[1] The French term _mitrailleuse_, made famous by the War of 1870,
reappears in other Latin tongues (e.g. Spanish _ametralladora_). It
signifies a weapon which delivers a shower of small projectiles
(_mitraille_--grape or case shot), and has no special reference to
its mechanical (hand or automatic) action.
[2] Meudon Chateau had long been used for military experiments. The
peasantry credited it with mysterious and terrible secrets, asserting
even that it contained a tannery of human skins, this tradition
perhaps relating to the war balloon constructed there before the
battle of Fleurus (1794). Reffye had also many non-military tasks,
such as the reproduction of a famous set of bas-reliefs, construction
of aeroplanes, and the reconstruction of triremes and balistas.
[3] A machine-gun of the artillery or volley type, called the "Requa
battery," which had its barrels disposed fan-wise, was also used in
the Civil War.
[4] The U.S. pattern Gatling hardly differed except in details from
the model, above described, of twenty years earlier. The drum had
been set horizontally instead of vertically and improved in details,
and a "gravity feed," a tall vertical charger, was also used. The
barrels were surrounded with a light casing. Tests made of the
improved Gatling showed that the use of only one barrel at a time
prevented overheating. On one trial 63,000 rounds were fired without
a jam, and without stopping to clean the barrels. Smokeless powder
and the modern cartridge case were of course used.
[5] The following particulars may be given of the 2-barrelled Gardner
and 3-barrelled Nordenfeldt (land service) converted to take the .303
cartridge: Weight, 92 and 110 lb. respectively; parapet mounting in
each case 168 lb.; rate of fire of Gardner about 250 rounds per
minute, of the Nordenfeldt about 350. A few of these guns are still
used in fortresses and coast defences.
[6] Modern improvements in mechanical details are only slight, as may
be found by reference to the official handbooks of the gun, editions
of 1903 and 1907.
[7] At San-de-pu 1905 the Japanese machine-guns (Hotchkiss) sustained
damage averaging, 1 extractor broken per gun, 1 jam in every 300
rounds. It should be mentioned, however, that the machine-gun
companies were only formed shortly before the battle.
[8] In field operations only. For siege warfare see FORTIFICATION AND
SIEGECRAFT.
[9] For practical purposes in the field, the "effective" beaten zone,
containing 75% of the bullets, is the basis of fire direction both
for the machine-gun and the rifle. The depths of these "effective"
zones are on an average:--
+--------------+----------+------------+------------+-----------+
| At | 500 yds. | 1,000 yds. | 1,500 yds. | 2,000 yds.|
+--------------+----------+------------+------------+-----------+
| S.L.E. Rifle | 220 yds. | 120 yds. | 100 yds. | -- |
+--------------+----------+------------+------------+-----------+
| Maxim Gun | 150 yds. | 70 yds. | 60 yds. | 50 yds. |
+--------------+----------+------------+------------+-----------+
[10] "Combined sights" implies firing with the sights set for two
different ranges, the usual difference being 50 yds. With grouped
machine guns, "progressive fire" with elevations increasing by 25
yds. is used. This artificially disperses the fire, and therefore
lessens the chance of losing the target through ranging errors. One
ingenious inventor has produced a two-barrelled automatic, in which
the barrels are permanently set to give combined elevations. The
British memorandum of August 1909 seems to regard the facility of
employing combined sights as the principal advantage of the battery
over the section.
[11] The use of single guns facilitates concealment, but this is
outweighed by the objection that when a jam or other breakdown occurs
the fire ceases altogether. The use of guns in pairs not only
obviates this, but admits of each gun in turn ceasing fire to
economize ammunition, to cool down, &c. This is the old artillery
principle--"one gun is no gun."
[12] In the instructions issued in August 1909 one of the principal
advantages of grouped sections is stated to be the neutralization of
ranging errors at ranges over 1000 yards. At a less range, it is laid
down, grouped guns form too visible a target, unless the ground is
very favourable.
[13] The British instructions of August 1909 direct the grouping of
guns in the _decisive_ attack (if circumstances and ground favour
this course) and their use by sections "if the brigade is deployed on
a wide front," i.e. on the _non-decisive_ front; further, that it is
often advisable to disperse the sections of the leading battalions
and to group those of units in reserve. In any case, while the 2, 4
or 8 guns must be ready to act independently as a special "arm,"
their normal work is to give the closest support to the neighbouring
infantry (battalion in the holding, brigade in the decisive, attack).
[14] In Germany, however, the tendency is not to make holding attacks
but to keep the troops out of harm's way (i.e. too far away for the
enemy to counter-attack) until they can strike effectively.
MACÍAS [_O NAMORODO_] (_fl._ 1360-1390), Galician _trovador_, held some
position in the household of Enrique de Villena. He is represented by
five poems in the _Cancianero de Baena_, and is the reputed author of
sixteen others. Macías lives by virtue of the romantic legends which
have accumulated round his name. The most popular version of his story
is related by Hernán Nuñez. According to this tradition, Macías was
enamoured of a great lady, was imprisoned at Arjonilla, and was murdered
by the jealous husband while singing the lady's praises. There may be
some basis of fact for this narrative, which became a favourite subject
with contemporary Spanish poets and later writers. Macías is mentioned
in Rocaberti's _Gloria de amor_ as the Castillan equivalent of
Cabestanh; he afforded a theme to Lope de Vega in _Porfiar hasta morir_;
in the 19th century, at the outset of the romantic movement in Spain, he
inspired Larra (q.v.) in the play _Macías_ and in the historical novel
entitled _El doncel de Don Enrique el doliente_.
See H. A. Rennert, _Macías, o namorado; a Galician trobador_
(Philadelphia, 1900); Théodore J. de Puymaigre, _Les vieux auteurs
castillans_ (1889-1890), i. 54-74; _Cancioneiro Gallego-Castelhano_
(New York and London, 1902), ed. H. R. Lang; Christian F. Bellermann,
_Die alten Liederbücher der Portugiesen_ (Berlin, 1840).
MACINTOSH, CHARLES (1766-1843), Scottish chemist and inventor of
waterproof fabrics, was born on the 29th of December 1766 at Glasgow,
where he was first employed as a clerk. He devoted all his spare time to
science, particularly chemistry, and before he was twenty resigned his
clerkship to take up the manufacture of chemicals. In this he was highly
successful, inventing various new processes. His experiments with one of
the by-products of tar, naphtha, led to his invention of waterproof
fabrics, the essence of his patent being the cementing of two
thicknesses of india-rubber together, the india-rubber being made
soluble by the action of the naphtha. For his various chemical
discoveries he was, in 1823, elected F.R.S. He died on the 25th of July
1843.
