, and finally leading them

to absolute freedom or mukti. A return of this manifold world

into the quiescent state (_pralaya_) of prak@rti takes place when the

karmas of all puru@sas collectively require that there should be

such a temporary cessation of all experience. At such a moment

the gu@na compounds are gradually broken, and there is a backward

movement (_pratisañcara_) till everything is reduced, to the gu@nas in

their elementary disintegrated state when their mutual opposition

brings about their equilibrium. This equilibrium however is not a

mere passive state, but one of utmost tension; there is intense

activity, but the activity here does not lead to the generation of

new things and qualities (_visad@rs'a-pari@nâma_); this course of new

248

production being suspended, the activity here repeats the same

state (_sad@rs'a-pari@nâma_) of equilibrium, so that there is no change

or new production. The state of pralaya thus is not a suspension

of the teleology or purpose of the gu@nas, or an absolute break of

the course of gu@na evolution; for the state of pralaya, since it

has been generated to fulfil the demands of the accumulated

karmas of puru@sas, and since there is still the activity of the

gu@nas in keeping themselves in a state of suspended production,

is also a stage of the sa@msâra cycle. The state of mukti (liberation)

is of course quite different, for in that stage the movement

of the gu@nas ceases forever with reference to the liberated soul.

But still the question remains, what breaks the state of equilibrium?

The Sâ@mkhya answer is that it is due to the transcendental

(non-mechanical) influence of the puru@sa [Footnote ref 1]. This

influence of the puru@sa again, if it means anything, means that there

is inherent in the gu@nas a teleology that all their movements or

modifications should take place in such a way that these may serve the

purposes of the puru@sas. Thus when the karmas of the puru@sas had demanded

that there should be a suspension of all experience, for a period

there was a pralaya. At the end of it, it is the same inherent purpose

of the prak@rti that wakes it up for the formation of a suitable

world for the experiences of the puru@sas by which its quiescent

state is disturbed. This is but another way of looking at the

inherent teleology of the prak@rti, which demands that a state of

pralaya should cease and a state of world-framing activity should

begin. Since there is a purpose in the gu@nas which brought

them to a state of equilibrium, the state of equilibrium also presupposes

that it also may be broken up again when the purpose

so demands. Thus the inherent purpose of the prak@rti brought

about the state of pralaya and then broke it up for the creative

work again, and it is this natural change in the prak@rti that may

be regarded from another point of view as the transcendental

influence of the puru@sas.

Mahat and Aha@mkâra.

The first evolute of the prak@rti is generated by a preponderance

of the sattva (intelligence-stuff). This is indeed the earliest state

from which all the rest of the world has sprung forth; and it is a

state in which the stuff of sattva predominates. It thus holds

___________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: The Yoga answer is of course different. It believes that the

disturbance of the equilibrium of prak@rti for new creation takes place by

the will of Îs'vara (God).]

249

within it the minds (_buddhi_) of all puru@sas which were lost in the

prak@rti during the pralaya. The very first work of the evolution

of prak@rti to serve the puru@sas is thus manifested by the separating

out of the old buddhis or minds (of the puru@sas) which hold within

themselves the old specific ignorance (_avidyâ_) inherent in them

with reference to each puru@sa with which any particular buddhi

is associated from beginningless time before the pralaya. This

state of evolution consisting of all the collected minds (buddhi)

or all the puru@sas is therefore called _buddhitattva._ It is a state

which holds or comprehends within it the buddhis of all individuals.

The individual buddhis of individual puru@sas are on one

hand integrated with the buddhitattva and on the other associated

with their specific puru@sas. When some buddhis once begin to

be separated from the prak@rti, other buddhi evolutions take

place. In other words, we are to understand that once the transformation

of buddhis is effected for the service of the puru@sas,

all the other direct transformations that take place from the

prak@rti take the same line, i.e. a preponderance of sattva being

once created by the bringing out of some buddhis, other transformations

of prak@rti that follow them have also the sattva preponderance,

which thus have exactly the same composition as the

first buddhis. Thus the first transformation from prak@rti becomes

buddhi-transformation. This stage of buddhis may thus be regarded

as the most universal stage, which comprehends within it

all the buddhis of individuals and potentially all the matter of

which the gross world is formed. Looked at from this point of

view it has the widest and most universal existence comprising

all creation, and is thus called _mahat_ (the great one). It is called

_li@nga_ (sign), as the other later existences or evolutes give us the

ground of inferring its existence, and as such must be distinguished

from the prak@rti which is called _ali@nga,_ i.e. of which no

li@nga or characterise may be affirmed.

This mahat-tatva being once produced, further modifications

begin to take place in three lines by three different kinds of

undulations representing the sattva preponderance, rajas preponderance

and tama preponderance. This state when the mahat

is disturbed by the three parallel tendencies of a preponderance of

tamas, rajas and sattva's called _aha@mkâra,_ and the above three

tendencies are respectiviy called _tâmasika aha@mkâra_ or _bhûtâdi_,

_râjasika_ or _taijasa aha@mâra,_ and _vaikârika aha@mkâra._ The râjasika

aha@mkâra cannot make a new preponderance by itself; it only

250

helps (_sahakâri_) the transformations of the sattva preponderance

and the tamas preponderance. The development of the former

preponderance, as is easy to see, is only the assumption of a more

and more determinate character of the buddhi, for we remember

that buddhi itself has been the resulting transformation of a sattva

preponderance. Further development with the help of rajas on

the line of sattva development could only take place when the

buddhi as mind determined itself in specific ways. The first

development of the buddhi on this line is called _sâttvika_ or _vaikârika

aha@mkâra_. This aha@mkâra represents the development

in buddhi to produce a consciousness-stuff as I or rather "mine,"

and must thus be distinguished from the first stage as buddhi the

function of which is a mere understanding and general datun as

thisness.

The ego or aha@mkâra (_abhimâna-dravya_) is the specific expression

of the general consciousness which takes experience as mine.

The function of the ego is therefore called _abhimâna_ (self-assertion).

From this again come the five cognitive senses of vision,

touch, smell, taste, and hearing, the five cognitive senses of speech,

handling, foot-movement, the ejective sense and the generative

sense; the _prâ@nas_ (bio-motor force) which help both conation and

cognition are but aspects of buddhi-movement as life. The individual

aha@mkâras and senses are related to the individual buddhis

by the developing sattva determinations from which they had come

into being. Each buddhi with its own group of aka@mkâra (ego)

and sense-evolutes thus forms a microcosm separate from similar

other buddhis with their associated groups. So far therefore as

knowledge is subject to sense-influence and the ego, it is different

for each individual, but so far as a general mind (_kâra@na buddhi_)

apart from sense knowledge is concerned, there is a community of

all buddhis in the buddhitattva. Even there however each buddhi

is separated from other buddhis by its own peculiarly associated

ignorance (_avidyâ_). The buddhi and its sattva evolutes of aha@mkâra

and the senses are so related that though they are different

from buddhi in their functions, they are all comprehended in the

buddhi, and mark only its gradual differentiations and modes. We

must again remember in this connection the doctrine of refilling,

for as buddhi exhausts its part in giving rise to aha@mkâra, the deficiency

of buddhi is made good by prak@rti; again as aha@mkâra

partially exhausts itself in generating sense-faculties, the deficiency

251

is made good by a refilling from the buddhi. Thus the

change and wastage of each of the stadia are always made good

and kept constant by a constant refilling from each higher state

and finally from prak@rti.

The Tanmâtras and the Paramâ@nus [Footnote ref 1].

The other tendency, namely that of tamas, has to be helped

by the liberated rajas of aha@mkâra, in order to make itself preponderant,

and this state in which the tamas succeeds in overcoming

the sattva side which was so preponderant in the buddhi,

is called _bhûtâdi._ From this bhûtâdi with the help of rajas are

generated the _tanmâtras,_ the immediately preceding causes of the

gross elements. The bhûtâdi thus represents only the intermediate

stage through which the differentiations and regroupings of tamas

reals in the mahat proceed for the generation of the tanmâtras.

