Although most people have a general vague idea of what constitutes an

"antelope," yet the group of animals thus designated is one that does

not admit of accurate limitations or definition. Some, for instance, may

consider that the chamois and the so-called white goat of the Rocky

Mountains are entitled to be included in the group; but this is not the

view held by the authors of the _Book of Antelopes_ referred to below;

and, as a matter of fact, the term is only a vague designation for a

number of more or less distinct groups of hollow-horned ruminants which

do not come under the designation of cattle, sheep or goats; and in

reality there ought to be a distinct English group-name for each

subfamily into which "antelopes" are subdivided.

The great majority of antelopes, exclusive of the doubtful chamois group

(which, however, will be included in the present article), are African,

although the gazelles are to a considerable extent an Asiatic group.

They include ruminants varying in size from a hare to an ox; and

comprise about 150 species, although this number is subject to

considerable variation according to personal views as to the limitations

of species and races. No true antelopes are American, the prongbuck

(_Antilocapra_), which is commonly called "antelope" in the United

States, representing a distinct group; while, as already mentioned, the

Rocky Mountain or white goat stands on the borderland between antelopes

and goats.

The first group, or _Tragelaphinae_, is represented by the African

elands (_Taurotragus_), bongo (_Boocercus_), kudus (_Strepsiceros_) and

bushbucks or harnessed antelopes (_Tragelaphus_), and the Indian nilgai

(_Boselaphus_). Except in the bongo and elands, horns are present only

in the males, and these are angulated and generally spirally twisted,

and without rings. The muzzle is naked, small glands are present on the

face below the eyes, and the tail is comparatively long. The colours are

often brilliant; white spots and stripes being prevalent. The harnessed

antelopes, or bushbucks, are closely allied to the kudus, from which

they chiefly differ by the spiral formed by the horns generally having

fewer turns. They include some of the most brilliantly coloured of all

antelopes; the ornamentation taking the form of vertical white lines and

rows of spots. Usually the sexes differ in colour. Whereas most of the

species have hoofs of normal shape, in some, such as the nakong, or

situtunga (_Tragelaphus spekei_), these are greatly elongated, in order

to be suited for walking in soft mud, and these have accordingly been

separated as _Limnotragus_. The last-named species spends most of its

time in water, where it may be observed not infrequently among the reeds

with all but its head and horns submerged. The true or smaller

bushbucks, represented by the widely spread _Tragelaphus scriptus_, with

several local races (fig. 1) are sometimes separated as _Sylvicapra_,

leaving the genus _Tragelaphus_ to be represented by the larger _T.

angasi_ and its relatives. The genus _Strepsiceros_ is represented by

the true or great kudu (_S. capensis_ or _S. strepsiceros_), fig. 2,

ranging from the Cape to Somaliland, and the smaller _S. imberbis_ of

North-East Africa, which has no throat-fringe. The large and brightly

coloured bongo (_Boocercus euryceros_) of the equatorial

forest-districts serves in some respects to connect the bushbucks with

the elands, having horns in both sexes, and a tufted tail, but a

brilliant orange coat with vertical white stripes. Still larger are the

elands, of which the typical _Taurotragus oryx_ of the Cape is uniformly

sandy-coloured, although stripes appear in the more northern _T. o.

livingstonei_, while the black-necked eland (_T. derbianus_) of

Senegambia and the Bahr-el-Ghazal district is a larger and more

brilliantly coloured animal. The small horns and bluish-grey colour of

the adult bulls serve to distinguish the Indian nilgai (q.v.),

_Boselaphus tragocamdus_, from the other members of the subfamily.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Female Bushbuck (_Tragelaphus scriptus_).]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Male Kudu (_Strepsicero capensis_).]

The second group, which is mainly African, but also represented in

Syria, is that of the _Hippotraginae_, typified by the sable antelope

(_Hippotragus niger_) and roan antelope (_H. equinus_), but also

including the oryxes (_Oryx_) and addax. These are for the most part

large antelopes, with long cylindrical horns, which are present in both

sexes, hairy muzzles, no face-glands, long tufted tails and tall thick

molars of the ox-type. In _Hippotragus_ the stout and thickly ringed

horns rise vertically from a ridge above the eyes at an obtuse angle to

the plane of the lower part of the face, and then sweep backwards in a

bold curve; while there are tufts of long white hairs near the eyes. The

sable antelope is a southern species in which both sexes are black or

blackish when adult, while the lighter-coloured and larger roan antelope

has a much wider distribution. The South African blauwbok (_H.

leucophaeus_) is extinct. In the addax (_Addax nasomaculatus_), which is

a distinct species common to North Africa and Syria, the ringed horns

form an open spiral ascending in the plane of the face, and there is

long, shaggy, dark hair on the fore-quarters in winter. The various

species of oryx differ from _Hippotragus_ by the absence of the white

eye-tufts, and by the horns sloping backwards in the plane of the face.

In the South African gemsbuck (_Oryx gazella_), fig. 3, the East African

beisa or true oryx (_O. beisa_), and the white Arabian (_O. beatrix_)

the horns are straight, but in the North African white oryx or algazel

(_O. leucoryx_ or _O. algazal_) they are scimitar-shaped, the colour of

this species being white and pale chestnut (see ADDAX, ORYX, and SABLE

ANTELOPE).

The third subfamily is the _Antilopinae_, the members of which have a

much wider geographical range than either of the foregoing groups. The

subfamily is characterized by the narrow crowns of the molars, which are

similar to those of sheep, and the hairy muzzle. Generally there are

face-glands below the eyes; and the tail is moderate or short. Pits are

present in the forehead of the skull, and the horns are ringed for part

of their length, with a compressed base, their form being often lyrate,

but sometimes spiral. Lateral hoofs are generally present.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Gemsbuck, or Cape Oryx (_Oryx gazella_).]

Gazelles (_Gazella_), which form by far the largest genus of the

subfamily, are inhabitants of open and frequently more or less desert

districts. They are mostly of a sandy colour, with dark and light

markings on the face, and often a dark band on the flanks. The horns are

more or less lyrate, and generally developed in both sexes; there are

frequently brushes of hair on the knees. Gazelles may be divided into

groups. The one to which the North African _G. dorcas_ belongs is

characterized by the presence of lyrate or sub-lyrate horns in both

sexes, and by the white of the buttocks not extending on to the

haunches. Nearly allied is the group including the Indian _G. bennetti_

and the Arabian _G. arabica_, in which the horns have a somewhat

S-shaped curvature in profile. In the group represented by the African

_G. granti_, _G. thomsoni_, _G. mohr_, &c., the white of the buttocks

often sends a prolongation on to the flanks, the horns are long and the

size is large. Lastly, the Central Asian _G. gutturosa_, _G.

subgutturosa_ and _G. picticaudata_ form a group in which the females

are hornless and the face-markings inconspicuous or wanting.

The South African springbuck (_Antidorcas euchore_) is nearly related to

the gazelles, from which it is distinguished by the presence on the

middle line of the loins of an evertible pouch, lined with long white

hairs capable of erection. It has also one premolar tooth less in the

lower jaw. Formerly these beautiful antelopes existed in countless

numbers on the plains of South Africa, and were in the habit of

migrating in droves which completely filled entire valleys. Now they are

comparatively rare.

The dibatag or Clarke's gazelle (_Ammodorcas clarkei_), of Somaliland,

forms a kind of connecting link between the true gazelles and the

gerenuk, this being especially shown in the skull. The face has the

ordinary gazelle-markings; but the rather short horns--which are wanting

in the female--have a peculiar upward and forward curvature, unlike that

obtaining in the gazelles and somewhat resembling that of the reedbuck.

The neck is longer and more slender than in ordinary gazelles, and the

tail is likewise relatively long. Although local, these animals are

fairly common in the interior of Somaliland, where they are known by the

name of dibatag. In running, the head and neck are thrown backwards,

while the tail is turned forwards over the back.

The East African gerenuk (q.v.), or Waller's gazelle (_Lithocranius

walleri_), of which two races have been named, is a very remarkable

ruminant, distinguished not only by its exceedingly elongated neck and

limbs, but also by the peculiar hooked form of the very massive horns of

the bucks, the dense structure and straight profile of the skull, and

the extreme slenderness of the lower jaw.

A still more aberrant gazelle is a small North-East African species

known as the beira (_Dorcatragus melanotis_), with very short horns,

large hoofs and a general appearance recalling that of some of the

members of the subfamily _Neotraginae_, although in other respects

gazelle-like. The blackbuck (_Antilope cervicapra_ or _A. bezoartica_)

of India, a species taking its name from the deep black coat assumed by

the adult bucks, and easily recognized by the graceful, spirally twisted

horns ornamenting the heads of that sex, is now the sole representative

of the genus _Antilope_, formerly taken to embrace the whole of the true

antelopes. Large face-glands are characteristic of the species, which

inhabits the open plains of India in large herds. They leap high in the

air, like the springbuck, when on the move.

With the palla (q.v.), or impala (_Aepyceros melampus_), we reach an

exclusively African genus, characterized by the lyrate horns of the

bucks, the absence of lateral hoofs, and the presence of a pair of

glands with black tufts of hair on the hind-feet.

The sheep-like saiga (q.v.), _Saiga tatarica_, of the Kirghiz steppes

stands apart from all other antelopes by its curiously puffed and

trunk-like nose, which can be wrinkled up when the animal is feeding and

has the nostrils opening downwards. More or less nearly related to the

saiga is the chiru (q.v.), _Pantholops hodgsoni_ of Tibet, characterized

by the long upright black horns of the bucks, and the less convex nose,

in which the nostrils open anteriorly instead of downwards.

The _Neotraginae_ (or _Nanotraginae_) form an exclusively African group

of small-sized antelopes divided into several, for the most part nearly

related, genera. Almost the only characters they possess in common are

the short and spike-like horns of the bucks, which are ringed at the

base, with smooth tips, and the large size of the face-gland, which

opens by a circular aperture. _Neotragus_ is represented by the pigmy

royal antelope (_N. pygmaeus_) of Guinea; _Hylarnus_ includes one

species from Cameroon and a second from the Semliki forest; while

_Nesotragus_ comprises the East African suni antelopes, _N. moschatus_

and _N. livingstonianus_. All three might, however, well be included in

_Neotragus_. The royal antelope is the smallest of the Bovidae.

The steinbok (_Rhaphiceros campestris_) and the _grysbok_ (_R.

melanotis_) are the best-known representatives of a group characterized

by the vertical direction of the horns and the small gland-pit in the

skull; lateral hoofs being absent in the first-named and present in the

second. A bare gland-patch behind the ear serves to distinguish the

oribis or ourebis, as typified by _Oribia montana_ of the Cape; lateral

hoofs being present and the face-pit large.

From all the preceding the tiny dik-diks (_Madoqua_) of North-East

Africa differ by their hairy noses, expanded in some species into short

trunks; while the widely spread klipspringer (q.v.), _Oreotragus

saltator_, with its several local races, is unfailingly distinguishable

by its rounded blunt hoofs and thick, brittle, golden-flecked hair.

In some respects connecting the last group with the _Cervicaprinae_ is

the rhebok, or vaal-rhebok (_Pelea capreolus_), a grey antelope of the

size of a roebuck, with small upright horns in the bucks recalling those

of the last group, and small lateral hoofs, but no face-glands. In size

and several structural features it approximates to the more typical

_Cervicaprinae_, as represented by the reedbuck (_Cervicapra_), and the

waterbucks and kobs (_Cobus_ or _Kobus_), all of which are likewise

African. These are medium-sized or large antelopes with naked muzzles,

narrow sheep-like upper molars, fairly long tails, rudimentary or no

face-glands, and pits in the frontal bones of the skull. Reedbuck

(q.v.), or rietbok (_Cervicapra_), are foxy-red antelopes ranging in

size from a fallow-deer to a roe, with thick bushy tails, forwardly

curving black horns, and a bare patch of glandular skin behind each ear.

They keep to open country near water. The waterbuck (q.v.), _Cobus_, on

the other hand, actually seek refuge from pursuit in the water. They

have heavily fringed necks, tufted tails, long lyrate horns in the bucks

(fig. 4) but no glandular ear-patches. The true waterbuck (_C.

ellipsiprymnus_), and the defassa or sing-sing (_C. defassa_), are the

two largest species, equal in size to red deer, and grey or reddish in

colour. Of the smaller forms or kobs, _C. maria_ and _C. leucotis_ of

the swamps of the White Nile are characterized by the black coats of the

adult bucks; the West African _C. cob_, and its East African

representative _C. thomasi_, are wholly red antelopes of the size of

roedeer; the lichi or lechwe (_C. lichi_) is characterized by its long

horns, black fore-legs and superior size; while the puku (_C. vardoni_),

which is also a swamp-loving species from South-Central Africa, differs

from the three preceding species by the fore-legs being uniformly foxy.