See George Macintosh, _Memoir of C. Macintosh_ (1847).
MACKAY, CHARLES (1814-1889), Scottish writer, was born at Perth, on the
27th of March 1814, and educated at the Caledonian Asylum, London, and
in Brussels. In 1830, being then private secretary to a Belgian
ironmaster, he began writing verses and articles for local newspapers.
Returning to London, he devoted himself to literary and journalistic
work, and was attached to the _Morning Chronicle_ (1835-1844). He
published _Memoirs of Extraordinary Public Delusions_ (1841), and
gradually made himself known as an industrious and prolific journalist.
In 1844 he was made editor of the Glasgow _Argus_. His literary
reputation was made by the publication in 1846 of a volume of verses.
_Voices from the Crowd_, some of which were set to music by Henry
Russell and became very popular. In 1848 Mackay returned to London and
worked for the _Illustrated London News_, of which he became editor in
1852. In it he published a number of songs, set to music by Sir Henry
Bishop and Henry Russell, and in 1855 they were collected in a volume;
they included the popular "Cheer, Boys! Cheer!" After his severance from
the _Illustrated London News_, in 1859, Mackay started two unsuccessful
periodicals, and acted as special correspondent for _The Times_ in
America during the Civil War. He edited _A Thousand and One Gems of
English Poetry_ (1867). Mackay died in London on the 24th of December
1889. Marie Corelli (q.v.) was his adopted daughter. His son, Eric
Mackay (1851-1899), was known as a writer of verse, particularly by his
_Love Letters of a Violinist_ (1886).
MACKAY, HUGH (c. 1640-1692), Scottish general, was the son of Hugh
Mackay of Scourie, Sutherlandshire, and was born there about 1640. He
entered Douglas's (Dumbarton's) regiment of the English army (now the
Royal Scots) in 1660, accompanied it to France when it was lent by
Charles II. to Louis XIV., and though succeeding, through the death of
his two elder brothers, to his father's estates, continued to serve
abroad. In 1669 he was in the Venetian service at Candia, and in 1672 he
was back with his old regiment, Dumbarton's, in the French army, taking
part under Turenne in the invasion of Holland. In 1673 he married Clara
de Bie of Bommel in Gelderland. Through her influence he became, as
Burnet says, "the most pious man that I ever knew in a military way,"
and, convinced that he was fighting in an unjust cause, resigned his
commission to take a captaincy in a Scottish regiment in the Dutch
service. He had risen to the rank of major-general in 1685, when the
Scots brigade was called to England to assist in the suppression of the
Monmouth rebellion. Returning to Holland, Mackay was one of those
officers who elected to stay with their men when James II., having again
demanded the services of the Scots brigade, and having been met with a
refusal, was permitted to invite the officers individually into his
service. As major-general commanding the brigade, and also as a privy
councillor of Scotland, Mackay was an important and influential person,
and James chose to attribute the decision of most of the officers to
Mackay's instigation. Soon after this event the Prince of Orange started
on his expedition to England, Mackay's division leading the invading
corps, and in January 1688-89 Mackay was appointed major-general
commanding in chief in Scotland. In this capacity he was called upon to
deal with the formidable insurrection headed by Graham of Claverhouse,
Viscount Dundee. In the battle of Killiecrankie Mackay was severely
defeated, but Dundee was killed, and the English commander, displaying
unexpected energy, subdued the Highlands in one summer. In 1690 he
founded Fort William at Inverlochy, in 1691 he distinguished himself in
the brilliant victory of Aughrim, and in 1692, with the rank of
lieutenant-general, he commanded the British division of the allied army
in Flanders. At the great battle of Steinkirk Mackay's division bore the
brunt of the day unsupported and the general himself was killed.
Mackay was the inventor of the ring bayonet which soon came into general
use, the idea of this being suggested to him by the failure of the
plug-bayonet to stop the rush of the Highlanders at Killiecrankie. Many
of his despatches and papers were published by the Bannatyne Club in
1883.
See _Life_ by John Mackay of Rockville (1836); and J. W. Fortescue,
_History of the British Army_, vol. i.
MACKAY, JOHN WILLIAM (1831-1902), American capitalist, was born in
Dublin, Ireland, on the 28th of November 1831. His parents brought him
in 1840 to New York City, where he worked in a ship-yard. In 1851 he
went to California and worked in placer gold-mines in Sierra county. In
1852 he went to Virginia City, Nevada, and there, after losing all he
had made in California, he formed with James G. Fair, James C. Flood and
William S. O'Brien the firm which in 1873 discovered the great Bonanza
vein, more than 1200 ft. deep, in the Comstock lode (yielding in March
of that year as much as $632 per ton, and in 1877 nearly $19,000,000
altogether); and this firm established the Bank of Nevada in San
Francisco. In 1884, with James Gordon Bennett, Mackay formed the
Commercial Cable Company--largely to fight Jay Gould and the Western
Union Telegraph Company--laid two transatlantic cables, and forced the
toll-rate for transatlantic messages down to twenty-five cents a word.
In connexion with the Commercial Cable Company he formed the Postal
Telegraph Company. Mackay died on the 20th of July 1902 in London. He
gave generously, especially to the charities of the Roman Catholic
Church, and endowed the Roman Catholic orphan asylum in Virginia City,
Nevada. In June 1908 a school of mines was presented to the University
of Nevada, as a memorial to him, by his widow and his son, Clarence H.
Mackay.
MACKAY, a seaport of Carlisle county, Queensland, Australia, on the
Pioneer river, 625 m. direct N.N.W. Pop. (1901), 4091. The harbour is
not good. Sugar, tobacco and coffee thrive in the district. There are
several important sugar mills, one of which, the largest in Queensland,
is capable of an annual output of 8000 tons. Rum is distilled, and there
are a brewery and a factory for tinning butter for export. Workable coal
is found in the district. This is the port of the Mt Orange and Mt
Gotthart copper mines, and the Mt Britten and Eungella gold-fields. It
is a calling-station for the Queensland royal mail steamers. The town is
named after Captain John Mackay, who discovered the harbour in 1860.