There has been some controversy between Sâ@mkhya and Yoga

as to whether the tanmâtras are generated from the mahat or from

aha@mkâra. The situation becomes intelligible if we remember that

evolution here does not mean coming out or emanation, but increasing

differentiation in integration within the evolving whole.

Thus the regroupings of tamas reals marks the differentiation

which takes place within the mahat but through its stage as

bhûtâdi. Bhûtâdi is absolutely homogeneous and inert, devoid

of all physical and chemical characters except quantum or mass.

The second stadium tanmâtra represents subtle matter, vibratory,

impingent, radiant, instinct with potential energy. These "potentials"

arise from the unequal aggregation of the original mass-units

in different proportions and collocations with an unequal distribution

of the original energy (_rajas_). The tanmâtras possess something

more than quantum of mass and energy; they possess

physical characters, some of them penetrability, others powers of

impact or pressure, others radiant heat, others again capability of

viscous and cohesive attraction [Footnote ref. 2].

In intimate relation with those physical characters they also

possess the potentials of the energies represented by sound, touch,

colour, taste, and smell; but, being subtle matter, they are devoid

____________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: I have accepted in this section and in the next many of the

translations of Sanskrit terms and expressions of Dr Seal and am largely

indebted to him for his illuminating exposition of this subject as given

in Ray's _Hindu Chemistry._ The credit of explaining Sâ@mkhya physics,

in the light of the text belongs entirely to him.]

[Footnote 2: Dr Seal's _Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus_.]

252

of the peculiar forms which these "potentials" assume in particles

of gross matter like the atoms and their aggregates. In other

words, the potentials lodged in subtle matter must undergo peculiar

transformations by new groupings or collocations before they can

act as sensory stimuli as gross matter, though in the minutest

particles thereof the sensory stimuli may be infra-sensible (_atîndriya_

but not _anudbhûta_) [Footnote ref 1].

Of the tanmatras the _s'abda_ or _âkâs'a tanmâtra_ (the sound-potential)

is first generated directly from the bhûtâdi. Next

comes the _spars'a_ or the _vâyu tanmâtra_ (touch-potential) which is

generated by the union of a unit of tamas from bhûtâdi with the

âkâs'a tanmâtra. The _rûpa tanmâtra_ (colour-potential) is generated

similarly by the accretion of a unit of tamas from bhûtâdi; the

_rasa tanmâtra_ (taste-potential) or the _ap tunmâtra_ is also similarly

formed. This ap tanmâtra again by its union with a unit of tamas

from bhûtâdi produces the _gândha tanmâtra_ (smell-potential) or

the _k@siti tanmâtra_ [Footnote ref 2]. The difference of tanmâtras or

infra-atomic units and atoms (_paramâ@nu_) is this, that the tanmâtras

have only the potential power of affecting our senses, which must be

grouped and regrouped in a particular form to constitute a new existence

as atoms before they can have the power of affecting our senses.

It is important in this connection to point out that the classification

of all gross objects as k@siti, ap, tejas, marut and vyoman is

not based upon a chemical analysis, but from the points of view

of the five senses through which knowledge of them could be

brought home to us. Each of our senses can only apprehend a

particular quality and thus five different ultimate substances are

said to exist corresponding to the five qualities which may be

grasped by the five senses. In accordance with the existence of

these five elements, the existence of the five potential states or

tanmâtras was also conceived to exist as the ground of the five

gross forms.

The five classes of atoms are generated from the tanmâtras as

follows: the sound-potential, with accretion of rudiment matter

from bhûtâdi generates the âkâsa-atom. The touch-potentials combine

with the vibratory particles (sound-potential) to generate the

____________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: Dr Seal's _Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus_.]

[Footnote 2: There were various ways in which the genesis of tanmâtras and

atoms were explained in literatures other than Sâ@mkhya; for some account

of it see Dr Seal's _Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus_.]

253

vâyu-atom. The light-and-heat potentials combine with touch-potentials

and sound-potentials to produce the tejas-atom. The

taste-potentials combine with light-and-heat potentials, touch-potentials

and sound-potentials to generate the ap-atom and the

smell-potentials combine with the preceding potentials to generate

the earth-atom. The âkâs'a-atom possesses penetrability, the vâyu-atom

impact or mechanical pressure, the tejas-atom radiant heat

and light, the ap-atom viscous attraction and the earth-atom

cohesive attraction. The âkâsa we have seen forms the transition

link from the bhûtâdi to the tanmâtra and from the tanmâtra to

the atomic production; it therefore deserves a special notice at

this stage. Sâ@mkhya distinguishes between a kâra@na-âkâs'a and

kâryâkâs'a. The kâra@na-âkâs'a (non-atomic and all-pervasive)

is the formless tamas--the mass in prak@rti or bhûtâdi; it is

indeed all-pervasive, and is not a mere negation, a mere unoccupiedness

(_âvara@nâbhâva_) or vacuum [Footnote ref 1]. When energy is first

associated with this tamas element it gives rise to the sound-potential;

the atomic âkâs'a is the result of the integration of the

original mass-units from bhûtâdi with this sound-potential (_s'abda

tanmâtra_). Such an âkâs'a-atom is called the kâryâkâs'a; it is

formed everywhere and held up in the original kâra@na âkâs'a as

the medium for the development of vâyu atoms. Being atomic

it occupies limited space.

The aha@mkâra and the five tanmâtras are technically called

_avis'e@sa_ or indeterminate, for further determinations or

differentiations of them for the formation of newer categories of

existence are possible. The eleven senses and the five atoms are called

_vis'e@sa,_ i.e. determinate, for they cannot further be so determined

as to form a new category of existence. It is thus that the course

of evolution which started in the prak@rti reaches its furthest limit

in the production of the senses on the one side and the atoms

on the other. Changes no doubt take place in bodies having

atomic constitution, but these changes are changes of quality due

to spatial changes in the position of the atoms or to the introduction

of new atoms and their re-arrangement. But these are

not such that a newer category of existence could be formed by

them which was substantially different from the combined atoms.

___________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: Dr B.N. Seal in describing this âkâs'a says "Âkâs'a

corresponds in some respects to the ether of the physicists and

in others to what may be called proto-atom (protyle)." Ray's _History

of Hindu Chemistry_, p. 88.]

254

The changes that take place in the atomic constitution of things

certainly deserve to be noticed. But before we go on to this, it

will be better to enquire about the principle of causation according

to which the Sâ@mkhya-Yoga evolution should be comprehended

or interpreted.

Principle of Causation and Conservation of Energy [Footnote ref 1].

The question is raised, how can the prak@rti supply the deficiencies

made in its evolutes by the formation of other evolutes

from them? When from mahat some tanmâtras have evolved, or

when from the tanmâtras some atoms have evolved, how can the

deficiency in mahat and the tanmâtras be made good by the

prak@rti?

Or again, what is the principle that guides the transformations

that take place in the atomic stage when one gross body, say milk,

changes into curd, and so on? Sâ@mkhya says that "as the total

energy remains the same while the world is constantly evolving,

cause and effect are only more or less evolved forms of the same

ultimate Energy. The sum of effects exists in the sum of causes

in a potential form. The grouping or collocation alone changes,

and this brings on the manifestation of the latent powers of the

gu@nas, but without creation of anything new. What is called the

(material) cause is only the power which is efficient in the production

or rather the vehicle of the power. This power is the

unmanifested (or potential) form of the Energy set free (_udbhûta-v@rtti_)

in the effect. But the concomitant conditions are necessary

to call forth the so-called material cause into activity [Footnote ref 2]."

