_Number Living and Dying at each Age, out of 10,000 entering at Age 10._
+------+---------+--------+------+---------+--------+
| Age. | Living. | Dying. | Age. | Living. | Dying. |
+------+---------+--------+------+---------+--------+
| 10 | 10,000 | 79 | 54 | 6791 | 129 |
| 11 | 9,921 | 0 | 55 | 6662 | 153 |
| 12 | 9,921 | 40 | 56 | 6509 | 150 |
| 13 | 9,881 | 35 | 57 | 6359 | 152 |
| 14 | 9,846 | 40 | 58 | 6207 | 156 |
| 15 | 9,806 | 22 | 59 | 6051 | 153 |
| 16 | 9,784 | 0 | 60 | 5898 | 184 |
| 17 | 9,784 | 41 | 61 | 5714 | 186 |
| 18 | 9,743 | 59 | 62 | 5528 | 191 |
| 19 | 9,684 | 68 | 63 | 5337 | 200 |
| 20 | 9,616 | 56 | 64 | 5137 | 206 |
| 21 | 9,560 | 67 | 65 | 4931 | 215 |
| 22 | 9,493 | 59 | 66 | 4716 | 220 |
| 23 | 9,434 | 73 | 67 | 4496 | 220 |
| 24 | 9,361 | 64 | 68 | 4276 | 237 |
| 25 | 9,297 | 48 | 69 | 4039 | 246 |
| 26 | 9,249 | 64 | 70 | 3793 | 213 |
| 27 | 9,185 | 60 | 71 | 3580 | 222 |
| 28 | 9,125 | 71 | 72 | 3358 | 268 |
| 29 | 9,054 | 67 | 73 | 3090 | 243 |
| 30 | 8,987 | 74 | 74 | 2847 | 300 |
| 31 | 8,913 | 65 | 75 | 2547 | 241 |
| 32 | 8,848 | 74 | 76 | 2306 | 245 |
| 33 | 8,774 | 73 | 77 | 2061 | 224 |
| 34 | 8,701 | 76 | 78 | 1837 | 226 |
| 35 | 8,625 | 71 | 79 | 1611 | 219 |
| 36 | 8,554 | 75 | 80 | 1392 | 196 |
| 37 | 8,479 | 81 | 81 | 1196 | 191 |
| 38 | 8,398 | 87 | 82 | 1005 | 173 |
| 39 | 8,311 | 88 | 83 | 832 | 172 |
| 40 | 8,223 | 81 | 84 | 660 | 119 |
| 41 | 8,142 | 85 | 85 | 541 | 117 |
| 42 | 8,057 | 87 | 86 | 424 | 92 |
| 43 | 7,970 | 84 | 87 | 332 | 72 |
| 44 | 7,886 | 93 | 88 | 260 | 74 |
| 45 | 7,793 | 97 | 89 | 186 | 36 |
| 46 | 7,696 | 96 | 90 | 150 | 34 |
| 47 | 7,600 | 107 | 91 | 116 | 36 |
| 48 | 7,493 | 106 | 92 | 80 | 36 |
| 49 | 7,387 | 113 | 93 | 44 | 29 |
| 50 | 7,274 | 120 | 94 | 15 | 0 |
| 51 | 7,154 | 124 | 95 | 15 | 5 |
| 52 | 7,030 | 120 | 96 | 10 | 10 |
| 53 | 6,910 | 119 | | | |
+------+---------+--------+------+---------+--------+
It appears that it had long been the practice in Holland for life
annuities to be granted to nominees of any age, in the constant
proportion of double the rate of interest allowed on stock; that is to
say, if the towns were borrowing money at 6%, they would be willing to
grant a life annuity at 12%, and so on. De Witt states that "annuities
have been sold, even in the present century, first at six years'
purchase, then at seven and eight; and that the majority of all life
annuities now current at the country's expense were obtained at nine
years' purchase"; but that the price had been increased in the course of
a few years from eleven years' purchase to twelve, and from twelve to
fourteen. He also states that the rate of interest had been
successively reduced from 6-1/4 to 5%, and then to 4%. The principal
object of his report is to prove that, taking interest at 4%, a life
annuity was worth at least sixteen years' purchase; and, in fact, that
an annuitant purchasing an annuity for the life of a young and healthy
nominee at sixteen years' purchase, made an excellent bargain. It may be
mentioned that he argues that it is more to the advantage, both of the
country and of the private investor, that the public loans should be
raised by way of grant of life annuities rather than perpetual
annuities. It appears conclusively from De Witt's correspondence with
Hudde, that the rate of mortality assumed as the basis of his
calculations was deduced from careful examination of the mortality that
had actually prevailed among the nominees on whose lives annuities had
been granted in former years. De Witt appears to have come to the
conclusion that the probability of death is the same in any half-year
from the age of 3 to 53 inclusive; that in the next ten years, from 53
to 63, the probability is greater in the ratio of 3 to 2; that in the
next ten years, from 63 to 73, it is greater in the ratio of 2 to 1; and