McKEESPORT, a city of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., at the
confluence of the Monongahela and Youghiogheny rivers (both of which are
navigable), 14 m. S.E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890), 20,741; (1900),
34,227, of whom 9349 were foreign-born and 748 were negroes; (1910
census) 42,694. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Pittsburg &
Lake Erie and the Pennsylvania railways. The city has a Carnegie
library, a general hospital, and two business schools. Bituminous coal
and natural gas abound in the vicinity, and iron, steel, and tin and
terne plate are extensively manufactured in the city, the tin-plate
plant being one of the most important in the United States. The total
value of the city's factory products was $36,058,447 in 1900 and
$23,054,412 in 1905. The municipality owns and operates its water-works.
The first white settler was David McKee, who established a ferry here in
1769. In 1795 his son John laid out the town, which was named in his
honour, but its growth was very slow until after the discovery of coal
in 1830. McKeesport was incorporated as a borough in 1842 and chartered
as a city in 1890.
McKEES ROCKS, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on
the Ohio river, about 3 m. N.W. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 1687; (1900)
6352 (1264 foreign-born); (1910) 14,702. McKees Rocks is served by the
Pittsburg & Lake Erie and the Pittsburg, Chartiers & Youghiogheny
railways, the latter a short line extending (13 m.) to Beechmont.
Bituminous coal and natural gas are found in the vicinity, and the
borough ships coal and lumber, and has various important manufactures.
There is an ancient Indian mound here. The first settlement was made in
1830, and the borough incorporated in 1892.
MACKENNAL, ALEXANDER (1835-1904), English Nonconformist divine, was born
at Truro in Cornwall, on the 14th of January 1835, the son of Patrick
Mackennal, a Scot, who had settled in Cornwall. In 1848 the family
removed to London, and at sixteen he went to Glasgow University. In 1854
he entered Hackney College to prepare for the Congregational ministry,
and in 1857 he graduated B.A. at London University. After holding
pastorates at Burton-on-Trent (1856-1861), Surbiton (1862-1870),
Leicester (1870-1876), he finally accepted the pastorate of the
Congregational Church at Bowdon, Cheshire, in 1877, in which he remained
till his death. In 1886 he was chairman of the Congregational Union,
which he represented in 1889 at the triannual national council of the
American Congregational churches. The first international council of
Congregationalists held in London in 1891 was partly cause, partly
consequence, of his visit, and Mackennal acted as secretary. In 1892 he
became definitely associated in the public mind with a movement for free
church federation which grew out of a series of meetings held to discuss
the question of home reunion. When the Lambeth articles put forward as a
basis of union were discussed, it was evident that all the free churches
were agreed in accepting the three articles dealing with the Bible, the
Creed and the Sacraments as a basis of discussion, and were also agreed
in rejecting the fourth article, which put the historic episcopate on
the same level as the other three. Omitting the Anglicans, the
representatives of the remaining churches resolved to develop Christian
fellowship by united action and worship wherever possible. Out of this
grew the Free Church Federation, which secures a measure of co-operation
between the Protestant Evangelical churches throughout England.
Mackennal's public action brought him into association with many
well-known political and religious leaders. He was a lifelong advocate
of international peace, and made a remarkable declaration as to the
Christian standard of national action when the Free Church Federation
met at Leeds during the South African War in 1900.
Besides a volume of sermons under the title _Christ's Healing Touch_,
Mackennal published _The Biblical Scheme of Nature and of Man, The
Christian Testimony, the Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia, The
Kingdom of the Lord Jesus_ and _The Eternal God and the Human Sonship_.
These are contributions to exegetical study or to theological and
progressive religious thought, and have elements of permanent value. He
also made some useful contributions to religious history. In 1893 he
published the _Story of the English Separatists_, and later the _Homes
and Haunts of the Pilgrim Fathers_; he also wrote the life of Dr J. A.
Macfadyen of Manchester. In 1901 he delivered a series of lectures at
Hartford Theological Seminary, Connecticut, U.S.A., published under the
title _The Evolution of Congregationalism_. He died at Highgate on the
23rd of June 1904.
See D. Macfadyen, _Life and Letters of Alexander Mackennal_ (1905).
(D. Mn.)
MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER (c. 1755-1820), Canadian explorer, was probably
a native of Inverness, Emigrating to North America at an early age, he
was for several years engaged in the fur trade at Fort Chippewyan, at
the head of Lake Athabasca, and it was here that his schemes of travel
were formed. His first journey, made in 1789, was from Fort Chippewyan
along the Great Slave Lake, and down the river which now bears his name
to the Arctic Ocean; and his second, made in 1792 and 1793, from Fort
Chippewyan across the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific coast near Cape
Menzies. He wrote an account of these journeys, _Voyages on the River St
Lawrence and through the Continent of North America to the Frozen and
Pacific Oceans_ (London, 1801), which is of considerable interest from
the information it contains about the native tribes. It is prefaced by
an historical dissertation on the Canadian fur trade. Amassing
considerable wealth, Mackenzie was knighted in 1802, and later settled
in Scotland. He died at Mulnain, near Dunkeld, on the 11th of March
1820.
MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER (1822-1892), Canadian statesman, was born in
Perthshire, Scotland, on the 28th of January, 1822. His father was a
builder, and young Mackenzie emigrated to Canada in 1842, and worked in
Ontario as a stone-mason, setting up for himself later as a builder and
contractor at Sarnia with his brother. In 1852 his interest in questions
of reform led to his becoming the editor of the _Lambton Shield_, a
local Liberal paper. This brought him to the front, and in 1861 he
became a member of the Canadian parliament, where he at once made his
mark and was closely connected with the liberal leader, George Brown. He
was elected for Lambton to the first Dominion house of commons in 1867,
and soon became the leader of the liberal opposition; from 1871 to 1872
he also sat in the Ontario provincial assembly, and held the position of
provincial treasurer. In 1873 the attack on Sir John Macdonald's
ministry with regard to the Pacific Railway charter resulted in its
defeat, and Mackenzie formed a new government, taking the portfolio of
public works and becoming the first liberal premier of Canada. He
remained in power till 1878, when industrial depression enabled
Macdonald to return to office on a protectionist programme. In 1875
Mackenzie paid a visit to Great Britain, and was received at Windsor by
Queen Victoria; he was offered a knighthood, but declined it. After his
defeat he suffered from failing health, gradually resulting in almost
total paralysis, but though in 1880 he resigned the leadership of the
opposition, he retained a seat in parliament till his death at Toronto
on the 17th of April 1892. While perhaps too cautious to be the ideal
leader of a young and vigorous community, his grasp of detail,
indefatigable industry, and unbending integrity won him the respect even
of his political opponents.