The appearance of an effect (such as the manifestation of the figure

of the statue in the marble block by the causal efficiency of the

sculptor's art) is only its passage from potentiality to actuality

and the concomitant conditions (_sahakâri-s'akti_) or efficient cause

(_nimitta-kâra@na_, such as the sculptor's art) is a sort of mechanical

help or instrumental help to this passage or the transition [Footnote ref

3]. The refilling from prak@rti thus means nothing more than this, that

by the inherent teleology of the prak@rti, the reals there are so

collocated as to be transformed into mahat as those of the mahat

have been collocated to form the bhûtâdi or the tanmâtras.

____________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: _Vyâsabhâ@sya_ and _Yogavârttika_, IV. 3; _Tattvavais'âradî_,

IV. 3.]

[Footnote 2: Ray, _History of Hindu Chemistry_, p. 72.]

[Footnote 3: _Ibid._ p. 73.]

255

Yoga however explains this more vividly on the basis of

transformation of the liberated potential energy. The sum of

material causes potentially contains the energy manifested in the

sum of effects. When the effectuating condition is added to the

sum of material conditions in a given collocation, all that happens

is that a stimulus is imparted which removes the arrest, disturbs

the relatively stable equilibrium, and brings on a liberation of

energy together with a fresh collocation(_gu@nasannives'avis'e@sa_).

As the owner of an adjacent field in transferring water from one

field to another of the same or lower level has only to remove

the obstructing mud barriers, whereupon the water flows of itself

to the other field, so when the efficient or instrumental causes

(such as the sculptor's art) remove the barrier inherent in any

collocation against its transformation into any other collocation,

the energy from that collocation flows out in a corresponding

manner and determines the collocation. Thus for example the

energy which collocated the milk-atoms to form milk was in a

state of arrest in the milk state. If by heat or other causes this

barrier is removed, the energy naturally changes direction in a

corresponding manner and collocates the atoms accordingly for

the formation of curd. So also as soon as the barriers are removed

from the prak@rti, guided by the constant will of Îs'vara, the reals

in equilibrium in the state of prak@rti leave their state of arrest

and evolve themselves into mahat, etc.

Change as the formation of new collocations.

It is easy to see from what we have already said that any

collocation of atoms forming a thing could not change its form,

unless the barrier inherent or caused by the formation of the

present collocation could be removed by some other extraneous

instrumental cause. All gross things are formed by the collocation

of the five atoms of k@siti, ap, tejas, marut, and vyoman. The

difference between one thing and another is simply this, that its

collocation of atoms or the arrangement or grouping of atoms

is different from that in another. The formation of a collocation

has an inherent barrier against any change, which keeps that

collocation in a state of equilibrium, and it is easy to see that

these barriers exist in infinite directions in which all the other

infinite objects of the world exist. From whichever side the barrier

is removed, the energy flows in that direction and helps the

256

formation of a corresponding object. Provided the suitable barriers

could be removed, anything could be changed into any other thing.

And it is believed that the Yogins can acquire the powers by

which they can remove any barriers, and thus make anything out of

any other thing. But generally in the normal course of events the

line of evolution follows "a definite law which cannot be overstepped"

(_pari@nâmakramaniyama_) or in other words there are

some natural barriers which cannot be removed, and thus the

evolutionary course has to take a path to the exclusion of those

lines where the barriers could not be removed. Thus saffron grows

in countries like Kashmere and not in Bengal, this is limitation of

countries (_des'âpabandha_); certain kinds of paddy grow in the rainy

season only, this is limitation of season or time (_kâlâpabandha_);

deer cannot beget men, this is limitation by form (_âkârâpabandha_);

curd can come out of milk, this is the limitation of causes

(_nimittâpabandha_). The evolutionary course can thus follow only that

path which is not barricaded by any of these limitations or natural

obstructions [Footnote ref 1].

Change is taking place everywhere, from the smallest and least

to the highest. Atoms and reals are continually vibrating and

changing places in any and every object. At each moment the

whole universe is undergoing change, and the collocation of atoms

at any moment is different from what it was at the previous

moment. When these changes are perceivable, they are perceived

as _dharmapari@nâma_ or changes of _dharma_ or quality; but perceived

or unperceived the changes are continually going on. This

change of appearance may be viewed from another aspect by

virtue of which we may call it present or past, and old or new,

and these are respectively called the _lak@sa@napari@nâma_ and

_avasthâpari@nâma_. At every moment every object of the world is

undergoing evolution or change, change as past, present and future,

as new, old or unborn. When any change is in a potential state

we call it future, when manifested present, when it becomes sub-latent

again it is said to be past. Thus it is that the potential,

manifest, and sub-latent changes of a thing are called future,

present and past [Footnote ref 2].

____________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: _Vyâsabhâ@sya, Tattvavais'âradî_ and _Yogavârttika,_ III. 14.]

[Footnote 2: It is well to note in this connection that Sâ@mkhya-yoga does

not admit the existence of time as an independent entity like the

Nyâya-Vais'e@sika. Time represents the order of moments in which the mind

grasps the phenomenal changes. It is hence a construction of the mind

(_buddhi-nirmâ@na_). The time required by an atom to move its own measure

of space is called a moment (_k@sa@na_) or one unit of time. Vijñâna

Bhik@su regards one unit movement of the gu@nas or reals as a moment. When

by true wisdom the gu@nas are perceived as they are both the illusory

notions of time and space vanish. _Vyâsabhâ@sya, Tattvavais'âradî_, and

_Yogavârttika_, III. 52 and III. 13.]

257

Causation as Satkâryavâda (the theory that the effect potentially

exists before it is generated by the movement of the cause).

The above consideration brings us to an important aspect of

the Sâ@mkhya view of causation as _satkâryavâda_. Sâ@mkhya holds

that there can be no production of a thing previously non-existent;

causation means the appearance or manifestation of a quality due

to certain changes of collocations in the causes which were already

held in them in a potential form. Production of effect only means

an internal change of the arrangement of atoms in the cause, and

this exists in it in a potential form, and just a little loosening of

the barrier which was standing in the way of the happening of

such a change of arrangement will produce the desired new collocation--the

effect. This doctrine is called _satkâryavâda,_ i.e.

that the kârya or effect is _sat_ or existent even before the causal

operation to produce the effect was launched. The oil exists in

the sesarnum, the statue in the stone, the curd in the milk, The

causal operation (_kârakaiyâpâra_) only renders that manifest

(_âvirbhûta_) which was formerly in an unmanifested condition

(_tirohita_) [Footnote ref 1].

The Buddhists also believed in change, as much as Sâ@mkhya

did, but with them there was no background to the change;

every change was thus absolutely a new one, and when it was

past, the next moment the change was lost absolutely. There

were only the passing dharmas or manifestations of forms and

qualities, but there was no permanent underlying dharma or substance.

Sâ@mkhya also holds in the continual change of dharmas,

but it also holds that these dharmas represent only the conditions

of the permanent reals. The conditions and collocations of the reals

change constantly, but the reals themselves are unchangeable.

The effect according to the Buddhists was non-existent, it came

into being for a moment and was lost. On account of this theory

of causation and also on account of their doctrine of s'ûnya, they

were called _vainâs'ikas_ (nihilists) by the Vedântins. This doctrine

is therefore contrasted to Sâ@mkhya doctrine as _asatkâryavâda._

__________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: _Tattvakaumudî,_ 9.]

258

The jain view holds that both these views are relatively true and

that from one point of view satkâryavâda is true and from another

asatkâryavâda. The Sâ@mkhya view that the cause is continually

transforming itself into its effects is technically called _pari@nâmavâda_

as against the Vedânta view called the _vivarttavâda_: that

cause remains ever the same, and what we call effects are but

illusory impositions of mere unreal appearance of name and form--mere

Maya [Footnote ref. 1].