[Ilustration: FIG. 4.--Waterbuck (_Cobus ellipsiprymnus_).]

The duikers, or duikerboks (_Cephalophus_), of Africa, which range in

size from a large hare to a fallow-deer, typify the subfamily

_Cephalophinae_, characterized by the spike-like horns of the bucks, the

elongated aperture of the face-glands, the naked muzzle, the relatively

short tail, and the square-crowned upper molars; lateral hoofs being

present. In the duikers themselves the single pair of horns is set in

the midst of a tuft of long hairs, and the face-gland opens in a long

naked line on the side of the face above the muzzle. The group is

represented in India by the chousingha or four-horned antelope

(_Tetraceros quadricornis_), generally distinguished by the feature from

which it takes its name (see DUIKER).

The last section of the true antelopes is the _Bubalinae_, represented

by the hartebeest (q.v.), _Bubalis_, blesbok and sassaby (_Damaliscus_),

and the gnu (q.v.) or wildebeest (_Connochaetes_, also called

_Catoblepas_), all being African with the exception of one or two

hartebeests which range into Syria. All these are large and generally

more or less uniformly coloured antelopes with horns in both sexes, long

and more or less hairy tails, high withers, small face-glands, naked

muzzles, tall, narrow upper molars, and the absence of pits in the

frontal bones. The long face, high crest for the horns, which are

ringed, lyrate and more or less strongly angulated, and the moderately

long tail, are the distinctive features of the hartebeests. They are

large red antelopes (fig. 5), often with black markings on the face and

limbs. In _Damaliscus_, which includes, among many other species, the

blesbok and bontebok (_D. albifrons_ and _D. pygargus_) and the sassaby

or bastard hartebeest (_D. lunatus_), the face is shorter, and the horns

straighter and set on a less elevated crest. The colour, too, of these

antelopes tends in many cases to purple, with white markings. From the

hartebeest the gnus (fig. 6) differ by their smooth and outwardly or

downwardly directed horns, broad bristly muzzles, heavy manes and long

horse-like tails. There are two chief types, the white-tailed gnu or

black wildebeest (_Connochaetes gnu_) of South Africa, now nearly

extinct (fig. 6), and the brindled gnu, or blue wildebeest (_C.

taurinus_), which, with some local variation, has a large range in South

and East Africa.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Cape Hartebeest (_Bubalis cama_).]

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--White-tailed Gnu, or Black Wildebeest

(_Connochaetes gnu_).]

In concluding this survey of living antelopes, reference may be made to

the subfamily _Rupicaprinae_ (typified by the European chamois), the

members of which, as already stated, are in some respects intermediate

between antelopes and goats. They are all small or medium-sized mountain

ruminants, for the most part European and Asiatic, but with one North

American representative. They are heavily built ruminants, with horns of

nearly equal size in both sexes, short tapering tails, large hoofs,

narrow goat-like upper molars, and usually small face-glands. The horns

are generally rather small, upright, ringed at the base, and more or

less curved backwards, but in the takin they are gnu-like. The group is

represented by the European chamois or gemse (_Rupicapra tragus_ or _R.

rupicapra_), broadly distinguished by its well-known hook-like horns,

and the Asiatic gorals (_Urotragus_) and serows (_Nemorhaedus_), which

are represented by numerous species ranging from Tibet, the Himalaya,

and China, to the Malay Peninsula and islands, being in the two latter

areas the sole representatives of both antelopes and goats. In the

structure of its horns the North American white Rocky Mountain goat

(_Oreamnus_) is very like a serow, from which it differs by its

extremely short cannon-bones. In the latter respect this ruminant

resembles the takin (_Budorcas_) of Tibet, which, as already mentioned,

has horns recalling those of the white-tailed gnu. Possibly the Arctic

musk-ox (_Ovibos_) may be connected with the takin by means of certain

extinct ruminants, such as the North American Pleistocene

_Euceratherium_ and the European Pliocene _Criotherium_ (see CHAMOIS,

GORAL, SEROW, ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT and TAKIN).

_Extinct Antelopes._--Only a few lines can be devoted to extinct

antelopes, the earliest of which apparently date from the European

Miocene. An antelope from the Lower Pliocene of Northern India known as

_Bubalis_, or _Damaliscus, palaeindicus_ indicates the occurrence of the

hartebeest group in that country. _Cobus_ also occurs in the same

formation, as does likewise _Hippotragus_. _Palaeoryx_ from the

corresponding horizon in Greece and Samos is to some extent intermediate

between _Hippotragus_ and _Oryx_. Gazelles are common in the Miocene and

Pliocene of both Europe and Asia. Elands and kudus appear to have been

represented in India during the Pliocene; the European _Palaeoreas_ of

the same age seems to be intermediate between the two, while

_Protragelaphus_ is evidently another European representative of the

group. _Helicophora_ is another spiral-horned European Pliocene

antelope, but of somewhat doubtful affinity; the same being the case

with the large _Criotherium_ of the Samos Pliocene, in which the short

horns are curiously twisted. As already stated, there is a possibility

of this latter ruminant being allied both to the takin and the musk-ox.

_Palaeotragus_ and _Tragoceros_, of the Lower Pliocene of Greece, at one

time regarded as antelopes, are now known to be ancestors of the okapi.

For antelopes in general, see P.L. Sclater and O. Thomas, _The Book of

Antelopes_ (4 vols., London, 1894-1900). (R. L.*)

ANTEMNAE (Lat. _ante amnem_, sc. _Anienem_; Varro, _Ling. Lat_. v. 28),

an ancient village of Latium, situated on the W. of the Via Salaria, 2

m. N. of Rome, where the Anio falls into the Tiber. It is said to have

been conquered by Romulus after the rape of the Sabine women, and to

have assisted the Tarquins. Certainly it soon lost its independence, and

in Strabo's time was a mere village. The site is one of great strength,

and is now occupied by a fort, in the construction of which traces of

the outer walls and of huts, and several wells and a cistern, all

belonging to the primitive village, were discovered, and also the

remains of a villa of the end of the Republic.

See T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, iii. 14.

ANTENOR, an Athenian sculptor, of the latter part of the 6th century

B.C. He was the author of the group of the tyrannicides Harmodius and

Aristogeiton, set up by the Athenians on the expulsion of the

Peisistratidae, and carried away to Persia by Xerxes. A basis with the

signature of Antenor, son of Eumares, has been shown to belong to one of

the dedicated female figures of archaic style which have been found on

the Acropolis of Athens.

See GREEK ART; and E.A. Gardner's _Handbook of Greek Sculpture_, i. p.

182.

ANTENOR, in Greek legend, one of the wisest of the Trojan elders and

counsellors. He advised his fellow-townsmen to send Helen back to her

husband, and showed himself not unfriendly to the Greeks and an advocate

of peace. In the later story, according to Dares and Dictys, he was said

to have treacherously opened the gates of Troy to the enemy; in return

for which, at the general sack of the city, his house, distinguished by

a panther's skin at the door, was spared by the victors. Afterwards,

according to various versions of the legend, he either rebuilt a city

on the site of Troy, or settled at Cyrene, or became the founder of

Patavium.

Homer, _Iliad_, iii. 148, vii. 347; Horace, _Epp_. i. 2. 9; Livy i. 1;

Pindar, _Pythia_, v. 83; Virgil, _Aen_. i. 242.

ANTEQUERA (the ancient _Anticaria_), a town of southern Spain, in the

province of Malaga; on the Bobadilla-Granada railway. Pop. (1900)

31,609. Antequera overlooks the fertile valley bounded on the S. by the

Sierra de los Torcales, and on the N. by the river Guadalhorce. It

occupies a commanding position, while the remains of its walls, and of a

fine Moorish castle on a rock that overhangs the town, show how

admirably its natural defences were supplemented by art. Besides several

interesting churches and palaces, it contains a fine arch, erected in

1595 in honour of Philip II., and partly constructed of inscribed Roman

masonry. In the eastern suburbs there is one of the largest grave-mounds

in Spain, said to be of prehistoric date, and with subterranean chambers

excavated to a depth of 65 ft. The Pena de los Enamorados, or "Lovers'

Peak," is a conspicuous crag which owes its name to the romantic legend

adapted by Robert Southey (1774-1843) in his _Laila and Manuel_. Woollen

fabrics are manufactured, and the sugar industry established in 1890

employs several thousand hands; but the majority of the inhabitants are

occupied by the trade in grain, fruit, wine and oil. Marble is quarried;

and at El Torcal, 6 m. south, there is a very curious labyrinth of red

marble rocks. Antequera was captured from the Moors in 1410, and became

until 1492 one of the most important outposts of the Christian power in

Spain.

See C. Fernandez, _Historia de Antequera, desde su fondacion_ (Malaga,

1842).

ANTEROS, pope for some weeks at the end of the year 235. He died on the

3rd of January 236. His original epitaph was discovered in the

Catacombs.

ANTHELION (late Gr. [Greek: anthelios], opposite the sun), the luminous

ring or halo sometimes seen in Alpine or polar regions surrounding the

shadow of the head of an observer cast upon a bank of cloud or mist. The

halo diminishes in brightness from the centre outwards, and is probably

due to the diffraction of light. Under favourable conditions four

concentric rings may be seen round the shadow of the observer's head,

the outermost, which seldom appears, having an angular radius of 40 deg.

ANTHEM, derived from the Gr. [Greek: antiphona], through the Saxon

_antefn_, a word which originally had the same meaning as antiphony

(q.v.). It is now, however, generally restricted to a form of church

music, particularly in the service of the Church of England, in which it

is appointed by the rubrics to follow the third collect at both morning

and evening prayer, "in choirs and places where they sing." It is just

as usual in this place to have an ordinary hymn as an anthem, which is a

more elaborate composition than the congregational hymns. Several

anthems are included in the English coronation service. The words are

selected from Holy Scripture or in some cases from the Liturgy, and the

music is generally more elaborate and varied than that of psalm or hymn

tunes. Anthems may be written for solo voices only, for the full choir,

or for both, and according to this distinction are called respectively

_Verse, Full_, and _Full with Verse_. Though the anthem of the Church of

England is analogous to the _motet_ of the Roman Catholic and Lutheran

Churches, both being written for a trained choir and not for the

congregation, it is as a musical form essentially English in its origin

and development. The English school of musicians has from the first

devoted its chief attention to this form, and scarcely a composer of any

note can be named who has not written several good anthems. Tallis, Tye,

Byrd, and Farrant in the 16th century; Orlando Gibbons, Blow, and

Purcell in the 17th, and Croft, Boyce, James Kent, James Nares, Benjamin

Cooke, and Samuel Arnold in the 18th were famous composers of anthems,

and in more recent times the names are too numerous to mention.

ANTHEMION (from the Gr. [Greek: anthemion], a flower), the conventional

design of flower or leaf forms which was largely employed by the Greeks

to decorate (1) the fronts of ante-fixae, (2) the upper portion of the

stele or vertical tombstones, (3) the necking of the Ionic columns of

the Erechtheum and its continuation as a decorative frieze on the walls

of the same, and (4) the cymatium of a cornice. Though generally known

as the honeysuckle ornament, from its resemblance to that flower, its

origin will be found in the flower of the acanthus plant.

ANTHEMIUS, Greek mathematician and architect, who produced, under the

patronage of Justinian (A.D. 532), the original and daring plans for the

church of St Sophia in Constantinople, which strikingly displayed at

once his knowledge and his ignorance. He was one of five brothers--the

sons of Stephanus, a physician of Tralles--who were all more or less

eminent in their respective departments. Dioscorus followed his father's

profession in his native place; Alexander became at Rome one of the most

celebrated medical men of his time; Olympius was deeply versed in Roman

jurisprudence; and Metrodorus was one of the distinguished grammarians

of the great Eastern capital. It is related of Anthemius that, having a

quarrel with his next-door neighbour Zeno, he annoyed him in two ways.

First, he made a number of leathern tubes the ends of which he contrived

to fix among the joists and flooring of a fine upper-room in which Zeno

entertained his friends, and then subjected it to a miniature earthquake

by sending steam through the tubes. Secondly, he simulated thunder and

lightning, the latter by flashing in Zeno's eyes an intolerable light

from a slightly hollowed mirror. Certain it is that he wrote a treatise

on burning-glasses. A fragment of this was published under the title

[Greek: Peri paradoxon maechonaematon] by L. Dupuy in 1777, and also

appeared in 1786 in the forty-second volume of the _Hist. de l'Acad. des

Inscr_.; A. Westermann gave a revised edition of it in his [Greek:

Paradoxographoi] (_Scriptores rerum mirabilium Graeci_), 1839. In the

course of constructions for surfaces to reflect to one and the same

point (1) all rays in whatever direction passing through another point,

(2) a set of parallel rays, Anthemius assumes a property of an ellipse

not found in Apollonius (the equality of the angles subtended at a focus

by two tangents drawn from a point), and (having given the focus and a

double ordinate) he uses the focus and directrix to obtain any number of

points on a parabola--the first instance on record of the practical use

of the directrix.