His _Life and Times_ by William Buckingham and the Hon. George W. Ross
(Toronto, 1892) contains documents of much interest. See also George
Stewart, _Canada under the Administration of the Earl of Dufferin_
(Toronto, 1878).
MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1847- ), British composer, son of
an eminent Edinburgh violinist and conductor, was born on the 22nd of
August 1847. On the advice of a member of Gung'l's band who had taken up
his residence in Edinburgh, Mackenzie was sent for his musical education
to Sondershausen, where he entered the conservatorium under Ulrich and
Stein, remaining there from 1857 to 1861, when he entered the ducal
orchestra as a violinist. At this time he made Liszt's acquaintance. On
his return home he won the King's Scholarship at the Royal Academy of
Music, and remained the usual three years in the institution, after
which he established himself as a teacher of the piano, &c., in
Edinburgh. He appeared in public as a violinist, taking part in
Chappell's quartette concerts, and starting a set of classical concerts.
He was appointed precentor of St George's Church in 1870, and conductor
of the Scottish vocal music association in 1873, at the same time
getting through a prodigious amount of teaching. He kept in touch with
his old friends by playing in the orchestra of the Birmingham Festivals
from 1864 to 1873. The most important compositions of this period of
Mackenzie's life were the Quartette in E flat for piano and strings. Op.
11, and an overture, _Cervantes_, which owed its first performance to
the encouragement and help of von Bülow. On the advice of this great
pianist, he gave up his Edinburgh appointments, which had quite worn him
out, and settled in Florence in order to compose. The cantatas _The
Bride_ (Worcester, 1881) and _Jason_ (Bristol, 1882) belong to this
time, as well as his first opera. This was commissioned for the Carl
Rosa Company, and was written to a version of Merimée's _Colomba_
prepared by Franz Hueffer. It was produced with great success in 1883,
and was the first of a too short series of modern English operas;
Mackenzie's second opera, _The Troubadour_, was produced by the same
company in 1886; and his third dramatic work was _His Majesty_, an
excellent comic opera (Savoy Theatre, 1897). In 1884 his _Rose of
Sharon_ was given with very great success at the Norwich Festival; in
1885 he was appointed conductor of Novello's oratorio concerts; _The
Story of Sayid_ came out at the Leeds Festival of 1886; and in 1888 he
succeeded Macfarren as principal of the Royal Academy of Music. _The
Dream of Jubal_ was produced at Liverpool in 1889, and in London very
soon afterwards. A fine setting of the hymn "Veni, Creator Spiritus" was
given at Birmingham in 1891, and the oratorio _Bethlehem_ in 1894. From
1892 to 1899 he conducted the Philharmonic Concerts, and was knighted in
1894. Besides the works mentioned he has written incidental music to
plays, as, for instance, to _Ravenswood_, _The Little Minister_, and
_Coriolanus_; concertos and other works for violin and orchestra, much
orchestral music, and many songs and violin pieces. The romantic side of
music appeals to Mackenzie far more strongly than any other, and the
cases in which he has conformed to the classical conventions are of the
rarest. In the orchestral ballad, _La Belle Dame sans Merci_, he touches
the note of weird pathos, and in the nautical overture _Britannia_ his
sense of humour stands revealed. In the two "Scottish Rhapsodies" for
orchestra, in the music to _The Little Minister_, and in a beautiful
fantasia for pianoforte and orchestra on Scottish themes, he has seized
the essential, not the accidental features of his native music.
MACKENZIE, SIR GEORGE (1636-1691), of Rosehaugh, Scottish lawyer, was
the grandson of Kenneth, first Lord Mackenzie of Kintail, and the nephew
of Colin and George, first and second earls of Seaforth; his mother was
a daughter of Andrew Bruce, principal of St Leonard's College, St
Andrews. He was born at Dundee in 1636, educated at the grammar school
there and at Aberdeen, and afterwards at St Andrews, graduating at
sixteen. He then engaged for three years in the study of the civil law
at Bourges; on his return to Scotland he was called to the bar in 1659,
and before the Restoration had risen into considerable practice.
Immediately after the Restoration he was appointed a "justice-depute,"
and it is recorded that he and his colleagues in that office were
ordained by the parliament in 1661 "to repair, once in the week at
least, to Musselburgh and Dalkeith, and to try and judge such persons as
are there or thereabouts delate of witchcraft." In the same year he
acted as counsel for the marquis of Argyll; soon afterwards he was
knighted, and he represented the county of Ross during the four sessions
of the parliament which was called in 1669. He succeeded Sir John Nisbet
as king's advocate in August 1677, and in the discharge of this office
became implicated in all the worst acts of the Scottish administration
of Charles II., earning for himself an unenviable distinction as "the
bloody Mackenzie." His refusal to concur in the measures for dispensing
with the penal laws against Catholics led to his removal from office in
1686, but he was reinstated in February 1688. At the Revolution, being a
member of convention, he was one of the minority of five in the division
on the forfeiture of the crown. King William was urged to declare him
incapacitated for holding any public office, but refused to accede to
the proposal. When the death of Dundee (July 1689) had finally destroyed
the hopes of his party in Scotland, Mackenzie betook himself to Oxford,
where, admitted a student by a grace passed in 1690, he was allowed to
spend the rest of his days in the enjoyment of the ample fortune he had
acquired, and in the prosecution of his literary labours. One of his
last acts before leaving Edinburgh had been to pronounce (March 15,
1689), as dean of the faculty of advocates, the inaugural oration at the
foundation of the Advocates' library. He died at Westminster on the 8th
of May 1691, and was buried in Greyfriars churchyard, Edinburgh.