Sâ@mkhya Atheism and Yoga Theism.

Granted that the interchange of the positions of the infinite

number of reals produce all the world and its transformations;

whence comes this fixed order of the universe, the fixed order of

cause and effect, the fixed order of the so-called barriers which

prevent the transformation of any cause into any effect or the

first disturbance of the equilibrium of the prak@rti? Sâ@mkhya

denies the existence of Îs'vara (God) or any other exterior influence,

and holds that there is an inherent tendency in these reals which

guides all their movements. This tendency or teleology demands

that the movements of the reals should be in such a manner that

they may render some service to the souls either in the direction

of enjoyment or salvation. It is by the natural course of such a

tendency that prak@rti is disturbed, and the gu@nas develop on two

lines--on the mental plane, _citta_ or mind comprising the sense

faculties, and on the objective plane as material objects; and it is

in fulfilment of the demands of this tendency that on the one

hand take place subjective experiences as the changes of the

buddhi and on the other the infinite modes of the changes of objective

things. It is this tendency to be of service to the puru@sas

(_puru@sârthatâ_) that guides all the movements of the reals, restrains

all disorder, renders the world a fit object of experience, and

finally rouses them to turn back from the world and seek to attain

liberation from the association of prak@rti and its gratuitous service,

which causes us all this trouble of sa@msâra.

Yoga here asks, how the blind tendency of the non-intelligent

___________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: Both the Vedânta and the Sâ@mkhya theories of causation are

sometimes loosely called _satkâryyavâda._ But correctly speaking as some

discerning commentators have pointed out, the Vedânta theory of causation

should be called satkâra@navâda for according to it the _kâra@na_ (cause)

alone exists (_sat_) and all _kâryyas,_ (effects) are illusory appearances

of the kâra@na; but according to Sâ@mkhya the kâryya exists in

a potential state in the kâra@na and is hence always existing and real.]

259

prak@rti can bring forth this order and harmony of the universe,

how can it determine what course of evolution will be of the best

service to the puru@sas, how can it remove its own barriers and

lend itself to the evolutionary process from the state of prak@rti

equilibrium? How too can this blind tendency so regulate the

evolutionary order that all men must suffer pains according to

their bad karmas, and happiness according to their good ones?

There must be some intelligent Being who should help the course

of evolution in such a way that this system of order and harmony

may be attained. This Being is Îs'vara. Îs'vara is a puru@sa who

had never been subject to ignorance, afflictions, or passions. His

body is of pure sattva quality which can never be touched by

ignorance. He is all knowledge and all powerful. He has a permanent

wish that those barriers in the course of the evolution of

the reals by which the evolution of the gu@nas may best serve the

double interest of the puru@sa's experience (_bhoga_) and liberation

(_apavarga_) should be removed. It is according to this permanent

will of Îs'vara that the proper barriers are removed and the

gu@nas follow naturally an intelligent course of evolution for the

service of the best interests of the puru@sas. Îs'vara has not created

the prak@rti; he only disturbs the equilibrium of the prak@rti in its

quiescent state, and later on helps it to follow an intelligent order

by which the fruits of karma are properly distributed and the order

of the world is brought about. This acknowledgement of Îs'vara

in Yoga and its denial by Sâ@mkhya marks the main theoretic

difference between the two according to which the Yoga and

Sâ@mkhya are distinguished as Ses'vara Sâ@mkhya (Sâ@mkhya with

Îs'vara) and Nirîs'vara Sâ@mkhya (Atheistic Sâ@mkhya) [Footnote ref 1].

Buddhi and Puru@sa.

The question again arises that though puru@sa is pure intelligence,

the gu@nas are non-intelligent subtle substances, how

can the latter come into touch with the former? Moreover,

the puru@sa is pure inactive intelligence without any touch of

impurity and what service or need can such a puru@sa have of

the gu@nas? This difficulty is anticipated by Sâ@mkhya, which has

already made room for its answer by assuming that one class of

the gu@nas called sattva is such that it resembles the purity and

the intelligence of the puru@sa to a very high degree, so much so

____________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: _Tattvavais'âradî,_ IV. 3; _Yogavârttika,_ I. 24; and

_Pravavanabhâsya,_ V. 1-12.]

260

that it can reflect the intelligence of the puru@sa, and thus render

its non-intelligent transformations to appear as if they were intelligent.

Thus all our thoughts and other emotional or volitional

operations are really the non-intelligent transformations of the

buddhi or citta having a large sattva preponderance; but by virtue

of the reflection of the puru@sa in the buddhi, these appear as if

they are intelligent. The self (puru@sa) according to Sâ@mkhya-Yoga

is not directly demonstrated by self-consciousness. Its

existence is a matter of inference on teleological grounds and

grounds of moral responsibility. The self cannot be directly

noticed as being separate from the buddhi modifications. Through

beginningless ignorance there is a confusion and the changing

states of buddhi are regarded as conscious. These buddhi changes

are further so associated with the reflection of the puru@sa in the

buddhi that they are interpreted as the experiences of the puru@sa.

This association of the buddhi with the reflection of the puru@sa

in the buddhi has such a special fitness (_yogyatâ_) that it is interpreted

as the experience of the puru@sa. This explanation of

Vâcaspati of the situation is objected to by Vijñâna Bhik@su.

Vijñâna Bhik@su says that the association of the buddhi with the

image of the puru@sa cannot give us the notion of a real person

who undergoes the experiences. It is to be supposed therefore

that when the buddhi is intelligized by the reflection of the puru@sa,

it is then superimposed upon the puru@sa, and we have the notion

of an abiding person who experiences [Footnote ref 1]. Whatever may be the

explanation, it seems that the union of the buddhi with the puru@sa

is somewhat mystical. As a result of this reflection of _cit_ on

buddhi and the superimposition of the buddhi the puru@sa cannot

realize that the transformations of the buddhi are not its own.

Buddhi resembles puru@sa in transparency, and the puru@sa fails to

differentiate itself from the modifications of the buddhi, and as

a result of this non-distinction the puru@sa becomes bound down

to the buddhi, always failing to recognize the truth that the

buddhi and its transformations are wholly alien to it. This non-distinction

of puru@sa from buddhi which is itself a mode of buddhi

is what is meant by _avidyâ_ (non-knowledge) in Sâ@mkhya, and is

the root of all experience and all misery [Footnote ref 2].

__________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: _Tattvavais'âradî_ and _Yogavârttika_, I. 4.]

[Footnote 2: This indicates the nature of the analysis of illusion with

Sâ@mkhya. It is the non-apprehension of the distinction of two things

(e.g. the snake and the rope) that is the cause of illusion; it is

therefore called the _akhyâti_ (non-apprehension) theory of illusion

which must be distinguished from the _anyathâkhyâti_ (misapprehension)

theory of illusion of Yoga which consists in positively misapprehending

one (e.g. the rope) for the other (e.g. snake). _Yogavârttika,_ I. 8.]

261

Yoga holds a slightly different view and supposes that the

puru@sa not only fails to distinguish the difference between itself

and the buddhi but positively takes the transformations of

buddhi as its own. It is no non-perception of the difference

but positively false knowledge, that we take the puru@sa to be

that which it is not (_anyathâkhyâti_). It takes the changing,

impure, sorrowful, and objective prak@rti or buddhi to be the

changeless, pure, happiness-begetting subject. It wrongly thinks

buddhi to be the self and regards it as pure, permanent and

capable of giving us happiness. This is the avidyâ of Yoga.

A buddhi associated with a puru@sa is dominated by such an

avidyâ, and when birth after birth the same buddhi is associated

with the same puru@sa, it cannot easily get rid of this avidyâ.