On Anthemius generally, see Procopius, _De Aedific_. i. 1; Agathias,

_Hist_. v. 6-9; _Gibbon's Decline and Fall_, cap. xl. (T. L. H.)

ANTHESTERIA, one of the four Athenian festivals in honour of Dionysus,

held annually for three days (11th-13th) in the month of Anthesterion

(February-March). The object of the festival was to celebrate the

maturing of the wine stored at the previous vintage, and the beginning

of spring. On the first day, called _Pithoigia_ (opening of the casks),

libations were offered from the newly opened casks to the god of wine,

all the household, including servants and slaves, joining in the

festivities. The rooms and the drinking vessels in them were adorned

with spring flowers, as were also the children over three years of age.

The second day, named _Choes_ (feast of beakers), was a time of

merrymaking. The people dressed themselves gaily, some in the disguise

of the mythical personages in the suite of Dionysus, and paid a round of

visits to their acquaintances. Drinking clubs met to drink off matches,

the winner being he who drained his cup most rapidly. Others poured

libations on the tombs of deceased relatives. On the part of the state

this day was the occasion of a peculiarly solemn and secret ceremony in

one of the sanctuaries of Dionysus in the Lenaeum, which for the rest of

the year was closed. The basilissa (or basilinna), wife of the archon

basileus for the time, went through a ceremony of marriage to the wine

god, in which she was assisted by fourteen Athenian matrons, called

_geraerae_, chosen by the basileus and sworn to secrecy. The days on

which the Pithoigia and Choes were celebrated were both regarded as

[Greek: apophrades] (_nefasti_) and [Greek: miarai] ("defiled"),

necessitating expiatory libations; on them the souls of the dead came up

from the underworld and walked abroad; people chewed leaves of

whitethorn and besmeared their doors with tar to protect themselves from

evil. But at least in private circles the festive character of the

ceremonies predominated. The third day was named _Chytri_ (feast of

pots, from [Greek: chytros], a pot), a festival of the dead. Cooked

pulse was offered to Hermes, in his capacity of a god of the lower

world, and to the souls of the dead. Although no performances were

allowed at the theatre, a sort of rehearsal took place, at which the

players for the ensuing dramatic festival were selected.

The name Anthesteria, according to the account of it given above, is

usually connected with [Greek: anthos] ("flower," or the "bloom" of the

grape), but A.W. Verrall (_Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xx., 1900, p.

115) explains it as a feast of "revocation" (from [Greek:

anathessasthai], to "pray back" or "up"), at which the ghosts of the

dead were recalled to the land of the living (_cp._ the Roman _mundus

patet_). J.E. Harrison (_ibid_. 100, 109, and _Prolegomena_), regarding

the Anthesteria as primarily a festival of all souls, the object of

which was the expulsion of ancestral ghosts by means of placation,

explains [Greek: pithoigia] as the feast of the opening of the graves

([Greek: pithos] meaning a large urn used for burial purposes), [Greek:

choes] as the day of libations, and [Greek: chutroi] as the day of the

grave-holes (not "pots," which is [Greek: chutrai]), in point of time

really anterior to the [Greek: pithoigia]. E. Rohde and M.P. Nilsson,

however, take the [Greek: chutroi] to mean "water vessels," and connect

the ceremony with the Hydrophoria, a libation festival to propitiate the

dead who had perished in the flood of Deucalion.

See F. Hiller von Gartringen in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_

(s.v.); J. Girard in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des

antiquites_ (s.v. "Dionysia"); and F.A. Voigt in Roscher's _Lexikon

der Mythologie_ (s.v. "Dionysos"); J.E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the

Study of Greek Religion_ (1903); M.P. Nilsson, _Studia de Dionysiis

Atticis_ (1900) and _Griechische Feste_ (1906); G.F. Schomann,

_Griechische Alterthumer_, ii. (ed. J.H. Lipsius, 1902), p. 516; A.

Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen_ (1898); E. Rohde, _Psyche_ (4th ed.,

1907), p. 237.

ANTHIM THE IBERIAN, a notable figure in the ecclesiastical history of

Rumania. A Georgian by birth, he came to Rumania early in the second

half of the 17th century, as a simple monk. He became bishop of Ramnicu

in 1705, and in 1708 archbishop of Walachia. Taking a leading part in

the political movements of the time, he came into conflict with the

newly appointed Greek hospodars, and was exiled to Rumelia. But on his

crossing the Danube in 1716 he was thrown into the water and drowned, as

it is alleged, at the instigation of the prince of Walachia. He was a

man of great talents and spoke and wrote many Oriental and European

languages. Though a foreigner, he soon acquired a thorough knowledge of

Rumanian, and was instrumental in helping to introduce that language

into the church as its official language. He was a master printer and an

artist of the first order. He cut the wood blocks for the books which he

printed in Tirgovishtea, Ramnicu, Snagov and Bucharest. He was also the

first to introduce Oriental founts of type into Rumania, and he printed

there the first Arabic missal for the Christians of the East (Ramnicu,

1702). He also trained Georgians in the art of printing, and cut the

type with which under his pupil Mihail Ishtvanovitch they printed the

first Georgian Gospels (Tiflis, 1709). A man of great oratorical power,

Anthim delivered a series of sermons (Didahii), and some of his pastoral

letters are models of style and of language as well as of exact and

beautiful printing. He also completed a whole _corpus_ of lectionaries,

missals, gospels, &c.

See M. Gaster, _Chrestomathie roumaine_ (1881), and "Gesch. d.

rumanischen Litteratur," in Grober, _Grundriss d. rom. Philologie_,

vol. ii. (1899); and E. Picot, _Notice sur Anthim d'Ivir_ (Paris,

1886). (M. G.)

ANTHOLOGY. The term "anthology," literally denoting a garland or

collection of flowers, is figuratively applied to any selection of

literary beauties, and especially to that great body of fugitive poetry,

comprehending about 4500 pieces, by upwards of 300 writers, which is

commonly known as the _Greek Anthology_.

_Literary History of the Greek Anthology._--The art of occasional poetry

had been cultivated in Greece from an early period,--less, however, as

the vehicle of personal feeling, than as the recognized commemoration of

remarkable individuals or events, on sepulchral monuments and votive

offerings: Such compositions were termed epigrams, i.e. inscriptions.

The modern use of the word is a departure from the original sense, which

simply indicated that the composition was intended to be engraved or

inscribed. Such a composition must necessarily be brief, and the

restraints attendant upon its publication concurred with the simplicity

of Greek taste in prescribing conciseness of expression, pregnancy of

meaning, purity of diction and singleness of thought, as the

indispensable conditions of excellence in the epigrammatic style. The

term was soon extended to any piece by which these conditions were

fulfilled. The transition from the monumental to the purely literary

character of the epigram was favoured by the exhaustion of more lofty

forms of poetry, the general increase, from the general diffusion of

culture, of accomplished writers and tasteful readers, but, above all,

by the changed political circumstances of the times, which induced many

who would otherwise have engaged in public affairs to addict themselves

to literary pursuits. These causes came into full operation during the

Alexandrian era, in which we find every description of epigrammatic

composition perfectly developed. About 60 B.C., the sophist and poet,

Meleager of Gadara, undertook to combine the choicest effusions of his

predecessors into a single body of fugitive poetry. Collections of

monumental inscriptions, or of poems on particular subjects, had

previously been formed by Polemon Periegetes and others; but Meleager

first gave the principle a comprehensive application. His selection,

compiled from forty-six of his predecessors, and including numerous

contributions of his own, was entitled _The Garland_ ([Greek:

Stephanos]); and in an introductory poem each poet is compared to some

flower, fancifully deemed appropriate to his genius. The arrangement of

his collection was alphabetical, according to the initial letter of each

epigram.

In the age of the emperor Tiberius (or Trajan, according to others) the

work of Meleager was continued by another epigrammatist, Philippus of

Thessalonica, who first employed the term anthology. His collection,

which included the compositions of thirteen writers subsequent to

Meleager, was also arranged alphabetically, and contained an

introductory poem. It was of inferior quality to Meleager's. Somewhat

later, under Hadrian, another supplement was formed by the sophist

Diogenianus of Heracleia (2nd century A.D.), and Strato of Sardis

compiled his elegant but tainted [Greek: Mousa Paidike] (Musa Puerilis)

from his productions and those of earlier writers. No further collection

from various sources is recorded until the time of Justinian, when

epigrammatic writing, especially of an amatory character, experienced a

great revival at the hands of Agathias of Myrina, the historian, Paulus

Silentiarius, and their circle. Their ingenious but mannered productions

were collected by Agathias into a new anthology, entitled _The Circle_

([Greek: Kyklos]); it was the first to be divided into books, and

arranged with reference to the subjects of the pieces.

These and other collections made during the middle ages are now lost.

The partial incorporation of them into a single body, classified

according to the contents in 15 books, was the work of a certain

Constantinus Cephalas, whose name alone is preserved in the single MS.

of his compilation extant, but who probably lived during the temporary

revival of letters under Constantine Porphyrogenitus, at the beginning

of the 10th century. He appears to have merely made excerpts from the

existing anthologies, with the addition of selections from Lucillius,

Palladas, and other epigrammatists, whose compositions had been

published separately. His arrangement, to which we shall have to recur,

is founded on a principle of classification, and nearly corresponds to

that adopted by Agathias. His principle of selection is unknown; it is

only certain that while he omitted much that he should have retained, he

has preserved much that would otherwise have perished. The extent of our

obligations may be ascertained by a comparison between his anthology and

that of the next editor, the monk Maximus Planudes (A.D. 1320), who has

not merely grievously mutilated the anthology of Cephalas by omissions,

but has disfigured it by interpolating verses of his own. We are,

however, indebted to him for the preservation of the epigrams on works

of art, which seem to have been accidentally omitted from our only

transcript of Cephalas.

The Planudean (in seven books) was the only recension of the anthology

known at the revival of classical literature, and was first published

at Florence, by Janus Lascaris, in 1494. It long continued to be the

only accessible collection, for although the Palatine MS., the sole

extant copy of the anthology of Cephalas, was discovered in the

Palatine library at Heidelberg, and copied by Saumaise (Salmasius) in

1606, it was not published until 1776, when it was included in

Brunck's _Analecta Veterum Poetarum Graecorum_. The MS. itself had

frequently changed its quarters. In 1623, having been taken in the

sack of Heidelberg in the Thirty Years' War, it was sent with the rest

of the Palatine Library to Rome as a present from Maximilian I. of

Bavaria to Gregory XV., who had it divided into two parts, the first

of which was by far the larger; thence it was taken to Paris in 1797.

In 1816 it went back to Heidelberg, but in an incomplete state, the

second part remaining at Paris. It is now represented at Heidelberg by

a photographic facsimile. Brunck's edition was superseded by the

standard one of Friedrich Jacobs (1794-1814, 13 vols.), the text of

which was reprinted in a more convenient form in 1813-1817, and

occupies three pocket volumes in the Tauchnitz series of the classics.

The best edition for general purposes is perhaps that of Dubner in

Didot's _Bibliotheca_ (1864-1872), which contains the Palatine

Anthology, the epigrams of the Planudean Anthology not comprised in

the former, an appendix of pieces derived from other sources, copious

notes selected from all quarters, a literal Latin prose translation by

Boissonade, Bothe, and Lapaume and the metrical Latin versions of Hugo

Grotius. A third volume, edited by E. Cougny, was published in 1890.

The best edition of the Planudean Anthology is the splendid one by van

Bosch and van Lennep (1795-1822). There is also a complete edition of

the text by Stadlmuller in the Teubner series.

_Arrangement._--The Palatine MS., the archetype of the present text, was

transcribed by different persons at different times, and the actual

arrangement of the collection does not correspond with that signalized

in the index. It is as follows: Book 1. Christian epigrams; 2.

Christodorus's description of certain statues; 3. Inscriptions in the

temple at Cyzicus; 4. The prefaces of Meleager, Philippus, and Agathias

to their respective collections; 5. Amatory epigrams; 6. Votive

inscriptions; 7. Epitaphs; 8. The epigrams of Gregory of Nazianzus; 9.

Rhetorical and illustrative epigrams; 10. Ethical pieces; 11. Humorous

and convivial; 12. Strata's Musa Puerilis; 13. Metrical curiosities; 14.