While still a young man Sir George Mackenzie appears to have aspired
to eminence in the domain of pure literature, his earliest publication
having been _Aretina, or a Serious Romance_ (anon., 1661); it was
followed, also anonymously, by _Religio Stoici, a Short Discourse upon
Several Divine and Moral Subjects_ (1663); _A Moral Essay, preferring
Solitude to Public Employment_ (1665); and one or two other
disquisitions of a similar nature. His most important legal works are
entitled _A Discourse upon the Laws and Customs of Scotland in Matters
Criminal_ (1674); _Observations upon the Laws and Customs of Nations
as to Precedency, with the Science of Heraldry_ (1680); _Institutions
of the Law of Scotland_ (1684); and _Observations upon the Acts of
Parliament_ (1686); of these the last-named is the most important, the
_Institutions_ being completely overshadowed by the similar work of
his great contemporary Stair. In his _Jus Regium: or the Just and
Solid Foundations of Monarchy in general, and more especially of the
Monarchy of Scotland, maintained_ (1684), Mackenzie appears as an
uncompromising advocate of the highest doctrines of prerogative. His
_Vindication of the Government of Scotland during the reign of Charles
II._ (1691) is valuable as a piece of contemporary history. The
collected _Works_ were published at Edinburgh (2 vols. fol.) in
1716-1722; and _Memoirs of the Affairs of Scotland from the
Restoration of King Charles II._, from previously unpublished MSS., in
1821.
See A. Lang, _Sir George Mackenzie of Rosehaugh_ (1909).
MACKENZIE, HENRY (1745-1831), Scottish novelist and miscellaneous
writer, was born at Edinburgh in August 1745. His father, Joshua
Mackenzie, was a distinguished physician, and his mother, Margaret Rose,
belonged to an old Nairnshire family. Mackenzie was educated at the high
school and the university of Edinburgh, and was then articled to George
Inglis of Redhall, who was attorney for the crown in the management of
exchequer business. In 1765 he was sent to London to prosecute his legal
studies, and on his return to Edinburgh became partner with Inglis, whom
he afterwards succeeded as attorney for the crown. His first and most
famous work, _The Man of Feeling_, was published anonymously in 1771,
and met with instant success. The "Man of Feeling" is a weak creature,
dominated by a futile benevolence, who goes up to London and falls into
the hands of people who exploit his innocence. The sentimental key in
which the book is written shows the author's acquaintance with Sterne
and Richardson, but he had neither the humour of Sterne nor the subtle
insight into character of Richardson. One Eccles of Bath claimed the
authorship of this book, bringing in support of his pretensions a MS.
with many ingenious erasures. Mackenzie's name was then officially
announced, but Eccles appears to have induced some people to believe in
him. In 1773 Mackenzie published a second novel, _The Man of the World_,
the hero of which was as consistently bad as the "Man of Feeling" had
been "constantly obedient to his moral sense," as Sir Walter Scott says.
_Julia de Roubigné_ (1777), a story in letters, was preferred to his
other novels by "Christopher North," who had a high opinion of Mackenzie
(see _Noctes Ambrosianae_, vol. i. p. 155, ed. 1866). The first of his
dramatic pieces, _The Prince of Tunis_, was produced in Edinburgh in
1773 with a certain measure of success. The others were failures. At
Edinburgh Mackenzie belonged to a literary club, at the meetings of
which papers in the manner of the _Spectator_ were read. This led to the
establishment of a weekly periodical called the _Mirror_ (January 23,
1779-May 27, 1780), of which Mackenzie was editor and chief contributor.
It was followed in 1785 by a similar paper, the _Lounger_, which ran for
nearly two years and had the distinction of containing one of the
earliest tributes to the genius of Robert Burns. Mackenzie was an ardent
Tory, and wrote many tracts intended to counteract the doctrines of the
French Revolution. Most of these remained anonymous, but he acknowledged
his _Review of the Principal Proceedings of the Parliament of 1784_, a
defence of the policy of William Pitt, written at the desire of Henry
Dundas. He was rewarded (1804) by the office of comptroller of the taxes
for Scotland. In 1776 Mackenzie married Penuel, daughter of Sir Ludovick
Grant of Grant. He was, in his later years, a notable figure in
Edinburgh society. He was nicknamed the "man of feeling," but he was in
reality a hard-headed man of affairs with a kindly heart. Some of his
literary reminiscences were embodied in his _Account of the Life and
Writings of John Home, Esq._ (1822). He also wrote a _Life of Doctor
Blacklock_, prefixed to the 1793 edition of the poet's works. He died on
the 14th of January 1831.
In 1807 _The Works of Henry Mackenzie_ were published surreptitiously,
and he then himself superintended the publication of his _Works_ (8
vols., 1808). There is an admiring but discriminating criticism of his
work in the _Prefatory Memoir_ prefixed by Sir Walter Scott to an
edition of his novels in Ballantyne's _Novelist's Library_ (vol. v.,
1823).
McKENZIE, SIR JOHN (1838-1901). New Zealand statesman, was born at
Ard-Ross, Scotland, in 1838, the son of a crofter. He emigrated to
Otago, New Zealand, in 1860. Beginning as a shepherd, he rose to be farm
manager at Puketapu near Palmerston South, and then to be a farmer in a
substantial way in Shag Valley. In 1865 he was clerk to the local road
board and school committee; in 1871 he entered the provincial council of
Otago; and on the 11th of December 1881 was elected member of the House
of Representatives, in which he sat till 1900. He was also for some
years a member of the education board and of the land board of Otago,
and always showed interest in the national elementary school system. In
the House of Representatives he soon made good his footing, becoming
almost at once a recognized spokesman for the smaller sort of rural
settlers and a person of influence in the lobbies. He acted as
government whip for the coalition ministry of Sir Robert Stout and Sir
Julius Vogel, 1884-1887, and, while still a private member, scored his
first success as a land reformer by carrying the "McKenzie clause" in a
land act limiting the area which a state tenant might thenceforth obtain
on lease. He was still, however, comparatively unknown outside his own
province when, in January 1891, his party took office and he aided John
Ballance in forming a ministry, in which he himself held the portfolio
of lands, immigration and agriculture. From the first he made his hand
felt in every matter connected with land settlement and the
administration of the vast public estate. Generally his aim was to break
up and subdivide the great freehold and leasehold properties which in
his time covered four-sevenths of the occupied land of the colony. In
his Land Act of 1892 he consolidated, abolished or amended, fifty land
acts and ordinances dealing with crown lands, and thereafter amended his
own act four times. Though owning to a preference for state tenancy over
freehold, he never stopped the selling of crown land, and was satisfied
to give would-be settlers the option of choosing freehold or leasehold
under tempting terms as their form of tenure. As a compromise he
introduced the lease in perpetuity or holding for 999 years at a quit
rent fixed at 4%; theoretical objections have since led to its
abolition, but for fifteen years much genuine settlement took place
under its conditions. Broadly, however, McKenzie's exceptional success
as lands minister was due rather to unflinching determination to
stimulate the occupation of the soil by working farmers than to the
solution of the problems of agrarian controversy. His best-known
experiment was in land repurchase. A voluntary law (1892) was displaced
by a compulsory act (1894), under which between £5,000,000 and
£6,000,000 had by 1910 been spent in buying and subdividing estates for
closer settlements, with excellent results. McKenzie also founded and
expanded an efficient department of agriculture, in the functions of
which inspection, grading, teaching and example are successfully
combined. It has aided the development of dairying, fruit-growing,
poultry-farming, bee-keeping and flax-milling, and done not a little to
keep up the standard of New Zealand products. After 1897 McKenzie had to
hold on in the face of failing health. An operation in London in 1899
only postponed the end. He died at his farm on the 6th of August 1901,
soon after being called to the legislative council, and receiving a
knighthood.