If in the meantime pralaya takes place, the buddhi is submerged

in the prak@rti, and the avidyâ also sleeps with it. When at the

beginning of the next creation the individual buddhis associated

with the puru@sas emerge, the old avidyâs also become manifest

by virtue of it and the buddhis associate themselves with the

puru@sas to which they were attached before the pralaya. Thus

proceeds the course of sa@msâra. When the avidyâ of a person

is rooted out by the rise of true knowledge, the buddhi fails to

attach itself to the puru@sa and is forever dissociated from it, and

this is the state of mukti.

The Cognitive Process and some characteristics of Citta.

It has been said that buddhi and the internal objects have

evolved in order to giving scope to the experience of the puru@sa.

What is the process of this experience? Sâ@mkhya (as explained

by Vâcaspati) holds that through the senses the buddhi comes

into touch with external objects. At the first moment of this

touch there is an indeterminate consciousness in which the particulars

of the thing cannot be noticed. This is called _nirvikalpa

pratyak@sa_ (indeterminate perception). At the next moment by

the function of the _sa@mkalpa_ (synthesis) and _vikalpa_ (abstraction

or imagination) of manas (mind-organ) the thing is perceived in

all its determinate character; the manas differentiates, integrates,

and associates the sense-data received through the senses, and

262

thus generates the determinate perception, which when intelligized

by the puru@sa and associated with it becomes interpreted as the

experience of the person. The action of the senses, ahamkâra,

and buddhi, may take place sometimes successively and at other

times as in cases of sudden fear simultaneously. Vijñâna Bhik@su

differs from this view of Vâcaspati, and denies the synthetic

activity of the mind-organ (manas), and says that the buddhi

directly comes into touch with the objects through the senses.

At the first moment of touch the perception is indeterminate,

but at the second moment it becomes clear and determinate [Footnote ref 1].

It is evident that on this view the importance of manas is reduced

to a minimum and it is regarded as being only the faculty of desire,

doubt and imagination.

Buddhi, including ahamkâra and the senses, often called _citta_

in Yoga, is always incessantly suffering changes like the flame

of a lamp, it is made up of a large preponderance of the pure

sattva substances, and is constantly moulding itself from one content

to another. These images by the dual reflection of buddhi

and puru@sa are constantly becoming conscious, and are being

interpreted as the experiences of a person. The existence of the

puru@sa is to be postulated for explaining the illumination of

consciousness and for explaining experience and moral endeavour.

The buddhi is spread all over the body, as it were, for it is by its

functions that the life of the body is kept up; for the Sâ@mkhya

does not admit any separate prana vâyu (vital breath) to keep the

body living. What are called _vâyus_ (bio-motor force) in Vedânta

are but the different modes of operation of this category of

buddhi, which acts all through the body and by its diverse movements

performs the life-functions and sense-functions of the body.

__________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: As the contact of the buddhi with the external objects takes

place through the senses, the sense data of colours, etc., are modified

by the senses if they are defective. The spatial qualities of things are

however perceived by the senses directly, but the time-order is a scheme

of the citta or the buddhi. Generally speaking Yoga holds that the external

objects are faithfully copied by the buddhi in which they

are reflected, like trees in a lake

"_tasmims'ca darpane sphâre samasta vastudrstayah

imâstâh pratibimbanti sarasiva tatadrumâh_" _Yogavarttika_, I. 4.

The buddhi assumes the form of the object which is reflected on it by

the senses, or rather the mind flows out through the senses to the

external objects and assumes their forms: "_indriyânyeva pranâlikâ

cittasancaranamargah taih samyujya tadgola kadvârâ bâhyavastusûparaktasya

cittasyendryasahityenaivârthakarah parinâmo bhavati_" _Yogavârttika_, I.

VI. 7. Contrast _Tattvakaumudî_, 27 and 30.]

263

Apart from the perceptions and the life-functions, buddhi, or

rather citta as Yoga describes it, contains within it the root impressions

(_sa@mskâras_) and the tastes and instincts or tendencies

of all past lives (_vâsanâ_) [Footnote ref 1]. These sa@mskâras are revived

under suitable associations. Every man had had infinite numbers of births

in their past lives as man and as some animal. In all these lives the

same citta was always following him. The citta has thus collected

within itself the instincts and tendencies of all those different

animal lives. It is knotted with these vâsanâs like a net. If a man

passes into a dog life by rebirth, the vâsanâs of a dog life, which

the man must have had in some of his previous infinite number of

births, are revived, and the man's tendencies become like those of

a dog. He forgets the experiences of his previous life and becomes

attached to enjoyment in the manner of a dog. It is by the revival

of the vâsanâ suitable to each particular birth that there cannot be

any collision such as might have occurred if the instincts and

tendencies of a previous dog-life were active when any one was

born as man.

The sa@mskâras represent the root impressions by which any

habit of life that man has lived through, or any pleasure in

which he took delight for some time, or any passions which were

___________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: The word sa@mskâra is used by Pâ@nini who probably preceded

Buddha in three different senses (1) improving a thing as distinguished

from generating a new quality (_Sata utkar@sâdhâna@m sa@mskâra@h_, Kâs'ila

on Pâ@nini, VI. ii. 16), (2) conglomeration or aggregation, and

(3) adornment (Pâ@nini, VI. i. 137, 138). In the Pi@takas the word

sa@nkhâra is used in various senses such as constructing, preparing,

perfecting, embellishing, aggregation, matter, karma, the skandhas

(collected by Childers). In fact sa@nkhâra stands for almost anything

of which impermanence could be predicated. But in spite of so many

diversities of meaning I venture to suggest that the meaning of

aggregation (_samavâya_ of Pâ@nini) is prominent. The word _sa@mskaroti_

is used in Kau@sîtaki, II. 6, Chândogya IV. xvi. 2, 3, 4, viii. 8, 5, and

B@rhadâra@nyaka, VI. iii. 1, in the sense of improving. I have not yet

come across any literary use of the second meaning in Sanskrit. The

meaning of sa@mskâra in Hindu philosophy is altogether different. It means

the impressions (which exist subconsciously in the mind) of the objects

experienced. All our experiences whether cognitive, emotional or conative

exist in subconscious states and may under suitable conditions be

reproduced as memory (sm@rti). The word vâsanâ (_Yoga sûtra_, IV. 24)

seems to be a later word. The earlier Upanis@sads do not mention it and

so far as I know it is not mentioned in the Pâli pi@takas.

_Abhidhânappadîpikâ_ of Moggallâna mentions it, and it occurs in

the Muktika Upani@sad. It comes from the root "_vas_" to stay. It is

often loosely used in the sense of sa@mskâra, and in _Vyâsabhâ@sya_ they

are identified in IV. 9. But vâsanâ generally refers to the tendencies of

past lives most of which lie dormant in the mind. Only those appear which

can find scope in this life. But sa@mskâras are the sub-conscious states

which are being constantly generated by experience. Vâsanâs are innate

sa@mskâras not acquired in this life. See _Vyâsabhâ@sya, Tattvâvais'âradî_

and _Yogavârttika_, II. 13.]

264

engrossing to him, tend to be revived, for though these might

not now be experienced, yet the fact that they were experienced

before has so moulded and given shape to the citta that the

citta will try to reproduce them by its own nature even without

any such effort on our part. To safeguard against the revival of

any undesirable idea or tendency it is therefore necessary that its

roots as already left in the citta in the form of sa@mskâras should

be eradicated completely by the formation of the habit of a contrary

tendency, which if made sufficiently strong will by its own

sa@mskâra naturally stop the revival of the previous undesirable

sa@mskâras.

Apart from these the citta possesses volitional activity (ce@s@tâ)

by which the conative senses are brought into relation to their

objects. There is also the reserved potent power (s'akti) of citta,

by which it can restrain itself and change its courses or continue

to persist in any one direction. These characteristics are involved

in the very essence of citta, and form the groundwork of the Yoga

method of practice, which consists in steadying a particular state

of mind to the exclusion of others.