Puzzles, enigmas, oracles; 15. Miscellanies. The epigrams on works of

art, as already stated, are missing from the _Codex Palatinus_, and must

be sought in an appendix of epigrams only occurring in the Planudean

Anthology. The epigrams hitherto recovered from ancient monuments and

similar sources form appendices in the second and third volumes of

Dubner's edition.

_Style and Value._--One of the principal claims of the Anthology to

attention is derived from its continuity, its existence as a living and

growing body of poetry throughout all the vicissitudes of Greek

civilization. More ambitious descriptions of composition speedily ran

their course, and having attained their complete development became

extinct or at best lingered only in feeble or conventional imitations.

The humbler strains of the epigrammatic muse, on the other hand,

remained ever fresh and animated, ever in intimate union with the spirit

of the generation that gave them birth. To peruse the entire collection,

accordingly, is as it were to assist at the disinterment of an ancient

city, where generation has succeeded generation on the same site, and

each stratum of soil enshrines the vestiges of a distinct epoch, but

where all epochs, nevertheless, combine to constitute an organic whole,

and the transition from one to the other is hardly perceptible. Four

stages may be indicated:--1. The Hellenic proper, of which Simonides of

Ceos (c. 556-469 B.C.), the author of most of the sepulchral

inscriptions on those who fell in the Persian wars, is the

characteristic representative. This is characterized by a simple dignity

of phrase, which to a modern taste almost verges upon baldness, by a

crystalline transparency of diction, and by an absolute fidelity to the

original conception of the epigram. Nearly all the pieces of this era

are actual _bona fide_ inscriptions or addresses to real personages,

whether living or deceased; narratives, literary exercises, and sports

of fancy are exceedingly rare. 2. The epigram received a great

development in its second or Alexandrian era, when its range was so

extended as to include anecdote, satire, and amorous longing; when

epitaphs and votive inscriptions were composed on imaginary persons and

things, and men of taste successfully attempted the same subjects in

mutual emulation, or sat down to compose verses as displays of their

ingenuity. The result was a great gain in richness of style and general

interest, counterbalanced by a falling off in purity of diction and

sincerity of treatment. The modification--a perfectly legitimate one,

the resources of the old style being exhausted--had its real source in

the transformation of political life, but may be said to commence with

and to find its best representative in the playful and elegant Leonidas

of Tarentum, a contemporary of Pyrrhus, and to close with Antipater of

Sidon, about 140 B.C. (or later). It should be noticed, however, that

Callimachus, one of the most distinguished of the Alexandrian poets,

affects the sternest simplicity in his epigrams, and copies the

austerity of Simonides with as much success as an imitator can expect.

3. By a slight additional modification in the same direction, the

Alexandrian passes into what, for the sake of preserving the parallelism

with eras of Greek prose literature, we may call the Roman style,

although the peculiarities of its principal representative are decidedly

Oriental. Meleager of Gadara was a Syrian; his taste was less severe,

and his temperament more fervent than those of his Greek predecessors;

his pieces are usually erotic, and their glowing imagery sometimes

reminds us of the Song of Solomon. The luxuriance of his fancy

occasionally betrays him into far-fetched conceits, and the lavishness

of his epithets is only redeemed by their exquisite felicity. Yet his

effusions are manifestly the offspring of genuine feeling, and his

epitaph on himself indicates a great advance on the exclusiveness of

antique Greek patriotism, and is perhaps the first clear enunciation of

the spirit of universal humanity characteristic of the later Stoic

philosophy. His gaiety and licentiousness are imitated and exaggerated

by his somewhat later contemporary, the Epicurean Philodemus, perhaps

the liveliest of all the epigrammatists; his fancy reappears with

diminished brilliancy in Philodemus's contemporary, Zonas, in

Crinagoras, who wrote under Augustus, and in Marcus Argentarius, of

uncertain date; his peculiar gorgeousness of colouring remains entirely

his own. At a later period of the empire another _genre_, hitherto

comparatively in abeyance, was developed, the satirical. Lucillius, who

flourished under Nero, and Lucian, more renowned in other fields of

literature, display a remarkable talent for shrewd, caustic epigram,

frequently embodying moral reflexions of great cogency, often lashing

vice and folly with signal effect, but not seldom indulging in mere

trivialities, or deformed by scoffs at personal blemishes. This style of

composition is not properly Greek, but Roman; it answers to the modern

definition of epigram, and has hence attained a celebrity in excess of

its deserts. It is remarkable, however, as an almost solitary example of

direct Latin influence on Greek literature. The same style obtains with

Palladas, an Alexandrian grammarian of the 4th century, the last of the

strictly classical epigrammatists, and the first to be guilty of

downright bad taste. His better pieces, however, are characterized by an

austere ethical impressiveness, and his literary position is very

interesting as that of an indignant but despairing opponent of

Christianity. 4. The fourth or Byzantine style of epigrammatic

composition was cultivated by the _beaux-esprits_ of the court of

Justinian. To a great extent this is merely imitative, but the

circumstances of the period operated so as to produce a species of

originality. The peculiarly ornate and _recherche_ diction of Agathias

and his compeers is not a merit in itself, but, applied for the first

time, it has the effect of revivifying an old form, and many of their

new locutions are actual enrichments of the language. The writers,

moreover, were men of genuine poetical feeling, ingenious in invention,

and capable of expressing emotion with energy and liveliness; the

colouring of their pieces is sometimes highly dramatic.

It would be hard to exaggerate the substantial value of the Anthology,

whether as a storehouse of facts bearing on antique manners, customs and

ideas, or as one among the influences which have contributed to mould

the literature of the modern world. The multitudinous votive

inscriptions, serious and sportive, connote the phases of Greek

religious sentiment, from pious awe to irreverent familiarity and

sarcastic scepticism; the moral tone of the nation at various periods is

mirrored with corresponding fidelity; the sepulchral inscriptions admit

us into the inmost sanctuary of family affection, and reveal a depth

and tenderness of feeling beyond the province of the historian to

depict, which we should not have surmised even from the dramatists; the

general tendency of the collection is to display antiquity on its most

human side, and to mitigate those contrasts with the modern world which

more ambitious modes of composition force into relief. The constant

reference to the details of private life renders the Anthology an

inexhaustible treasury for the student of archaeology; art, industry and

costume receive their fullest illustration from its pages. Its influence

on European literatures will be appreciated in proportion to the

inquirer's knowledge of each. The further his researches extend, the

greater will be his astonishment at the extent to which the Anthology

has been laid under contribution for thoughts which have become

household words in all cultivated languages, and at the beneficial

effect of the imitation of its brevity, simplicity, and absolute verbal

accuracy upon the undisciplined luxuriance of modern genius.

_Translations, Imitations, &c._--The best versions of the Anthology

ever made are the Latin renderings of select epigrams by Hugo Grotius.

They have not been printed separately, but will be found in Bosch and

Lennep's edition of the Planudean _Anthology_, in the Didot edition,

and in Dr Wellesley's _Anthologia Polyglotta_. The number of more or

less professed imitations in modern languages is infinite, that of

actual translations less considerable. French and Italian, indeed, are

ill adapted to this purpose, from their incapacity of approximating to

the form of the original, and their poets have usually contented

themselves with paraphrases or imitations, often exceedingly

felicitous. F.D. Deheque's French prose translation, however (1863),

is most excellent and valuable. The German language alone admits of

the preservation of the original metre--a circumstance advantageous to

the German translators, Herder and Jacobs, who have not, however,

compensated the loss inevitably consequent upon a change of idiom by

any added beauties of their own. Though unfitted to reproduce the

precise form, the English language, from its superior terseness, is

better adapted to preserve the spirit of the original than the German;

and the comparative ill success of many English translators must be

chiefly attributed to the extremely low standard of fidelity and

brevity observed by them. Bland, Merivale, and their associates

(1806-1813), are often intolerably diffuse and feeble, from want, not

of ability, but of taking pains. Archdeacon Wrangham's too rare

versions are much more spirited; and John Sterling's translations of

the inscriptions of Simonides deserve high praise. Professor Wilson

(_Blackwood's Magazine_, 1833-1835) collected and commented upon the

labours of these and other translators, with his accustomed critical

insight and exuberant geniality, but damaged his essay by burdening it

with the indifferent attempts of William Hay. In 1849 Dr Wellesley,

principal of New Inn Hall, Oxford, published his _Anthologia

Polyglotta_, a most valuable collection of the best translations and

imitations in all languages, with the original text. In this appeared

some admirable versions by Goldwin Smith and Dean Merivale, which,

with the other English renderings extant at the time, will be found

accompanying the literal prose translation of the _Public School

Selections_, executed by the Rev. George Burges for Bohn's Classical

Library (1854). This is a useful volume, but the editor's notes are

worthless. In 1864 Major R.G. Macgregor published an almost complete

translation of the Anthology, a work whose stupendous industry and

fidelity almost redeem the general mediocrity of the execution.

_Idylls and Epigrams_, by R. Garnett (1869, reprinted 1892 in the

Cameo series), includes about 140 translations or imitations, with

some original compositions in the same style. Recent translations

(selections) are: J.W. Mackail, _Select Epigrams from the Greek

Anthology_ (with text, introduction, notes, and prose translation),

1890, revised 1906, a most charming volume; Graham R. Tomson (Mrs

Marriott Watson), _Selections from the Greek Anthology_ (1889); W.H.D.

Rouse, _Echo of Greek Song_ (1899); L.C. Perry, _From the Garden of

Hellas_ (New York, 1891); W.R. Paton, _Love Epigrams_ (1898). An

agreeable little volume on the Anthology, by Lord Neaves, is one of

Collins's series of _Ancient Classics for Modern Readers_. The earl of

Cromer, with all the cares of Egyptian administration upon him, found

time to translate and publish an elegant volume of selections (1903).

Two critical contributions to the subject should be noticed, the Rev.

James Davies's essay on Epigrams in the _Quarterly Review_ (vol.

cxvii.), especially valuable for its lucid illustration of the

distinction between Greek and Latin epigram; and the brilliant

disquisition in J.A. Symonds's _Studies of the Greek Poets_ (1873; 3rd

ed., 1893).

_Latin Anthology._--The _Latin Anthology_ is the appellation bestowed

upon a collection of fugitive Latin verse, from the age of Ennius to

about A.D. 1000, formed by Peter Burmann the Younger. Nothing

corresponding to the Greek anthology is known to have existed among the

Romans, though professional epigrammatists like Martial published their

volumes on their own account, and detached sayings were excerpted from

authors like Ennius and Publius Syrus, while the _Priapeia_ were

probably but one among many collections on special subjects. The first

general collection of scattered pieces made by a modern scholar was

Scaliger's _Catalecta veterum Poetarum_ (1573), succeeded by the more

ample one of Pithoeus, _Epigrammata et Poemata e Codicibus et Lapidibus

collecta_ (1590). Numerous additions, principally from inscriptions,

continued to be made, and in 1759-1773 Burmann digested the whole into

his _Anthologia veterum Latinorum Epigrammatum et Poematum_. This,

occasionally reprinted, was the standard edition until 1869, when

Alexander Riese commenced a new and more critical recension, from which

many pieces improperly inserted by Burmann are rejected, and his

classified arrangement is discarded for one according to the sources

whence the poems have been derived. The first volume contains those

found in MSS., in the order of the importance of these documents; those

furnished by inscriptions following. The first volume (in two parts)

appeared in 1869-1870, a second edition of the first part in 1894, and

the second volume, _Carmina Epigraphica_ (in two parts), in 1895-1897,

edited by F. Bucheler. An _Anthologiae Latinae Supplementa_, in the same

series, followed. Having been formed by scholars actuated by no

aesthetic principles of selection, but solely intent on preserving

everything they could find, the Latin anthology is much more

heterogeneous than the Greek, and unspeakably inferior. The really

beautiful poems of Petronius and Apuleius are more properly inserted in

the collected editions of their writings, and more than half the

remainder consists of the frigid conceits of pedantic professional

exercises of grammarians of a very late period of the empire, relieved

by an occasional gem, such as the apostrophe of the dying Hadrian to his

spirit, or the epithalamium of Gallienus. The collection is also, for

the most part, too recent in date, and too exclusively literary in

character, to add much to our knowledge of classical antiquity. The

epitaphs are interesting, but the genuineness of many of them is very

questionable. (R. G.)

ANTHON, CHARLES (1797-1867), American classical scholar, was born in New

York city on the 19th of November 1797. After graduating with honours at

Columbia College in 1815, he began the study of law, and in 1819 was

admitted to the bar, but never practised. In 1820 he was appointed

assistant professor of Greek and Latin in his old college, full

professor ten years later, and at the same time headmaster of the

grammar school attached to the college, which post he held until 1864.