MACKENZIE, SIR MORELL (1837-1892), British physician, son of Stephen
Mackenzie, surgeon (d. 1851), was born at Leytonstone, Essex, on the 7th
of July 1837. After going through the course at the London Hospital, and
becoming M.R.C.S. in 1858, he studied abroad at Paris, Vienna and Pesth;
and at Pesth he learnt the use of the newly-invented laryngoscope under
J. N. Czermak. Returning to London in 1862, he worked at the London
Hospital, and took his degree in medicine. In 1863 he won the Jacksonian
prize at the Royal College of Surgeons for an essay on the "Pathology of
the Larynx," and he then devoted himself to becoming a specialist in
diseases of the throat. In 1863 the Throat Hospital in King Street,
Golden Square, was founded, largely owing to his initiative, and by his
work there and at the London Hospital (where he was one of the
physicians from 1866 to 1873) Morell Mackenzie rapidly became recognized
throughout Europe as a leading authority, and acquired an extensive
practice. So great was his reputation that in May 1887, when the crown
prince of Germany (afterwards the emperor Frederick III.) was attacked
by the affection of the throat of which he ultimately died, Morell
Mackenzie was specially summoned to attend him. The German physicians
who had attended the prince since the beginning of March (Karl Gerhardt,
and subsequently Tobold, E. von Bergmann, and others) had diagnosed his
ailment on the 18th of May as cancer of the throat; but Morell Mackenzie
insisted (basing his opinion on a microscopical examination by R.
Virchow of a portion of the tissue) that the disease was not
demonstrably cancerous, that an operation for the extirpation of the
larynx (planned for the 21st of May) was unjustifiable, and that the
growth might well be a benign one and therefore curable by other
treatment. The question was one not only of personal but of political
importance, since it was doubted whether any one suffering from an
incapacitating disease like cancer could, according to the family law of
the Hohenzollerns, occupy the German throne; and there was talk of a
renunciation of the succession by the crown prince. It was freely
hinted, moreover, that some of the doctors themselves were influenced by
political considerations. At any rate, Morell Mackenzie's opinion was
followed: the crown prince went to England, under his treatment, and was
present at the Jubilee celebrations in June. Morell Mackenzie was
knighted in September 1887 for his services, and decorated with the
Grand Cross of the Hohenzollern Order. In November, however, the German
doctors were again called into consultation, and it was ultimately
admitted that the disease really was cancer; though Mackenzie, with very
questionable judgment, more than hinted that it had become malignant
since his first examination, in consequence of the irritating effect of
the treatment by the German doctors. The crown prince (see FREDERICK
III.) became emperor on the 9th of March 1888, and died on the 15th of
June. During all this period a violent quarrel raged between Sir Morell
Mackenzie and the German medical world. The German doctors published an
account of the illness, to which Mackenzie replied by a work entitled
_The Fatal Illness of Frederick the Noble_ (1888), the publication of
which caused him to be censured by the Royal College of Surgeons. After
this sensational episode in his career, the remainder of Sir Morell
Mackenzie's life was uneventful, and he died somewhat suddenly in
London, on the 3rd of February 1892. He published several books on
laryngoscopy and diseases of the throat.
MACKENZIE, WILLIAM LYON (1795-1861), Canadian politician, was born near
Dundee, Scotland, on the 12th of March 1795. His father died before he
was a month old, and the family were left in poverty. After some six
years' work in a shop at Alyth, in April 1820 he emigrated with his
mother to Canada. There he became a general merchant, first at York,
then at Dundas, and later at Queenston. The discontented condition of
Upper Canada drew him into politics, and on the 18th of May 1824 he
published at Queenston the first number of the _Colonial Advocate_, in
which the ruling oligarchy was attacked with great asperity. Most of the
changes which he advocated were wise and have since been adopted; but
the violence of Mackenzie's attacks roused great anger among the social
and political set at York (Toronto), which was headed by John Beverley
Robinson. In November 1824 Mackenzie removed to Toronto, but he had
little capital; his paper appeared irregularly, and was on the point of
suspending publication when his office was attacked and his type thrown
into the bay by a number of the supporters of his opponents. In an
action against the chief rioters he was awarded £625 and costs, was thus
enabled to set up a much larger and more efficient plant, and the
_Colonial Advocate_ ran till the 4th of November 1834.
In 1828 he was elected member of parliament for York, but was expelled
on the technical ground that he had published in his newspaper the
proceedings of the house without authorization. Five times he was
expelled and five times re-elected by his constituents, till at last the
government refused to issue a writ, and for three years York was without
one of its representatives. In May 1832 he visited England, where he was
well received by the colonial office. Largely as the result of his
representations, many important reforms were ordered by Lord Goderich,
afterwards earl of Ripon, the colonial secretary. While in England, he
published _Sketches of Canada and the United States_, in which, with
some exaggeration, many of the Canadian grievances were exposed. On his
return in March 1834 he was elected mayor of Toronto. During his year of
office, the heroism with which he worked hand in hand with his old
enemy, Bishop Strachan, in fighting an attack of cholera, did not
prevent him from winning much unpopularity by his officiousness, and in
1835 he was not re-elected either as mayor or alderman. In October 1834
he was elected member of parliament for York, and took his seat in
January 1835, the Reformers being now in the majority. A committee on
grievances was appointed, as chairman of which Mackenzie presented the
admirable _Seventh Report on Grievances_, largely written by himself, in
which the case for the Reformers was presented with force and
moderation, and the adoption of responsible government advocated as the
remedy.