Merit or demerit (_pu@nya, pâpa_) also is imbedded in the citta

as its tendencies, regulating the mode of its movements, and

giving pleasures and pains in accordance with it.

Sorrow and its Dissolution [Footnote ref 1].

Sâ@mkhya and the Yoga, like the Buddhists, hold that all

experience is sorrowful. Tamas, we know, represents the pain

substance. As tamas must be present in some degree in all combinations,

all intellectual operations are fraught with some degree

of painful feeling. Moreover even in states of temporary pleasure,

we had sorrow at the previous moment when we had solicited

it, and we have sorrow even when we enjoy it, for we have the

fear that we may lose it. The sum total of sorrows is thus much

greater than the pleasures, and the pleasures only strengthen the

keenness of the sorrow. The wiser the man the greater is his

capacity of realizing that the world and our experiences are all full

of sorrow. For unless a man is convinced of this great truth that

all is sorrow, and that temporary pleasures, whether generated by

ordinary worldly experience or by enjoying heavenly experiences

through the performance of Vedic sacrifices, are quite unable to

____________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: Tattavais'âradî and Yogavârttika, II. 15, and Tattvakaumudî,

I.]

265

eradicate the roots of sorrow, he will not be anxious for mukti or

the final uprooting of pains. A man must feel that all pleasures

lead to sorrow, and that the ordinary ways of removing

sorrows by seeking enjoyment cannot remove them ultimately;

he must turn his back on the pleasures of the world and on the

pleasures of paradise. The performances of sacrifices according

to the Vedic rites may indeed give happiness, but as these involve

the sacrifice of animals they must involve some sins and hence also

some pains. Thus the performance of these cannot be regarded

as desirable. It is when a man ceases from seeking pleasures

that he thinks how best he can eradicate the roots of sorrow.

Philosophy shows how extensive is sorrow, why sorrow comes,

what is the way to uproot it, and what is the state when it is

uprooted. The man who has resolved to uproot sorrow turns to

philosophy to find out the means of doing it.

The way of eradicating the root of sorrow is thus the practical

enquiry of the Sâ@mkhya philosophy [Footnote ref 1]. All experiences are

sorrow. Therefore some means must be discovered by which all experiences

may be shut out for ever. Death cannot bring it, for after

death we shall have rebirth. So long as citta (mind) and puru@sa

are associated with each other, the sufferings will continue.

Citta must be dissociated from puru@sa. Citta or buddhi, Sâ@mkhya

says, is associated with puru@sa because of the non-distinction

of itself from buddhi [Footnote ref 2]. It is necessary therefore that in

buddhi we should be able to generate the true conception of the

nature of puru@sa; when this true conception of puru@sa arises in

the buddhi it feels itself to be different, and distinct, from

and quite unrelated to puru@sa, and thus ignorance is destroyed. As

a result of that, buddhi turns its back on puru@sa and can no

longer bind it to its experiences, which are all irrevocably connected

with sorrow, and thus the puru@sa remains in its true

form. This according to Sâ@mkhya philosophy is alone adequate

to being about the liberation of the puru@sa. Prak@rti which was

leading us through cycles of experiences from birth to birth, fulfils

its final purpose when this true knowledge arises differentiating

____________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: Yoga puts it in a slightly modified form. Its object is the

cessation of the rebirth-process which is so much associated with sorrow

{_du@hkhabahla@h sa@msârah heya@h_).]

[Footnote 2: The word _citta_ is a Yoga term. It is so called because it is

the repository of all sub-conscious states. Sâmkhyn generally uses, the

word buddhi. Both the words mean the same substance, the mind, but they

emphasize its two different functions. Buddhi means intellection.]

266

puru@sa from prak@rti. This final purpose being attained the

prak@rti can never again bind the purusa with reference to whom

this right knowledge was generated; for other puru@sas however

the bondage remains as before, and they continue their experiences

from one birth to another in an endless cycle.

Yoga, however, thinks that mere philosophy is not sufficient.

In order to bring about liberation it is not enough that a true

knowledge differentiating puru@sa and buddhi should arise, but it

is necessary that all the old habits of experience of buddhi, all

its samskaras should be once for all destroyed never to be revived

again. At this stage the buddhi is transformed into its purest

state, reflecting steadily the true nature of the puru@sa. This is

the _kevala_ (oneness) state of existence after which (all sa@mskâras,

all avidyâ being altogether uprooted) the citta is impotent any

longer to hold on to the puru@sa, and like a stone hurled from a

mountain top, gravitates back into the prak@rti [Footnote ref 1]. To

destroy the old sa@mskâras, knowledge alone not being sufficient, a

graduated course of practice is necessary. This graduated practice should

be so arranged that by generating the practice of living higher

and better modes of life, and steadying the mind on its subtler

states, the habits of ordinary life may be removed. As the yogin

advances he has to give up what he had adopted as good and

try for that which is still better. Continuing thus he reaches the

state when the buddhi is in its ultimate perfection and purity.

At this stage the buddhi assumes the form of the puru@sa, and

final liberation takes place.

Karmas in Yoga are divided into four classes: (1) _s'ukla_ or

white (_pu@nya_, those that produce happiness), (2) _k@r@s@na_ or black

(_pâpa_, those that produce sorrow), (3) _s'ukla-k@r@s@na_ (_pu@nya-pâpa_,

most of our ordinary actions are partly virtuous and partly vicious

as they involve, if not anything else, at least the death of many

insects), (4) _as'uklâk@r@s@na_ (those inner acts of self-abnegation, and

meditation which are devoid of any fruits as pleasures or pains).

All external actions involve some sins, for it is difficult to work in the

world and avoid taking the lives of insects [Footnote ref 2]. All karmas

___________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: Both Sâ@mkhya and Yoga speak of this emancipated state a

_Kaivalya_ (alone-ness), the former because all sorrows have been

absolutely uprooted, never to grow up again and the latter because at

this state puru@sa remains for ever alone without any association

with buddhi, see _Sâ@mkhya kârikâ_, 68 and _Yoga sûtras_, IV. 34.]

[Footnote 2: _Vyâsabhâ@sya_ and _Tattvavais'âradî_, IV. 7.]

267

proceed from the five-fold afflictions (_kles'as_), namely _avidyâ,

asmitâ, râga, dve@sa_ and _abhinives'a_.

We have already noticed what was meant by avidyâ. It consists

generally in ascribing intelligence to buddhi, in thinking it

as permanent and leading to happiness. This false knowledge

while remaining in this form further manifests itself in the other

four forms of asmitâ, etc. Asmitâ means the thinking of worldly

objects and our experiences as really belonging to us--the

sense of "mine" or "I" to things that really are the qualities or

transformations of the gu@nas. Râga means the consequent attachment

to pleasures and things. Dve@sa means aversion or antipathy

to unpleasant things. Abhinives'a is the desire for life or love of

life--the will to be. We proceed to work because we think our

experiences to be our own, our body to be our own, our family

to be our own, our possessions to be our own; because we are

attached to these; because we feel great antipathy against any

mischief that might befall them, and also because we love our

life and always try to preserve it against any mischief. These all

proceed, as is easy to see, from their root avidyâ, which consists

in the false identification of buddhi with puru@sa. These five,

avidyâ, asmitâ, râga, dve@sa and abhinives'a, permeate our buddhi,

and lead us to perform karma and to suffer. These together

with the performed karmas which lie inherent in the buddhi as

a particular mode of it transmigrate with the buddhi from birth

to birth, and it is hard to get rid of them [Footnote ref 1]. The karma in

the aspect in which it lies in the buddhi as a mode or modification of

it is called _karmâs'aya_. (the bed of karma for the puru@sa to lie in).