He died at New York on the 29th of July 1867. He produced for use in

colleges and schools a large number of classical works, which enjoyed

great popularity, although his editions of classical authors were by no

means in favour with schoolmasters, owing to the large amount of

assistance, especially translations, contained in the notes.

ANTHONY, SAINT, the first Christian monk, was born in Egypt about 250.

At the age of twenty he began to practise an ascetical life in the

neighbourhood of his native place, and after fifteen years of this life

he withdrew into solitude to a mountain by the Nile, called Pispir, now

Der el Memun, opposite Arsinoe in the Fayum. Here he lived strictly

enclosed in an old fort for twenty years. At last in the early years of

the 4th century he emerged from his retreat and set himself to organize

the monastic life of the crowds of monks who had followed him and taken

up their abode in the caves around him. After a time, again in pursuit

of more complete solitude, he withdrew to the mountain by the Red Sea,

where now stands the monastery that bears his name (Der Mar Antonios).

Here he died about the middle of the 4th century. His _Life_ states that

on two occasions he went to Alexandria, to strengthen the Christians in

the Diocletian persecution and to preach against Arianism. Anthony is

recognized as the first Christian monk and the first organizer and

father of Christian monachism (see MONASTICISM). Certain letters and

sermons are attributed to him, but their authenticity is more than

doubtful. The monastic rule which bears his name was not written by him,

but was compiled out of these writings and out of discourses and

utterances put into his mouth in the _Life_ and the _Apophthegmata

Patrum_. According to this rule live a number of Coptic Syrian and

Armenian monks to this day. The chief source of information about St

Anthony is the _Life_, attributed to St Athanasius. This attribution, as

also the historical character of the book, and even the very existence

of St Anthony, were questioned and denied by the sceptical criticism of

thirty years ago; but such doubts are no longer entertained by critical

scholars.

The Greek _Vita_ is among the works of St Athanasius; the almost

contemporary Latin translation is among Rosweyd's _Vitae Patrum_

(Migne, _Patrol. Lat_. lxxiii.); an English translation is in the

Athanasius volume of the "Nicene and Post-Nicene Library." Accounts of

St Anthony are given by Card. Newman, _Church of the Fathers_

(Historical Sketches) and Alban Butler, _Lives of the Saints_ (Jan.

17). Discussions of the historical and critical questions raised will

be found in E.C. Butler's _Lausiac History of Palladius_ (1898, 1904),

Part I. pp. 197, 215-228; Part II. pp. ix.-xii. (E. C. B.)

ANTHONY OF PADUA, SAINT (1195-1231), the most celebrated of the

followers of Saint Francis of Assisi, was born at Lisbon on the 15th of

August 1195. In his fifteenth year he entered the Augustinian order, and

subsequently joined the Franciscans in 1220. He wished to devote himself

to missionary labours in North Africa, but the ship in which he sailed

was cast by a storm on the coast of Sicily, whence he made his way to

Italy. He taught theology at Bologna, Toulouse, Montpellier and Padua,

and won a great reputation as a preacher throughout Italy. He was the

leader of the rigorous party in the Franciscan order against the

mitigations introduced by the general Elias. His death took place at the

convent of Ara Coeli, near Padua, on the 13th of June 1231. He was

canonized by Gregory IX. in the following year, and his festival is kept

on the 13th of June. He is regarded as the patron saint of Padua and of

Portugal, and is appealed to by devout clients for finding lost objects.

The meagre accounts of his life which we possess have been supplemented

by numerous popular legends, which represent him as a continuous worker

of miracles, and describe his marvellous eloquence by pictures of fishes

leaping out of the water to hear him. There are many confraternities

established in his honour throughout Christendom, and the number of

"pious" biographies devoted to him would fill many volumes.

The most trustworthy modern works are by A. Lepitre, _St Antoine de

Padoue_ (Paris, 1902, in _Les Saints_ series: good bibliography; Eng.

trans. by Edith Guest, London, 1902), and by Leopold de Cherance, _St

Antoine de Padoue_ (Paris, 1895; Eng. trans., London, 1896). His

works, consisting of sermons and a mystical commentary on the Bible,

were published in an appendix to those of St Francis, in the _Annales

Minorum_ of Luke Wadding (Antwerp, 1623), and are also reproduced by

Horoy, _Medii aevi bibliotheca patristica_ (1880, vi. pp. 555 et

sqq.); see art. "Antonius von Padua" in Herzog-Hauck,

_Realencyklopadie_.

ANTHONY, SUSAN BROWNELL (1820-1906), American reformer, was born at

Adams, Massachusetts, on the 15th of February 1820, the daughter of

Quakers. Soon after her birth, her family moved to the state of New

York, and after 1845 she lived in Rochester. She received her early

education in a school maintained by her father for his own and

neighbours' children, and from the time she was seventeen until she was

thirty-two she taught in various schools. In the decade preceding the

outbreak of the Civil War she took a prominent part in the anti-slavery

and temperance movements in New York, organizing in 1852 the first

woman's state temperance society in America, and in 1856 becoming the

agent for New York state of the American Anti-slavery Society. After

1854 she devoted herself almost exclusively to the agitation for woman's

rights, and became recognized as one of the ablest and most zealous

advocates, both as a public speaker and as a writer, of the complete

legal equality of the two sexes. From 1868 to 1870 she was the

proprietor of a weekly paper, _The Revolution_, published in New York,

edited by Mrs Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and having for its motto, "The

true republic--men, their rights and nothing more; women, their rights

and nothing less." She was vice-president-at-large of the National

Woman's Suffrage Association from the date of its organization in 1869

until 1892, when she became president. For casting a vote in the

presidential election of 1872, as, she asserted, the Fourteenth

Amendment to the Federal Constitution entitled her to do, she was

arrested and fined $100, but she never paid the fine. In collaboration

with Mrs Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Mrs Matilda Joslyn Gage, and Mrs Ida

Husted Harper, she published _The History of Woman Suffrage_ (4 vols.,

New York, 1884-1887). She died at Rochester, New York, on the 13th of

March 1906.

See Mrs Ida Husted Harper's _Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony_ (3

vols., Indianapolis, 1898-1908).

ANTHOZOA (i.e. "flower-animals"), the zoological name for a class of

marine polyps forming "coral" (q.v.). Although corals have been familiar

objects since the days of antiquity, and the variety known as the

precious red coral has been for a long time an article of commerce in

the Mediterranean, it was only in the 18th century that their true

nature and structure came to be understood. By the ancients and the

earlier naturalists of the Christian era they were regarded either as

petrifactions or as plants, and many supposed that they occupied a

position midway between minerals and plants. The discovery of the animal

nature of red coral is due to J.A. de Peyssonel, a native of Marseilles,

who obtained living specimens from the coral fishers on the coast of

Barbary and kept them alive in aquaria. He was thus able to see that the

so-called "flowers of coral" were in fact nothing else than minute

polyps resembling sea-anemones. His discovery, made in 1727, was

rejected by the Academy of Sciences of France, but eventually found

acceptance at the hands of the Royal Society of London, and was

published by that body in 1751. The structure and classification of

polyps, however, were at that time very imperfectly understood, and it

was fully a century before the true anatomical characters and systematic

position of corals were placed on a secure basis.

The hard calcareous substance to which the name coral is applied is the

supporting skeleton of certain members of the _Anthozoa_, one of the

classes of the phylum Coelentera. The most familiar Anthozoan is the

common sea-anemone, _Actinia equina_, L., and it will serve, although it

does not form a skeleton or _corallum_, as a good example of the

structure of a typical Anthozoan polyp or zooid. The individual animal

or zooid of _Actinia equina_ has the form of a column fixed by one

extremity, called the _base_, to a rock or other object, and bearing at

the opposite extremity a crown of _tentacles_. The tentacles surround an

area known as the _peristome_, in the middle of which there is an

elongated mouth-opening surrounded by tumid lips. The mouth does not

open directly into the general cavity of the body, as is the case in a

hydrozoan polyp, but into a short tube called the _stomodaeum_, which in

its turn opens below into the general body-cavity or _coelenteron_. In

Actinia and its allies, and most generally, though not invariably, in

Anthozoa, the stomodaeum is not circular, but is compressed from side to

side so as to be oval or slit-like in transverse section. At each end of

the oval there is a groove lined by specially long vibratile cilia.

These grooves are known as the _sulcus_ and _sulculus_, and will be more

particularly described hereafter. The elongation of the mouth and

stomodaeum confer a bilateral symmetry on the body of the zooid, which

is extended to other organs of the body. In Actinia, as in all Anthozoan

zooids, the coelenteron is not a simple cavity, as in a Hydroid, but is

divided by a number of radial folds or curtains of soft tissue into a

corresponding number of radial chambers. These radial folds are known as

_mesenteries_, and their position and relations may be understood by

reference to figs. 1 and 2. Each mesentery is attached by its upper

margin to the peristome, by its outer margin to the body-wall, and by

its lower margin to the basal disk. A certain number of mesenteries,

known as complete mesenteries, are attached by the upper parts of their

internal margins to the stomodaeum, but below this level their edges

hang in the coelenteron. Other mesenteries, called incomplete, are not

attached to the stomodaeum, and their internal margins are free from the

peristome to the basal disk. The lower part of the free edge of every

mesentery, whether complete or incomplete, is thrown into numerous

puckers or folds, and is furnished with a glandular thickening known as

a _mesenterial filament_. The reproductive organs or gonads are borne

on the mesenteries, the germinal cells being derived from the inner

layer or endoderm.

[Illustration: FIG. 1. Diagrammatic longitudinal section of an Anthozoan

zooid,

m, Mesentery. s, Stoma.

t, Tentacles. lm, Longitudinal muscle.

st, Stomodaeum. d, Diagonal Muscle.

sc, Sulcus. go, Gonads.

r, Rotteken's muscle.]

In common with all Coelenterate animals, the walls of the columnar body

and also the tentacles and peristome of Actinia are composed of three

layers of tissue. The external layer, or ectoderm, is made up of cells,

and contains also muscular and nervous elements. The preponderating

elements of the ectodermic layer are elongated columnar cells, each

containing a nucleus, and bearing cilia at their free extremities.

Packed in among these are _gland cells, sense cells_, and _cnidoblasts_.

The last-named are specially numerous on the tentacles and on some other

regions of the body, and produce the well-known "thread cells," or

_nematocysts_, so characteristic of the Coelentera. The inner layer or

endoderm is also a cellular layer, and is chiefly made up of columnar

cells, each bearing a cilium at its free extremity and terminating

internally in a long muscular fibre. Such cells, made up of epithelial

and muscular components, are known as epithelio-muscular or

myo-epithelial cells. In Actinians the epithelio-muscular cells of the

endoderm are crowded with yellow spherical bodies, which are unicellular

plants or Algae, living symbiotically in the tissues of the zooid. The

endoderm contains in addition gland cells and nervous elements. The

middle layer or mesogloea is not originally a cellular layer, but a

gelatinoid structureless substance, secreted by the two cellular layers.

In the course of development, however, cells from the ectoderm and

endoderm may migrate into it. In _Actinia equina_ the mesogloea consists

of fine fibres imbedded in a homogeneous matrix, and between the fibres

are minute branched or spindle-shaped cells. For further details of the

structure of Actinians, the reader should consult the work of O. and R.

Hertwig.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--1, Portion of epithelium from the tentacle of an

Actinian, showing three supporting cells and one sense cell (sc); 2, a

cnidoblast with enclosed nematocyst from the same specimen; 3 and 4 two

forms of gland cell from the stomodaeum; 5a, 5b, epithelio-muscular

cells from the tentacle in different states of contraction; 5c, an

epithelio-muscular cell from the endoderm, containing a symbiotic

zooxanthella; 6, a ganglion cell from the ectoderm of the peristome.

(After O. and R. Hertwig.)]

The Anthozoa are divisible into two sub-classes, sharply marked off from

one another by definite anatomical characters. These are the ALCYONARIA

and the ZOANTHARIA. To the first-named belong the precious red coral and

its allies, the sea-fans or Gorgoniae, to the second belong the white or

Madreporarian corals.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--An expanded Alcyonarian zooid, showing the mouth

surrounded by eight pinnate tentacles. st, Stomodaeum in the the centre

of the transparent body; m, mesenteries; asm, asulcar mesenteries; B,

spicules, enlarged.]