In the general election of June 1836 the Tory party won a complete
victory, Mackenzie and almost all the prominent Reformers being defeated
at the polls. This totally unexpected defeat greatly embittered him. On
the 4th of July 1836, the anniversary of the adoption of the American
Declaration of Independence, he began the publication of the
_Constitution_, which openly advocated a republican form of government.
Later in the year he was appointed "agent and corresponding secretary"
of the extreme wing of the Reform party, and more and more openly, in
his speeches throughout the province, advocated armed revolt. He was
also in correspondence with Papineau and the other leaders of the
Reformers in Lower Canada, who were already planning a rising. Early in
December 1837 Mackenzie gathered a mob of his followers, to the number
of several hundred, at Gallows Hill, some miles to the north of Toronto,
with the intention of seizing the lieutenant-governor and setting up a
provisional government. Misunderstandings among the leaders led to the
total failure of the revolt, and Mackenzie was forced to fly to the
United States with a price on his head. In the town of Buffalo he
collected a disorderly rabble, who seized and fortified Navy Island, in
the river between the two countries, and for some weeks troubled the
Canadian frontier. After the failure of this attempt he was put to the
most pitiful shifts to make a living. In June 1839 he was tried in the
United States for a breach of the neutrality laws, and sentenced to
eighteen months' imprisonment, of which he served over eleven. While in
gaol at Rochester he published the _Caroline Almanac_, the tone of which
may be judged from its references to "Victoria Guelph, the bloody queen
of England," and by the title given to the British cabinet of "Victoria
Melbourne's bloody divan." He returned to Canada in consequence of the
Amnesty Act 1849. A closer inspection had cured him of his love for
republican institutions.
In 1851 he was elected to parliament for Haldimand, defeating George
Brown. He at once allied himself with the Radicals (the "Clear Grits"),
and, on the leadership of that party being assumed by Brown, became one
of his lieutenants. He was still miserably poor, but refused all offers
to accept a government position. In 1858 he resigned his seat in the
house, owing to incipient softening of the brain, of which he died on
the 29th of August 1861.
Turbulent, ungovernable, vain, often the dupe of schemers, Mackenzie
united with much that was laughable not a little that was heroic. He
could neither be bribed, bullied, nor cajoled. Perhaps the best instance
of this is that in 1832 he refused from Lord Goderich an offer of a
position which would have given him great influence in Canada and an
income of £1,500. He was a born agitator, and as such tended to
exaggeration and misrepresentation. But the evils against which he
struggled were real and grave; the milder measures of the Constitutional
Reformers might have taken long to achieve the results which were due to
his hot-headed advocacy.
The _Life and Times_ by his son-in-law, Charles Lindsey (Toronto, 2
vols., 1862), is moderate and fair, though tending to smooth over his
anti-British gasconnade while in the United States. An abridgment of
this work was edited by G. G. S. Lindsey for the "Makers of Canada"
series (1909). In _The Story of the Upper Canadian Rebellion_ by J. C.
Dent (2 vols., Toronto, 1885), a bitter attack is made on him, which
drew a savage reply from another son-in-law, John King, K.C., called
_The Other Side of the Story_. The best short account of his career is
given by J. C. Dent in _The Canadian Portrait Gallery_, vol. ii.
(Toronto, 1881). (W. L. G.)
MACKENZIE, a river of the North-West Territories, Canada, discharging
the waters of the Great Slave Lake into the Arctic Ocean. It was
discovered and first navigated by Sir Alexander Mackenzie in 1789. It
has an average width of 1 m., an average fall of 6 in. to the mile; an
approximate discharge, at a medium stage, of 500,000 cub. ft. per
second; and a total length, including its great tributary the Peace, of
2,350 m. The latter rises, under the name of the Finlay, in the
mountains of British Columbia, and flows north-east and then south-east
in the great intermontane valley that bounds the Rocky Mountains on the
west, to its confluence with the Parsnip. From the confluence the waters
of the combined rivers, now called the Peace, flow east through the
Rocky Mountains, and then north-east to unite with the river which
discharges the waters of Lake Athabasca; thence to Great Slave Lake it
is known as Slave river. Excluding the rivers which enter these lakes,
the principal tributaries of the Peace are: Omineca, Nation, Parsnip,
Halfway, North Pine, South Pine, Smoky, Battle, and Loon rivers; those
of the Mackenzie are the Liard (650 m. long), which rises near the
sources of the Pelly, west of the Rocky Mountains, and breaks through
that range on its way to join the parent stream, Great Bear river, which
drains Great Bear Lake, Nahanni, Dahadinni, Arctic Red, and Peel rivers.
The Mackenzie enters the Arctic Ocean near 135° W. and 68° 50´ W., after
flowing for 70 to 80 m. through a flat delta, not yet fully surveyed.
With its continuation, Slave river, it is navigable from the Arctic
Ocean to Fort Smith, a distance of over 1,200 m., and between the latter
and the head of Lesser Slave Lake, a further distance of 625 m., there
is only one obstruction to navigation, the Grand Rapids near Fort
McMurray on the Athabasca river. The Peace is navigable from its
junction with Slave river for about 220 m. to Vermilion Falls. The
Mackenzie is navigable from about the 10th of June to the 20th of
October, and Great Slave Lake from about the 1st of July to the end of
October. All the waters and lakes of this great system are abundantly
stocked with fish, chiefly white fish and trout, the latter attaining to
remarkable size.
MACKEREL, pelagic fishes, belonging to a small family, _Scombridae_, of
which the tunny, bonito, albacore, and a few other tropical genera are
members. Although the species are fewer in number than in most other
families of fishes, they are widely spread and extremely abundant,
peopling by countless schools the oceans of the tropical and temperate
zones, and approaching the coasts only accidentally, occasionally, or
periodically.
The mackerel proper (genus _Scomber_) are readily recognized by their
elegantly shaped, well-proportioned body, shining in iridescent colours.
Small, thin, deciduous scales equally cover nearly the entire body.
There are two dorsal fins, the anterior near the head, composed of 11-14
feeble spines, the second near the tail with all the rays soft except
the first, and behind the second dorsal five or six finlets. The ventral
is immediately below the second dorsal, and is also followed by finlets.