We perform a karma actuated by the vicious tendencies (_kles'a_) of

the buddhi. The karma when thus performed leaves its stain or

modification on the buddhi, and it is so ordained according to the

teleology of the prak@rti and the removal of obstacles in the course

of its evolution in accordance with it by the permanent will of

Îs'vara that each vicious action brings sufferance and a virtuous

one pleasure.

The karmas performed in the present life will generally accumulate,

and when the time for giving their fruits comes, such

a life is ordained for the person, such a body is made ready for

him according to the evolution of prak@rti as shall make it possible

for him to suffer or enjoy the fruits thereof. The karma of the

__________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: _Vyâsabhâ@sya_ and _Tattvavais'âradî_, II. 3-9.]

268

present life thus determines the particular kind of future birth

(as this or that animal or man), the period of life (_âyu@s_) and the

painful or pleasurable experiences (_bhoga_) destined for that life.

Exceedingly good actions and extremely bad actions often produce

their effects in this life. It may also happen that a man has

done certain bad actions, for the realization of the fruits of which

he requires a dog-life and good actions for the fruits of which

he requires a man-life. In such cases the good action may remain

in abeyance and the man may suffer the pains of a dog-life first

and then be born again as a man to enjoy the fruits of his good

actions. But if we can remove ignorance and the other afflictions,

all his previous unfulfilled karmas are for ever lost and cannot

again be revived. He has of course to suffer the fruits of those

karmas which have already ripened. This is the _jîvanmukti_ stage,

when the sage has attained true knowledge and is yet suffering

mundane life in order to experience the karmas that have already

ripened (_ti@s@thati sa@mskâravas'ât cakrabhramivaddh@rtas'arîra@h_).

Citta.

The word Yoga which was formerly used in Vedic literature

in the sense of the restraint of the senses is used by Patañjali in

his _Yoga sûtra_ in the sense of the partial or full restraint or

steadying of the states of citta. Some sort of concentration may

be brought about by violent passions, as when fighting against

a mortal enemy, or even by an ignorant attachment or instinct.

The citta which has the concentration of the former type is called

_k@sipta_ (wild) and of the latter type _pramû@dha_ (ignorant). There

is another kind of citta, as with all ordinary people, in which

concentration is only possible for a time, the mind remaining

steady on one thing for a short time leaves that off and clings to

another thing and so on. This is called the _vik@sipta_ (unsteady)

stage of mind (_cittabhûmi_). As distinguished from these there is

an advanced stage of citta in which it can concentrate steadily on

an object for a long time. This is the _ekâgra_ (one-pointed) stage.

There is a still further advanced stage in which the citta processes

are absolutely stopped. This happens immediately before mukti,

and is called the _nirodha_ (cessation) state of citta. The purpose of

Yoga is to achieve the conditions of the last two stages of citta.

The cittas have five processes (_v@rtti_), (1) _pramâ@na_ [Footnote ref 1]

(valid

___________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: Sâ@mkhya holds that both validity and invalidity of any

cognition depend upon the cognitive state itself and not on

correspondence with external facts or objects (_svata@h prâmâ@nya@m

svata@h aprâmâ@nya@m_). The contribution of Sâ@mkhya to the doctrine

of inference is not definitely known. What little Vâcaspati says on the

subject has been borrowed from Vâtsyâyana such as the _pûrvavat, s'e@savat_

and _sâmânyatodr@s@ta_ types of inference, and these may better be

consulted in our chapter on Nyâya or in the Tâtparya@tîkâ_ of Vâcaspati.

Sâ@mkhya inference was probably from particular to particular on the

ground of seven kinds of relations according to which they had seven kinds

of inference "_mâtrânimittasa@myogivirodhisahacâribhi@h.

Svasvâmibadhyaghâtâdyai@h sâ@mkhyânâ@m saptadhânumâ_" (_Tâtparya@tîkâ_, p.

109). Sâ@mkhya definition of inference as given by Udyotakara (I.I. V) is

"_sambandhâdekasmât pratyak@sacche@sasiddhiranumânam_."]

269

cognitive states such as are generated by perception, inference

and scriptural testimony), (2) _viparyaya_ (false knowledge, illusion,

etc.), (3) _vikalpa_ (abstraction, construction and different kinds of

imagination), (4) _nidrâ_ (sleep, is a vacant state of mind, in which

tamas tends to predominate), (5) _sm@rti_ (memory).

These states of mind (_v@rtti_) comprise our inner experience.

When they lead us towards sâ@msara into the course of passions

and their satisfactions, they are said to be _kli@s@ta_ (afflicted or

leading to affliction); when they lead us towards liberation, they

are called _akli@s@ta_ (unafflicted). To whichever side we go, towards

sa@msara or towards mukti, we have to make use of our states of

mind; the states which are bad often alternate with good states,

and whichever state should tend towards our final good (liberation)

must be regarded as good.

This draws attention to that important characteristic of citta,

that it sometimes tends towards good (i.e. liberation) and sometimes

towards bad (sâ@msara). It is like a river, as the _Vyâsabhâ@sya

says, which flows both ways, towards sin and towards the

good. The teleology of prak@rti requires that it should produce

in man the sâ@msara as well as the liberation tendency.

Thus in accordance with it in the midst of many bad thoughts

and bad habits there come good moral will and good thoughts,

and in the midst of good thoughts and habits come also bad

thoughts and vicious tendencies. The will to be good is therefore

never lost in man, as it is an innate tendency in him which is

as strong as his desire to enjoy pleasures. This point is rather

remarkable, for it gives us the key of Yoga ethics and shows

that our desire of liberation is not actuated by any hedonistic

attraction for happiness or even removal of pain, but by an

innate tendency of the mind to follow the path of liberation

[Footnote ref 1]. Removal of pains

__________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: Sâ@mkhya however makes the absolute and complete destruction

of three kinds of sorrows, _âdhyâtmika_ (generated internally by the

illness of the body or the unsatisfied passions of the mind),

_âdhibhautika_ (generated externally by the injuries inflicted by

other men, beasts, etc.) and _âdhidaivika_ (generated by the injuries

inflicted by demons and ghosts) the object of all our endeavours

(_puru@sârtha_).]

270

is of course the concomitant effect of following such a course, but

still the motive to follow this path is a natural and irresistible

tendency of the mind. Man has power (_s'akti_) stored up in his

citta, and he has to use it in such a way that this tendency may

gradually grow stronger and stronger and ultimately uproot the

other. He must succeed in this, since prak@rti wants liberation for

her final realization [Footnote ref 1].

Yoga Purificatory Practices (Parikarma).

The purpose of Yoga meditation is to steady the mind on

the gradually advancing stages of thoughts towards liberation,

so that vicious tendencies may gradually be more and more

weakened and at last disappear altogether. But before the mind

can be fit for this lofty meditation, it is necessary that it should

be purged of ordinary impurities. Thus the intending yogin

should practise absolute non-injury to all living beings (_ahi@msâ_),

absolute and strict truthfulness (_satya_), non-stealing (_asteya_),

absolute sexual restraint (_brahmacarya_) and the acceptance of

nothing but that which is absolutely necessary (_aparigraha_).

These are collectively called _yama_. Again side by side with these

abstinences one must also practise external cleanliness by ablutions

and inner cleanliness of the mind, contentment of mind, the

habit of bearing all privations of heat and cold, or keeping the

body unmoved and remaining silent in speech (_tapas_), the study

of philosophy (_svâdhyâya_) and meditation on Îs'vara

(_Îs'varapra@nidhâna_). These are collectively called _niyamas_.

To these are also to be added certain other moral disciplines such as

_pratipak@sa-bhâvanâ, maitrî, karu@nâ, muditâ_ and _upek@sâ_.