Alcyonaria.--In this sub-class the zooid has very constant anatomical

characters, differing in some important respects from the Actinian

zooid, which has been taken as a type. There is only one ciliated

groove, the sulcus, in the stomodaeum. There are always eight

tentacles, which are hollow and fringed on their sides, with hollow

projections or pinnae; and always eight mesenteries, all of which are

complete, i.e. inserted on the stomodaeum. The mesenteries are

provided with well-developed longitudinal retractor muscles, supported

on longitudinal folds or plaits of the mesogloea, so that in

cross-section they have a branched appearance. These _muscle-banners_,

as they are called, have a highly characteristic arrangement; they are

all situated on those faces of the mesenteries which look towards the

sulcus. (fig. 4). Each mesentery has a filament; but two of them,

namely, the pair farthest from the sulcus, are longer than the rest,

and have a different form of filament. It has been shown that these

asulcar filaments are derived from the ectoderm, the remainder from

the endoderm. The only exceptions to this structure are found in the

arrested or modified zooids, which occur in many of the colonial

Alcyonaria. In these the tentacles are stunted or suppressed and the

mesenteries are ill-developed, but the sulcus is unusually large and

has long cilia. Such modified zooids are called siphonozooids, their

function being to drive currents of fluid through the canal-systems of

the colonies to which they belong. With very few exceptions a

calcareous skeleton is present in all Alcyonaria; it usually consists

of spicules of carbonate of lime, each spicule being formed within an

ectodermic cell (fig. 3, B). Most commonly the spicule-forming cells

pass out of the ectoderm and are imbedded in the mesogloea, where they

may remain separate from one another or may be fused together to form

a strong mass. In addition to the spicular skeleton an organic horny

skeleton is frequently present, either in the form of a horny external

investment (_Cornularia_), or an internal axis (_Gorgonia_), or it may

form a matrix in which spicules are imbedded (_Keroeides, Meistodes_).

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Transverse section of an Alcyonarian zooid mm,

Mesenteries; mb, muscle banners; sc, sulcus; st, stomodaeum.]

Nearly all the Alcyonaria are colonial. Four solitary species have

been described, viz. _Haimea funebris_ and _H. hyalina, Hartea

elegans_, and _Monoxenia Darwinii_; but it is doubtful whether these

are not the young forms of colonies. For the present the solitary

forms may be placed in a grade, _Protal-cyonacea_, and the colonial

forms may be grouped in another grade, _Synalcyonacea_. Every

Alcyonarian colony is developed by budding from a single parent zooid.

The buds are not direct outgrowths of the body-wall, but are formed on

the courses of hollow out growths of the base or body-wall, called

_solenia_. These form a more or less complicated canal system, lined

by endoderm, and communicating with the cavities of the zooids. The

most simple form of budding is found in the genus _Cornularia_, in

which the mother zooid gives off from its base one or more simple

radiciform outgrowths. Each outgrowth contains a single tube or

solenium, and at a longer or shorter distance from the mother zooid a

daughter zooid is formed as a bud. This gives off new outgrowths, and

these, branching and anastomosing with one another, may form a

network, adhering to stones, corals, or other objects, from which

zooids arise at intervals. In _Clavularia_ and its allies each

outgrowth contains several solenia, and the outgrowths may take the

form of flat expansions, composed of a number of solenial tubes felted

together to form a lamellar surface of attachment. Such outgrowths are

called _stolons_, and a stolon may be simple, i.e. contain only one

solenium, as in _Cornularia_, or may be complex and built up of many

solenia, as in _Clavularia_. Further complications arise when the

lower walls of the mother zooid become thickened and interpenetrated

with solenia, from which buds are developed, so that lobose, tufted,

or branched colonies are formed. The chief orders of the Synalcyonacea

are founded upon the different architectural features of colonies

produced by different modes of budding. We recognize six orders--the

STOLONIFERA, ALCYONACEA, PSEUDAXONIA, AXIFERA, STELECHOTOKEA, and

CORNOTHECALIA.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.

A. Skeleton of a young colony of _Tubipora purpurea_. st, Stolon; p,

platform.

B. Diagrammatic longitudinal section of a corallite, showing two

platforms, p and cup-shaped tabulae, t. (After S.J. Hickson.)]

In the order STOLONIRERA the zooids spring at intervals from branching

or lamellar stolons, and are usually free from one another, except at

their bases, but in some cases horizontal solenia arising at various

heights from the body-wall may place the more distal portions of the

zooids in communication with one another. In the genus _Tubipora_

these horizontal solenia unite to form a series of horizontal

platforms (fig. 5). The order comprises the families _Cornulamdae,

Syringopordae, Tubipondae_, and _Favositidae_. In the first-named, the

zooids are united only by their bases and the skeleton consists of

loose spicules. In the _Tubipondae_ the spicules of the proximal part

of the body-wall are fused together to form a firm tube, the

corallite, into which the distal part of the zooid can be retracted.

The corallites are connected at intervals by horizontal platforms

containing solenia, and at the level of each platform the cavity of

the corallite is divided by a transverse calcareous partition, either

flat or cup-shaped, called a _tabula_. Formerly all corals in which

tabulae are present were classed together as Tabulata, but Tubipora is

an undoubted Alcyonarian with a lamellar stolon, and the structure of

the fossil genus Syringopora, which has vertical corallites united by

horizontal solenia, clearly shows its affinity to Tubipora. The

Favositidae, a fossil family from the Silurian and Devonian, have a

massive corallum composed of numerous polygonal corallites closely

packed together. The cavities of adjacent corallites communicate by

means of numerous perforations, which appear to represent solenia, and

numerous transverse tabulae are also present. In _Favosites

hemisphaerica_ a number of radial spines, projecting into the cavity

of the corallite, give it the appearance of a madreporarian coral.

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Portion of a colony of _Coralinum rubrum_,

showing expanded and contracted zooids. In the lower part of the

figure the cortex has been cut away to show the _axis_, ax, and the

longitudinal canals, lc, surrounding it.]

In the order ALCYONACEA the colony consists of bunches of elongate

cylindrical zooids, whose proximal portions are united by solenia and

compacted, by fusion of their own walls and those of the solenia, into

a fleshy mass called the coenenchyma. Thus the coenenchyma forms a

stem, sometimes branched, from the surface of which the free portions

of the zooids project. The skeleton of the Alcyonacea consists of

separate calcareous spicules, which are often, especially in the

Nephthyidae, so abundant and so closely interlocked as to form a

tolerably firm and hard armour. The order comprises the families

_Xeniidae, Alcyonidae_ and _Nephthyidae_. _Alcyonium digitatum_, a

pink digitate form popularly known as "dead men's fingers," is common

in 10-20 fathoms of water off the English coasts.

[Illustration: FIG. 7.--The sea-fan (_Gorgonia cavolinii_).]

In the order PSEUDAXONIA the colonies are upright and branched,

consisting of a number of short zooids whose proximal ends are

imbedded in a coenenchyma containing numerous ramifying solenia and

spicules. The coenenchyma is further differentiated into a medullary

portion and a cortex. The latter contains the proximal moieties of the

zooids and numerous but separate spicules. The medullary portion is

densely crowded with spicules of different shape from those in the

cortex, and in some forms the spicules are cemented together to form a

hard supporting axis. There are four families of Pseudaxonia--the

_Briareidae, Sclerogorgidae, Melitodidae_, and _Corallidae_. In the

first-named the medulla is penetrated by solenia and forms an

indistinct axis; in the remainder the medulla is devoid of solenia,

and in the _Melitodidae_ and _Corallidae_ it forms a dense axis, which

in the _Melitodidae_ consists of alternate calcareous and horny

joints. The precious red coral of commerce, _Corallium rubrum_ (fig.

6), a member of the family _Corallidae_, is found at depths varying

from 15 to 120 fathoms the Mediterranean Sea, chiefly on the African

coast. It owes its commercial value to the beauty of its hard red

calcareous axis which in life is covered by a cortex in which the

proximal moieties of the zooids are imbedded. _Corallium rubrum_ has

been the subject of a beautifully-illustrated memoir by de

Lacaze-Duthiers, which should be consulted for details of anatomy.

The AXIFERA comprise those corals that have a horny or calcified axis,

which in position corresponds to the axis of the Pscudaxonia, but,

unlike it, is never formed of fused spicules; the most familiar

example is the pink sea-fan, _Gorgonia cavolinii_, which is found in

abundance in 10-25 fathoms of water off the English coasts (fig. 7).

In this order the axis is formed as an ingrowth of the ectoderm of the

base of the mother zooid of the colony, the cavity of the ingrowth

being filled by a horny substance secreted by the ectoderm. In

_Gorgonia_ the axis remains horny throughout life, but in many forms

it is further strengthened by a deposit of calcareous matter In the

family _Isidinae_ the axis consists of alternate segments of horny and

calcareous substance, the latter being amorphous. The order contains

six families--the _Dasygorgidae, Isidae, Primnoidae, Muriceidae,

Plexauridae_, and _Gorgoniaae_.

[Illustration: FIG. 8.

A. Colony of _Pennatula phosphorea_ from the metarachidial aspect. p,

The peduncle.

B. Section of the rachis bearing a single pinna, a, Axis; b,

metarachidial; c, prorachidial; d, pararachidial stem canals.]

In the order STELECHOTOKEA the colony consists of a stem formed by a

greatly-elongated mother zooid, and the daughter zooids are borne as

lateral buds on the stem. In the section _Asiphonacea_ the colonies

are upright and branched, springing from membranous or ramifying

stolons. They resemble and are closely allied to certain families of

the Cornulariidae, differing from them only in mode of budding and in

the dispostion of the daughter zooids round a central, much-elongated

mother zooid. The section contains two families, the _Telestidae_ and

the _Coelogorgidae_. The second section comprises the _Pennatulacea_

or sea-pens, which are remarkable from the fact that the colony is not

fixed by the base to a rock or other object, but is imbedded in sand

or mud by the proximal portion of the stem known as the peduncle. In

the typical genus, Pennatula (fig. 8), the colony looks like a feather

having a stem divisible into an upper moiety or rachis, bearing

lateral central leaflets (pinnae), and a lower peduncle, which is

sterile and imbedded in sand or mud. The stem represents a greatly

enlarged and elongated mother zooid. It is divided longitudinally by a

partition separating a so-called "ventral" or prorachidial canal from

a so-called "dorsal" or metarachidial canal. A rod-like supporting

axis of peculiar texture is developed in the longitudinal partition,

and a longitudinal canal is hollowed out on either side of the axis in

the substance of the longitudinal partition, so that there are four

stem-canals in all. The prorachidial and metarachidial aspects of the

rachis are sterile, but the sides or pararachides bear numerous

daughter zooids of two kinds--(1) fully-formed autozooids, (2) small

stunted siphonozooids. The pinnae are formed by the elongated

autozooids, whose proximal portions are fused together to form a

leaf-like expansion, from the upper edge of which the distal

extremities of the zooids project. The siphonozooids are very numerous

and lie between the bases at the pinnae on the pararachides; they

extend also on the prorachidial and metarachidial surfaces. The

calcareous skeleton of the Pennatulacea consists of scattered

spicules, but in one species, _Protocaulon molle_, spicules are

absent. Although of great interest the Pennatulacea do not form an

enduring skeleton or "coral," and need not be considered in detail in

this place.

[Illustration: FIG. 9.

A, Portion of the surface of a colony of _Heliopora coerulea_

magnified, showing two calices and the surrounding coenenchymal tubes.

B, Single zooid with the adjacent soft tissues as seen after removal

of the skeleton by decalcification. Z1, the distal, and Z2, the

proximal or intracalicular portion of the zooid; ec, ectoderm; ct,

coenenchymal tubes; sp, superficial network of solenia.]

The order COENOTHECALIA is represented by a single living species,

_Heliopora coerulea_, which differs from all recent Alcyonaria in the

fact that its skeleton is not composed of spicules, but is formed as a

secretion from a layer of cells called calicoblasts, which originate

from the ectoderm. The corallum of Heliopora is of a blue colour, and

has the form of broad, upright, lobed, or digitate masses flattened

from side to side. The surfaces are pitted all over with perforations

of two kinds, viz. larger star-shaped cavities, called _calices_, in

which the zooids are lodged, and very numerous smaller round or

polygonal apertures, which in life contain as many short unbranched

tubes, known as the _coenenchymal tubes_ (fig. 9, A). The walls of the

calices and coenenchymal tubes are formed of flat plates of calcite,

which are so disposed that the walls of one tube enter into the

composition of the walls of adjacent tubes, and the walls of the

calices are formed by the walls of adjacent coenenchymal tubes. Thus

the architecture of the Helioporid colony differs entirely from such

forms as Tubipora or Favosites, in which each corallite has its own

distinct and proper wall. The cavities both of the calices and

coenenchymal tubes of Heliopora are closed below by horizontal

partitions or _tabulae_, hence the genus was formerly included in the

group Tabulata, and was supposed to belong to the madreporarian

corals, both because of its lamellar skeleton, which resembles that of

a Madrepore, and because each calicle has from twelve to fifteen

radial partitions or septa projecting into its cavity. The structure

of the zooid of Heliopora, however, is that of a typical Alcyonarian,

and the septa have only a resemblance to, but no real homology with,

the similarly named structures in madreporarian corals. _Heliopora

coerulea_ is found between tide-marks on the shore platforms of coral

islands. The order was more abundantly represented in Palaeozoic times

by the _Heliolitidae_ from the Upper and Lower Silurian and the

Devonian, and by the _Thecidae_ from the Wenlock limestone. In

_Heliolites porosus_ the colonies had the form of spheroidal masses;

the calices were furnished with twelve pseudosepta, and the

coenenchymal tubes were more or less regularly hexagonal.