The caudal fin is crescent-shaped, strengthened at the base by two short
ridges on each side. The mouth is wide, armed above and below with a row
of very small fixed teeth.
No other fish shows finer proportions in the shape of its body. Every
"line" of its build is designed and eminently adapted for rapid
progression through the water; the muscles massed along the vertebral
column are enormously developed, especially on the back and the sides of
the tail, and impart to the body a certain rigidity which interferes
with abruptly sideward motions of the fish. Therefore mackerel generally
swim in a straightforward direction, deviating sidewards only when
compelled, and rarely turning about in the same spot. They are in almost
continuous motion, their power of endurance being equal to the rapidity
of their motions. Mackerel, like all fishes of this family, have a firm
flesh; that is, the muscles of the several segments are interlaced, and
receive a greater supply of blood-vessels and nerves than in other
fishes. Therefore the flesh, especially of the larger kinds, is of a red
colour; and the energy of their muscular action causes the temperature
of their blood to be several degrees higher than in other fishes.
All fishes of the mackerel family are strictly carnivorous; they
unceasingly pursue their prey, which consists principally of other fish
and pelagic crustaceans. The fry of clupeoids, which likewise swim in
schools, are followed by the mackerel until they reach some shallow
place, which their enemies dare not enter.
Mackerel are found in almost all tropical and temperate seas, with the
exception of the Atlantic shores of temperate South America. European
mackerel are of two kinds, of which one, the common mackerel, _Scomber
scomber_, lacks, while the other possesses, an air-bladder. The
best-known species of the latter kind is _S. colias_, the "Spanish"
mackerel;[1] a third, _S. pneumatophorus_, is believed by some
ichthyologists to be identical with _S. colias_. Be this as it may, we
have strong evidence that the Mediterranean is inhabited by other
species different from _S. scomber_ and _S. colias_, and well
characterized by their dentition and coloration. Also the species from
St Helena is distinct. Of extra-Atlantic species the mackerel of the
Japanese seas are the most nearly allied to the European, those of New
Zealand and Australia, and still more those of the Indian Ocean,
differing in many conspicuous points. Two of these species occur in the
British seas: _S. scomber_, which is the most common there as well as in
other parts of the North Atlantic, crossing the ocean to America, where
it abounds; and the Spanish mackerel, _S. colias_, which is
distinguished by a somewhat different pattern of coloration, the
transverse black bands of the common mackerel being in this species
narrower, more irregular or partly broken up into spots, while the
scales of the pectoral region are larger, and the snout is longer and
more pointed. The Spanish mackerel is, as the name implies, a native of
the seas of southern Europe, but single individuals or small schools
frequently reach the shores of Great Britain and of the United Stales.
The home of the common mackerel (to which the following remarks refer)
is the North Atlantic, from the Canary Islands to the Orkneys, and
from the Mediterranean and the Black Sea and the coasts of Norway to
the United States.
Towards the spring large schools approach the coasts. Two causes have
been assigned of this migration: first, the instinct of finding a
suitable locality for propagating their species; and, secondly, the
search and pursuit of food, which in the warmer season is more
abundant in the neighbourhood of land than in the open sea. It is
probable that the latter is the chief cause.
In the month of February, or in some years as early as the end of
January, the first large schools appear at the entrance of the English
Channel, and are met by the more adventurous of the drift-net fishers
many miles west of the Scilly Islands. These early schools, which
consist chiefly of one-year and two-year-old fishes, yield sometimes
enormous catches, whilst in other years they escape the drift-nets
altogether, passing them, for some hitherto unexplained reason, at a
greater depth than that to which the nets reach, viz. 20 ft. As the
season advances, the schools penetrate farther northwards into St
George's Channel or eastwards into the English Channel. The fishery
then assumes proportions which render it next in importance to the
herring and cod fisheries. In Plymouth alone a fleet of some two
hundred boats assembles; and on the French side of the Channel no less
capital and labour are invested in it, the vessels employed being,
though less in number, larger in size than on the English side. The
chief centre, however, of the fishery in the west of England is at
Newlyn, near Penzance, where the small local sailing boats are
outnumbered by hundreds of large boats, both sail and steam, which
come chiefly from Lowestoft for the season. Simultaneously with the
drift-net the deep-sea-seine and shore-seine are used, which towards
June almost entirely supersede the drift-net. Towards the end of May
the old fish become heavy with spawn and are in the highest condition
for the table; and the latter half of June or beginning of July may be
regarded as the time at which the greater part of mackerel spawn.
Considerable numbers of mackerel are taken off Norfolk and Suffolk in
May and June, and also in September and October. There can be no doubt
that they enter the North Sea from the English Channel, and return by
the same route, but others travel round the north of Scotland and
appear in rather small numbers off the east coast of that country. On
the Norwegian coast mackerel fishing does not begin before May, whilst
on the English coasts large catches are frequently made in March.
Large cargoes are annually imported in ice from Norway to the English
market.
After the spawning the schools break up into smaller companies which
are much scattered, and offer for two or three months employment to
the hand-line fishermen. They now begin to disappear from the coasts
and return to the open sea. Single individuals or small companies are
found, however, on the coast all the year round; they may have become
detached from the main bodies, and be seeking for the larger schools
which have long left on their return migration.
Although, on the whole, the course and time of the annual migration of
mackerel are marked with great regularity, their appearance and
abundance at certain localities are subject to great variations. They
may pass a spot at such a depth as to evade the nets, and reappear at
the surface some days after farther eastwards; they may deviate from
their direct line of migration, and even temporarily return westwards.
In some years between 1852 and 1867 the old mackerel disappeared off
Guernsey from the surface, and were accidentally discovered feeding at
the bottom. Many were taken at 10 fathoms and deeper with the line,
and all were of exceptionally large size, several measuring 18 in. and
weighing nearly 3 lb.; these are the largest mackerel on record.
The mackerel most esteemed as food is the common species, and
individuals from 10 to 12 in. in length are considered the best
flavoured. In more southern latitudes, however, this species seems to
deteriorate, specimens from the coast of Portugal, and from the
Mediterranean and Black Sea, being stated to be dry and resembling in
flavour the Spanish mackerel (_S. colias_), which is not esteemed for
the table. (A. C. G.; J. T. C.)