Pratipak@sa-bhâvanâ means that whenever a bad thought (e.g. selfish

motive) may come one should practise the opposite good thought

(self-sacrifice); so that the bad thoughts may not find any scope.

Most of our vices are originated by our unfriendly relations

with our fellow-beings. To remove these the practice of mere

abstinence may not be sufficient, and therefore one should

habituate the mind to keep itself in positive good relations with

our fellow-beings. The practice of maitrî means to think of

all beings as friends. If we continually habituate ourselves to

think this, we can never be displeased with them. So too one

should practise karu@nâ or kindly feeling for sufferers, muditâ

____________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: See my "_Yoga Psychology_," _Quest_, October, 1921.]

271

or a feeling of happiness for the good of all beings, and upek@sâ

or a feeling of equanimity and indifference for the vices of others.

The last one indicates that the yogin should not take any note

of the vices of vicious men.

When the mind becomes disinclined to all worldly pleasures

(_vairâgya_) and to all such as are promised in heaven by the performances

of Vedic sacrifices, and the mind purged of its dross

and made fit for the practice of Yoga meditation, the yogin may

attain liberation by a constant practice (_abhyâsa_) attended with

faith, confidence (_s'raddhâ_), strength of purpose and execution

(_vîrya_) arid wisdom (_prajñâ_) attained at each advance.

The Yoga Meditation.

When the mind has become pure the chances of its being

ruffled by external disturbances are greatly reduced. At such

a stage the yogin takes a firm posture (_âsana_) and fixes his mind

on any object he chooses. It is, however, preferable that he should

fix it on Îs'vara, for in that case Îs'vara being pleased removes

many of the obstacles in his path, and it becomes easier for

him to attain success. But of course he makes his own choice,

and can choose anything he likes for the unifying concentration

(_samâdhi_) of his mind. There are four states of this unifying

concentration namely _vitarka, vicâra, ânanda_ and _asmitâ_. Of

these vitarka and vicâra have each two varieties, _savitarka, nirvitarka,

savicâra, nirvicâra_ [Footnote ref 1]. When the mind concentrates on

objects, remembering their names and qualities, it is called the savitarka

stage; when on the five tanmâtras with a remembrance of their

qualities it is called savicâra, and when it is one with the tanmâtras

without any notion of their qualities it is called nirvicâra.

Higher than these are the ânanda and the asmitâ states. In the

ânanda state the mind concentrates on the buddhi with its functions

of the senses causing pleasure. In the asmitâ stage buddhi

concentrates on pure substance as divested of all modifications.

In all these stages there are objects on which the mind

consciously concentrates, these are therefore called the _samprajñâta_

(with knowledge of objects) types of samâdhi. Next to this comes

the last stage of samâdhi called the _asamprajñâta_ or nirodha

samâdhi, in which the mind is without any object. By remaining

___________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: Vâcaspati, however, thinks that ânanda and asmitâ have also

two other varieties, which is denied by Bhik@su.]

272

long in this stage the old potencies (sa@mskâras) or impressions

due to the continued experience of worldly events tending towards

the objective world or towards any process of experiencing inner

thinking are destroyed by the production of a strong habit of the

nirodha state. At this stage dawns the true knowledge, when the

buddhi becomes as pure as the puru@sa, and after that the citta not

being able to bind the puru@sa any longer returns back to prak@rti.

In order to practise this concentration one has to see that

there may be no disturbance, and the yogin should select a

quiet place on a hill or in a forest. One of the main obstacles

is, however, to be found in our constant respiratory action. This

has to be stopped by the practice of _prâ@nâyâma_. Prâ@nâyâma

consists in taking in breath, keeping it for a while and then

giving it up. With practice one may retain breath steadily for

hours, days, months and even years. When there is no need

of taking in breath or giving it out, and it can be retained

steady for a long time, one of the main obstacles is removed.

The process of practising concentration is begun by sitting

in a steady posture, holding the breath by prâ@nâyâma, excluding

all other thoughts, and fixing the mind on any object (_dhâra@nâ_).

At first it is difficult to fix steadily on any object, and the same

thought has to be repeated constantly in the mind, this is called

_dhyâna._ After sufficient practice in dhyâna the mind attains the

power of making itself steady; at this stage it becomes one

with its object and there is no change or repetition. There is

no consciousness of subject, object or thinking, but the mind

becomes steady and one with the object of thought. This is called

_samâdhi_ [Footnote ref 1]. We have already described the six stages of

samâdhi. As the yogin acquires strength in one stage of samâdhi, he passes

on to a still higher stage and so on. As he progresses onwards

he attains miraculous powers (_vibhûti_) and his faith and hope

in the practice increase. Miraculous powers bring with them

many temptations, but the yogin is firm of purpose and even

though the position of Indra is offered to him he does not relax.

His wisdom (_prajñâ_) also increases at each step. Prajñâ knowledge

is as clear as perception, but while perception is limited to

___________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: It should be noted that the word _samâdhi_ cannot properly be

translated either by "concentration" or by "meditation." It means that

peculiar kind of concentration in the Yoga sense by which the mind becomes

one with its object and there is no movement of the mind into its passing

states.]

273

certain gross things and certain gross qualities [Footnote ref 1] prajñâ

has no such limitations, penetrating into the subtlest things, the

tanmâtras, the gu@nas, and perceiving clearly and vividly all their

subtle conditions and qualities [Footnote ref 2]. As the potencies

(_sa@mskâra_) of the prajñâ wisdom grow in strength the potencies of

ordinary knowledge are rooted out, and the yogin continues to remain

always in his prajñâ wisdom. It is a peculiarity of this prajñâ that

it leads a man towards liberation and cannot bind him to sa@msâra.

The final prajñâs which lead to liberation are of seven kinds,

namely, (1) I have known the world, the object of suffering and

misery, I have nothing more to know of it. (2) The grounds and

roots of sa@msâra have been thoroughly uprooted, nothing more

of it remains to be uprooted. (3) Removal has become a fact of

direct cognition by inhibitive trance. (4) The means of knowledge

in the shape of a discrimination of puru@sa from prak@rti has been

understood. The other three are not psychological but are rather

metaphysical processes associated with the situation. They are

as follows: (5) The double purpose of buddhi experience and

emancipation (_bhoga_ and _apavarga_) has been realized. (6) The

strong gravitating tendency of the disintegrated gu@nas drives

them into prak@rti like heavy stones dropped from high hill tops.

(7) The buddhi disintegrated into its constituents the gu@nas

become merged in the prak@rti and remain there for ever. The

puru@sa having passed beyond the bondage of the gu@nas shines

forth in its pure intelligence. There is no bliss or happiness in

this Sâ@mkhya-Yoga mukti, for all feeling belongs to prak@rti. It

is thus a state of pure intelligence. What the Sâ@mkhya tries to

achieve through knowledge, Yoga achieves through the perfected

discipline of the will and psychological control of the mental states.

___________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: The limitations which baffle perception are counted in the

_Kârikâ_ as follows: Extreme remoteness (e.g. a lark high up in the sky),

extreme proximity (e.g. collyrium inside the eye), loss of sense-organ

(e.g. a blind man), want of attention, extreme smallness of the object

(e.g. atoms), obstruction by other intervening objects (e.g. by

walls), presence of superior lights (the star cannot be seen in daylight),

being mixed up with other things of its own kind (e.g. water thrown

into a lake).]

[Footnote 2: Though all things are but the modifications of gu@nas yet the

real nature of the gu@nas is never revealed by the sense knowledge. What

appears to the senses are but illusory characteristics like those of magic

(mâyâ):

"_Gunânâ@m parama@m rûpam na d@r@s@tipatham@rcchati

Yattu d@rs@tipatham prâptam tanmâyeva sutucchakam._"

_Vyâsabhâ@sya_, IV. 13.

The real nature of the gu@nas is thus revealed only by _prajñâ._]

274