[Illustration with caption: FIG. 10.

A, _Edwardsia claparedii_ (after A. Andres). Cap, capitulum; sc,

scapus; ph, physa.

B, Transverse section of the same, showing the arrangement of the

mesenteries, s, Sulcus; sl, sulculus.

C, Transverse section of _Halcampa_. d, d, Directive mesenteries; st,

stomodaeum.]

Zoantharia.--In this sub-class the arrangement of the mesenteries is

subject to a great deal of variation, but all the types hitherto

observed may be referred to a common plan, illustrated by the living

genus _Edwardsia_ (fig. 10, A, B). This is a small solitary

Zoantharian which lives embedded in sand. Its body is divisible into

three portions, an upper _capitulum_ bearing the mouth and tentacles,

a median _scapus_ covered by a friable cuticle, and a terminal physa

which is rounded. Both capitulum and physa can be retracted within the

scapus. There are from sixteen to thirty-two simple tentacles, but

only eight mesenteries, all of which are complete. The stomodaeum is

compressed laterally, and is furnished with two longitudinal grooves,

a sulcus and a sulculus. The arrangement of the muscle-banners on the

mesenteries is characteristic. On six of the mesenteries the

muscle-banners have the same position as in the Alcyonaria, namely, on

the sulcar faces; but in the two remaining mesenteries, namely, those

which are attached on either side of the sulcus, the muscle-banners

are on the opposite or sulcular faces. It is not known whether all the

eight mesenteries of _Edwardsia_ are developed simultaneously or not,

but in the youngest form which has been studied all the eight

mesenteries were present, but only two of them, namely the

sulco-laterals, bore mesenterial filaments, and so it is presumed that

they are the first pair to be developed. In the common sea-anemone,

_Actinia equina_ (which has already been quoted as a type of Anthozoan

structure), the mesenteries are numerous and are arranged in cycles.

The mesenteries of the first cycle are complete (i.e. are attached to

the stomodaeum), are twelve in number, and arranged in couples,

distinguishable by the position of the muscle-banners. In the four

couples of mesenteries which are attached to the sides of the

elongated stomodaeum the muscle-banners of each couple are turned

towards one another, but in the sulcar and sulcular couples, known as

the directive mesenteries, the muscle-banners are on the outer faces

of the mesenteries, and so are turned away from one another (see fig.

10, C). The space enclosed between two mesenteries of the same couple

is called an _entocoele_; the space enclosed between two mesenteries

of adjacent couples is called an _exocoele_. The second cycle of

mesenteries consists of six couples, each formed in an exocoele of the

primary cycle, and in each couple the muscle-banners are _vis-a-vis_.

The third cycle comprises twelve couples, each formed in an exocoele

between the primary and secondary couples and so on, it being a

general rule (subject, however, to exceptions) that new mesenterial

couples are always formed in the exocoeles, and not in the entocoeles.

[Illustration: FIG. 11.--A, Diagram showing the sequence of

mesenterial development in an Actinian. B, Diagrammatic transverse

section of _Gonactinia prolifera_.]

While the mesenterial couples belonging to the second and each

successive cycle are formed simultaneously, those of the first cycle

are formed in successive pairs, each member of a pair being placed on

opposite sides of the stomodaeum. Hence the arrangement in six couples

is a secondary and not a primary feature. In most Actinians the

mesenteries appear in the following order:--At the time when the

stomodaeum is formed, a single pair of mesenteries, marked I, I in the

diagram (fig. 11, A), makes its appearance, dividing the coelenteric

cavity into a smaller sulcar and a large sulcular chamber. The

muscle-banners of this pair are placed on the sulcar faces of the

mesenteries. Next, a pair of mesenteries, marked II, II in the

diagram, is developed in the sulcular chamber, its muscle-banners

facing the same way as those of I, I. The third pair is formed in the

sulcar chamber, in close connexion with the sulcus, and in this case

the muscle-banners are on the _sulcular_ faces. The fourth pair,

having its muscle-banners on the sulcar faces, is developed at the

opposite extremity of the stomodaeum in close connexion with the

sulculus. There are now eight mesenteries present, having exactly the

same arrangement as in Edwardsia. A pause in the development follows,

during which no new mesenteries are formed, and then the six-rayed

symmetry characteristic of a normal Actinian zooid is completed by the

formation of the mesenteries V, V in the lateral chambers, and VI, VI

in the sulco-lateral chambers, their muscle-banners being so disposed

that they form couples respectively with II, II and I, I. In _Actinia

equina_ the Edwardsia stage is arrived at somewhat differently. The

mesenteries second in order of formation form the sulcular directives,

those fourth in order of formation form with the fifth the

sulculo-lateral couples of the adult.

[Illustration: FIG. 12.

A, Zoanthid colony, showing the expanded zooids.

B, Diagram showing the arrangement of mesenteries in a young Zoanthid.

C, Diagram showing the arrangement of mesenteries in an adult

Zoanthid. 1, 2, 3, 4, Edwardsian mesenteries.]

As far as the anatomy of the zooid is concerned, the majority of the

stony or madreporarian corals agree exactly with the soft-bodied

Actinians, such as _Actinia equina_, both in the number and

arrangement of the adult mesenteries and in the order of development

of the first cycle. The few exceptions will be dealt with later, but

it may be stated here that even in these the first cycle of six

couples of mesenteries is always formed, and in all the cases which

have been examined the course of development described above is

followed. There are, however, several groups of Zoantharia in which

the mesenterial arrangement of the adult differs widely from that just

described. But it is possible to refer all these cases with more or

less certainty to the Edwardsian type.

The order ZOANTHIDEA comprises a number of soft-bodied Zoantharians

generally encrusted with sand. Externally they resemble ordinary

sea-anemones, but there is only one ciliated groove, the sulcus, in

the stomodaeum, and the mesenteries are arranged on a peculiar

pattern. The first twelve mesenteries are disposed in couples, and do

not differ from those of Actinia except in size. The mesenterial pairs

I, II and III are attached to the stomodaeum, and are called

macromesenteries (fig. 12, B), but IV, V and VI are much shorter, and

are called micromesenteries. The subsequent development is peculiar to

the group. New mesenteries are formed only in the sulco-lateral

exocoeles. They are formed in couples, each couple consisting of a

macromesentery and a micromesentery, disposed so that the former is

nearest to the sulcar directives. The derivation of the Zoanthidea

from an Edwardsia form is sufficiently obvious.

The order CERIANTHIDEA comprises a few soft-bodied Zoantharians with

rounded aboral extremities pierced by pores. They have two circlets of

tentacles, a labial and a marginal, and there is only one ciliated

groove in the stomodaeum, which appears to be the sulculus. The

mesenteries are numerous, and the longitudinal muscles, though

distinguishable, are so feebly developed that there are no

muscle-banners. The larval forms of the type genus _Cerianthus_ float

freely in the sea, and were once considered to belong to a separate

genus, _Arachnactis_. In this larva four pairs of mesenteries having

the typical Edwardsian arrangement are developed, but the fifth and

sixth pairs, instead of forming couples with the first and second,

arise in the sulcar chamber, the fifth pair inside the fourth, and the

sixth pair inside the fifth. New mesenteries are continually added in

the sulcar chamber, the seventh pair within the sixth, the eighth pair

within the seventh, and so on (fig. 13). In the Cerianthidea, as in

the Zoanthidea, much as the adult arrangement of mesenteries differs

from that of Actinia, the derivation from an Edwardsia stock is

obvious.

[Illustration: FIG. 13.

A, _Cerianthus solitarius_ (after A. Andres).

B, Transverse section of the stomodaeum, showing the sulculus, sl, and

the arrangement of the mesenteries.

C, Oral aspect of _Arachnactis brachiolata_, the larva of

_Cerianthus_, with seven tentacles.

D, Transverse section of an older larva. The numerals indicate the

order of development of the mesenteries.]

The order ANTIPATHIDEA is a well-defined group whose affinities are

more obscure. The type form, _Antipathes dichotoma_ (fig. 14), forms

arborescent colonies consisting of numerous zooids arranged in a

single series along one surface of a branched horny axis. Each zooid

has six tentacles; the stomodaeum is elongate, but the sulcus and

sulculus are very feebly represented. There are ten mesenteries in

which the musculature is so little developed as to be almost

indistinguishable. The sulcar and sulcular pairs of mesenteries are

short, the sulco-lateral and sulculo-lateral pairs are a little

longer, but the two transverse are very large and are the only

mesenteries which bear gonads. As the development of the Antipathidea

is unknown, it is impossible to say what is the sequence of the

mesenterial development, but in _Leiopathes glaberrima_, a genus with

twelve mesenteries, there are distinct indications of an Edwardsia

stage.

[Illustration: FIG. 14.

A, Portion of a colony of _Antipathes dichotoma_.

B, Single zooid and axis of the same magnified. m, Mouth; mf

mesenterial filament; ax, axis.

C, Transverse section through the oral cone of _Antipathella minor_,

st, Stomodaeum; ov, ovary.]

There are, in addition to these groups, several genera of Actinians

whose mesenterial arrangement differs from the normal type. Of these

perhaps the most interesting is _Gonactinia prolifera_ (fig. 11, B),

with eight macromesenteries arranged on the Edwardsian plan. Two pairs

of micromesenteries form couples with the first and second Edwardsian

pairs, and in addition there is a couple of micromesenteries in each

of the sulculo-lateral exocoeles. Only the first and second pairs of

Edwardsian macromesenteries are fertile, i.e. bear gonads.

The remaining forms, the ACTINIIDEA, are divisible into the

Malacactiniae, or soft-bodied sea-anemones, which have already been

described sufficiently in the course of this article, and the

Scleractiniae (= Madreporaria) or true corals.

[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Corallum of _Caryophyllia_; semi-diagrammatic.

th, Theca; c, costae; sp, septa; p, palus; col, columella.]

All recent corals, as has already been said, conform so closely to the

anatomy of normal Actinians that they cannot be classified apart from

them, except that they are distinguished by the possession of a

calcareous skeleton. This skeleton is largely composed of a number of

radiating plates or _septa_, and it differs both in origin and structure

from the calcareous skeleton of all Alcyonaria except Heliopora. It is

formed, not from fused spicules, but as a secretion of a special layer

of cells derived from the basal ectoderm, and known as _calicoblasts_.

The skeleton or corallum of a typical solitary coral--the common

Devonshire cup-coral _Caryophyllia smithii_ (fig. 15) is a good

example--exhibits the followings parts:--(1) The _basal plate_, between

the zooid and the surface of attachment. (2) The _septa_, radial plates

of calcite reaching from the periphery nearly or quite to the centre of

the coral-cup or calicle. (3) The _theca_ or wall, which in many corals

is not an independent structure, but is formed by the conjoined

thickened peripheral ends of the septa. (4) The _columella_, a structure

which occupies the centre of the calicle, and may arise from the basal

plate, when it is called essential, or may be formed by union of

trabecular offsets of the septa, when it is called unessential. (5) The

_costae_, longitudinal ribs or rows of spines on the outer surface of

the theca. True costae always correspond to the septa, and are in fact

the peripheral edges of the latter. (6) _Epitheca_, an offset of the

basal plate which surrounds the base of the theca in a ring-like manner,

and in some corals may take the place of a true theca. (7) _Pali_,

spinous or blade-like upgrowths from the bottom of the calicle, which

project between the inner edges of certain septa and the columella. In

addition to these parts the following structures may exist in

corals:--_Dissepiments_ are oblique calcareous partitions, stretching

from septum to septum, and closing the interseptal chambers below. The

whole system of dissepiments in any given calicle is often called

_endotheca_. _Synapticulae_ are calcareous bars uniting adjacent septa.

_Tabulae_ are stout horizontal partitions traversing the centre of the

calicle and dividing it into as many superimposed chambers. The septa in

recent corals always bear a definite relation to the mesenteries, being

found either in every entocoele or in every entocoele and exocoele.

Hence in corals in which there is only a single cycle of mesenteries the

septa are correspondingly few in number; where several cycles of

mesenteries are present the septa are correspondingly numerous. In some

cases--e.g. in some species of _Madrepora_--only two septa are fully

developed, the remainder being very feebly represented.

[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Tangential section of a larva of _Astroides

calicularis_ which has fixed itself on a piece of cork. ec, Ectoderm;

en, endoderm; mg, mesogloea; m, m, mesenteries; s, septum; b, basal

plate formed of ellipsoids of carbonate of lime secreted by the basal

ectoderm; ep, epitheca. (After von Koch.)]

Though the corallum appears to live within the zooid, it is

morphologically external to it, as is best shown by its developmental

history. The larvae of corals are free swimming ciliated forms known as

planulae, and they do not acquire a corallum until they fix themselves.

A ring-shaped plate of calcite, secreted by the ectoderm, is then

formed, lying between the embryo and the surface of attachment. As the

mesenteries are formed, the endoderm of the basal disk lying above the

basal plate is raised up in the form of radiating folds. There may be

six of these folds, one in each entocoele of the primary cycle of

mesenteries, or there may be twelve, one in each exocoele and entocoele.

The ectoderm beneath each fold becomes detached from the surface of the

basal plate, and both it and the mesogloea are folded conformably with

the endoderm. The cells forming the limbs of the ectodermic folds

secrete nodules of calcite, and these, fusing together, give rise to six

(or twelve) vertical radial plates or septa. As growth proceeds new

septa are formed simultaneously with the new couples of secondary

mesenteries. In some corals, in which all the septa are entocoelic, each

new system is embraced by a mesenteric couple; in others, in which the

septa are both entocoelic and exocoelic, three septa are formed in every

chamber between two primary mesenterial couples, one in the entocoele of

the newly formed mesenterial couple of the secondary cycle, and one in

each exocoele between a primary and a secondary couple. These latter are

in turn embraced by the couples of the tertiary cycle of mesenteries,

and new septa are formed in the exocoeles on either side of them, and so

forth.

[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Transverse section through a zooid of

_Cladocora_. The corallum shaded with dots, the mesogloea represented by

a thick line. Thirty-two septa are present, six in the entocoeles of the

primary cycle of mesenteries, I; six in the entocoeles of the secondary

cycle of mesenteries, II; four in the entocoeles of the tertiary cycle

of mesenteries, III, only four pairs of the latter being developed; and

sixteen in the entocoeles between the mesenterial pairs. D, D, Directive

mesenteries; st, stomodaeum. (After Duerden.)]

It is evident from an inspection of figs. 16 and 17 that every septum

is covered by a fold of endoderm, mesogloea, and ectoderm, and is in

fact pushed into the cavity of the zooid from without. The zooid then

is, as it were, moulded upon the corallum. When fully extended, the

upper part of the zooid projects for some distance out of the calicle,

and its wall is reflected for some distance over the lip of the latter,

forming a fold of soft tissue extending to a greater or less distance

over the theca, and containing in most cases a cavity continuous over

the lip of the calicle with the coelenteron. This fold of tissue is

known as the _edge-zone_ In some corals the septa are solid imperforate

plates of calcite, and their peripheral ends are either firmly welded

together, or are united by interstitial pieces so as to form imperforate

theca. In others the peripheral ends of the septa are united only by

bars or trabeculae, so that the theca is perforate, and in many such

perforate corals the septa themselves are pierced by numerous

perforations. In the former, which have been called aporose corals, the

only communication between the cavity of the edge-zone and the general

cavity of the zooid is by way of the lip of the calicle; in the latter,

or perforate corals, the theca is permeated by numerous branching and

anastomosing canals lined by endoderm, which place the cavity of the

edge-zone in communication with the general cavity of the zooid.

[Illustration: FIG. 18.

A, Schematic longitudinal section through a zooid and bud of _Stylophora

digitata_. In A, B, and C the thick black lines represent the soft

tissues; the corallum is dotted. s, Stomodaeum; c, c, coenosarc; col,

columella, T tabulae.

B, Similar section through a single zooid and bud of _Astroides

calicularis_.

C, Similar section through three corallites of _Lophohelia prolifera_.

ez, Edge-zone.

D, Diagram illustrating the process of budding by unequal division.

E, Section through a dividing calicle of _Mussa_, showing the union of

two septa in the plane of division and the origin of new septa at right

angles to them.

(C original; the rest after von Koch.)]

A large number of corals, both aporose and perforate, are colonial. The

colonies are produced by either budding or division. In the former case

the young daughter zooid, with its corallum, arises wholly outside the

cavity of the parent zooid, and the component parts of the young

corallum, septa, theca, columella, &c., are formed anew in every

individual produced. In division a vertical constriction divides a zooid

into two equal or unequal parts, and the several parts of the two corals

thus produced are severally derived from the corresponding parts of the

dividing corallum. In colonial corals a bud is always formed from the

edge-zone, and this bud develops into a new zooid with its corallum. The

cavity of the bud in an aporose coral (fig. 18, A, C) does not

communicate directly with that of the parent form, but through the

medium of the edge-zone. As growth proceeds, and parent and bud become

separated farther from one another, the edge-zone forms a sheet of soft

tissue, bridging over the space between the two, and resting upon

projecting spines of the corallum. This sheet of tissue is called the

_coenosarc_. Its lower surface is clothed with a layer of calicoblasts

which continue to secrete carbonate of lime, giving rise to a secondary

deposit which more or less fills up the spaces between the individual

coralla, and is distinguished as _coenenchyme_. This coenenchyme may be

scanty, or may be so abundant that the individual corallites produced by

budding seem to be immersed in it. Budding takes place in an analogous

manner in perforate corals (fig. 18, B), but the presence of the canal

system in the perforate theca leads to a modification of the process.

Buds arise from the edge-zone which already communicate with the cavity

of the zooid by the canals. As the buds develop the canal system becomes

much extended, and calcareous tissue is deposited between the network of

canals, the confluent edge-zones of mother zooid and bud forming a

coenosarc. As the process continues a number of calicles are formed,

imbedded in a spongy tissue in which the canals ramify, and it is

impossible to say where the theca of one corallite ends and that of

another begins. In the formation of colonies by division a constriction

at right angles to the long axis of the mouth involves first the mouth,

then the peristome, and finally the calyx itself, so that the previously

single corallite becomes divided into two (fig. 18, E). After division

the corallites continue to grow upwards, and their zooids may remain

united by a bridge of soft tissue or coenosarc. But in some cases, as

they grow farther apart, this continuity is broken, each corallite has

its own edge-zone, and internal continuity is also broken by the

formation of dissepiments within each calicle, all organic connexion

between the two zooids being eventually lost. Massive meandrine corals

are produced by continual repetition of a process of incomplete

division, involving the mouth and to some extent the peristome: the

calyx, however, does not divide, but elongates to form a characteristic

meandrine channel containing several zooid mouths.

Corals have been divided into _Aporosa_ and _Perforata_, according as

the theca and septa are compact and solid, or are perforated by pores

containing canals lined by endoderm. The division is in many respects

convenient for descriptive purposes, but recent researches show that it

does not accurately represent the relationships of the different

families. Various attempts have been made to classify corals according

to the arrangement of the septa, the characters of the theca, the

microscopic structure of the corallum, and the anatomy of the soft

parts. The last-named method has proved little more than that there is a

remarkable similarity between the zooids of all recent corals, the

differences which have been brought to light being for the most part

secondary and valueless for classificatory purposes. On the other hand,

the study of the anatomy and development of the zooids has thrown much

light upon the manner in which the corallum is formed, and it is now

possible to infer the structure of the soft parts from a microscopical

examination of the septa, theca, &c., with the result that unexpected

relationships have been shown to exist between corals previously

supposed to stand far apart. This has been particularly the case with

the group of Palaeozoic corals formerly classed together as _Rugosa_. In

many of these so-called rugose forms the septa have a characteristic

arrangement, differing from that of recent corals chiefly in the fact

that they show a tetrameral instead of a hexameral symmetry. Thus in the

family _Stauridae_ there are four chief septa whose inner ends unite in

the middle of the calicle to form a false columella, and in the

_Zaphrentidae_ there are many instances of an arrangement, such as that

depicted in fig. 19, which represents the septal arrangement of

_Streptelasma corniculum_ from the lower Silurian. In this coral the

calicle is divided into quadrants by four principal septa, the _main

septum, counter septum_, and two _alar septa_. The remaining septa are

so disposed that in the quadrants abutting on the chief septum they

converge towards that septum, whilst in the other quadrants they

converge towards the alar septa. The secondary septa show a regular

gradation in size, and, assuming that the smallest were the most

recently formed, it will be noticed that in the chief quadrants the

youngest septa lie nearest to the main septum; in the other quadrants

the youngest septa lie nearest to the alar septa. This arrangement,

however, is by no means characteristic even of the Zaphrentidae, and in

the family _Cyathophyllidae_ most of the genera exhibit a radial

symmetry in which no trace of the bilateral arrangement described above

is recognizable, and indeed in the genus _Cyathophyllum_ itself a radial

arrangement is the rule. The connexion between the Cyathophyllidae and

modern Astraeidae is shown by _Moseleya latistellata_, a living

reef-building coral from Torres Strait. The general structure of this

coral leaves no doubt that it is closely allied to the Astraeidae, but

in the young calicles a tetrameral symmetry is indicated by the presence

of four large septa placed at right angles to one another. Again, in the

family _Amphiastraeidae_ there is commonly a single septum much larger

than the rest, and it has been shown that in the young calicles, e.g. of

_Thecidiosmilia_, two septa, corresponding to the main- and

counter-septa of Streptelasma, are first formed, then two alar septa,

and afterwards the remaining septa, the latter taking on a generally

radial arrangement, though the original bilaterality is marked by the

preponderance of the main septum. As the microscopic character of the

corallum of these extinct forms agrees with that of recent corals, it

may be assumed that the anatomy of the soft parts also was similar, and

the tetrameral arrangement, when present, may obviously be referred to a

stage when only the first two pairs of Edwardsian mesenteries were

present and septa were formed in the intervals between them.

[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Diagram of the arrangement of the septa in a

Zaphrentid coral. m, Main septum; c, counter septum; t, t, alar septa.]

Space forbids a discussion of the proposals to classify corals after the

minute structure of their coralla, but it will suffice to say that it

has been shown that the septa of all corals are built up of a number of

curved bars called trabeculae, each of which is composed of a number of

nodes. In many secondary corals (_Cyclolites, Thamnastraea_) the

trabeculae are so far separate that the individual bars are easily

recognizable, and each looks something like a bamboo owing to the

thickening of the two ends of each node. The trabeculae are united

together by these thickened internodes, and the result is a fenestrated

septum, which in older septa may become solid and aporose by continual

deposit of calcite in the fenestrae. Each node of a trabecula may be

simple, i.e. have only one centre of calcification, or may be compound.

The septa of modern perforate corals are shown to have a structure

nearly identical with that of the secondary forms, but the trabeculae

and their nodes are only apparent on microscopical examination. The

aporose corals, too, have a practically identical structure, their

compactness being due to the union of the trabeculae throughout their

entire lengths instead of at intervals, as in the Perforata. Further,

the trabeculae may be evenly spaced throughout the septum, or may be

grouped together, and this feature is probably of value in estimating

the affinities of corals. (For an account of coral formations see

CORAL-REEFS.)

In the present state of our knowledge the Zoantharia in which a primary

cycle of six couples of mesenteries is (or may be inferred to be)

completed by the addition of two pairs to the eight Edwardsian

mesenteries, and succeeding cycles are formed in the exocoeles of the

pre-existing mesenterial cycles, may be classed in an order ACTINIIDEA,

and this may be divided into the suborders _Malacactiniae_, comprising

the soft-bodied Actinians, such as _Actinia, Sagartia, Bunodes_, &c.,

and the _Scleractiniae_, comprising the corals. The Scleractiniae may

best be divided into groups of families which appear to be most closely

related to one another, but it should not be forgotten that there is

great reason to believe that many if not most of the extinct corals must

have differed from modern Actiniidea in mesenterial characters, and may

have only possessed Edwardsian mesenteries, or even have possessed only

four mesenteries, in this respect showing close affinities to the

Stauromedusae. Moreover, there are some modern corals in which the

secondary cycle of mesenteries departs from the Actinian plan. For

example, J.E. Duerden has shown that in _Porites_ the ordinary zooids

possess only six couples of mesenteries arranged on the Actinian plan.

But some zooids grow to a larger size and develop a number of additional

mesenteries, which arise either in the sulcar or the sulcular entocoele,

much in the same manner as in Cerianthus. Bearing this in mind, the

following arrangement may be taken to represent the most recent

knowledge of coral structure:--