in the next seven years, from 73 to 80, it is greater in the ratio of 3
to 1; and he places the limit of human life at 80. If a mortality table
of the usual form is deduced from these suppositions, out of 212 persons
alive at the age of 3, 2 will die every year up to 53, 3 in each of the
ten years from 53 to 63, 4 in each of the next ten years from 63 to 73,
and 6 in each of the next seven years from 73 to 80, when all will be
dead.
De Witt calculates the value of an annuity in the following way. Assume
that annuities on 10,000 lives each ten years of age, which satisfy the
Hm mortality table, have been purchased. Of these nominees 79 will die
before attaining the age of 11, and no annuity payment will be made in
respect of them; none will die between the ages of 11 and 12, so that
annuities will be paid for one year on 9921 lives; 40 attain the age of
12 and die before 13, so that two payments will be made with respect to
these lives. Reasoning in this way we see that the annuities on 35 of
the nominees will be payable for three years; on 40 for four years, and
so on. Proceeding thus to the end of the table, 15 nominees attain the
age of 95, 5 of whom die before the age of 96, so that 85 payments will
be paid in respect of these 5 lives. Of the survivors all die before
attaining the age of 97, so that the annuities on these lives will be
payable for 86 years. Having previously calculated a table of the values
of annuities certain for every number of years up to 86, the value of
all the annuities on the 10,000 nominees will be found by taking 40
times the value of an annuity for 2 years, 35 times the value of an
annuity for 3 years, and so on--the last term being the value of 10
annuities for 86 years--and adding them together; and the value of an
annuity on one of the nominees will then be found by dividing by 10,000.
Before leaving the subject of De Witt, we may mention that we find in
the correspondence a distinct suggestion of the law of mortality that
bears the name of Demoivre. In De Witt's letter, dated the 27th of
October 1671 (_Ass. Mag_. vol. iii. p. 107), he speaks of a "provisional
hypothesis" suggested by Hudde, that out of 80 young lives (who, from
the context, may be taken as of the age 6) about 1 dies annually. In
strictness, therefore, the law in question might be more correctly
termed Hudde's than Demoivre's.
De Witt's report being thus of the nature of an unpublished state paper,
although it contributed to its author's reputation, did not contribute
to advance the exact knowledge of the subject; and the author to whom
the credit must be given of first showing how to calculate the value of
an annuity on correct principles is Edmund Halley. He gave the first
approximately correct mortality table (deduced from the records of the
numbers of deaths and baptisms in the city of Breslau), and showed how
it might be employed to calculate the value of an annuity on the life of
a nominee of any age (see _Phil. Trans_. 1693; _Ass. Mag_. vol. xviii.).
Previously to Halley's time, and apparently for many years subsequently,
all dealings with life annuities were based upon mere conjectural
estimates. The earliest known reference to any estimate of the value of
life annuities rose out of the requirements of the Falcidian law, which
(40 B.C.) was adopted in the Roman empire, and which declared that a
testator should not give more than three-fourths of his property in
legacies, so that at least one-fourth must go to his legal
representatives. It is easy to see how it would occasionally become
necessary, while this law was in force, to value life annuities charged
upon a testator's estate. Aemilius Macer (A.D. 230) states that the
method which had been in common use at that time was as follows:--From
the earliest age until 30 take 30 years' purchase, and for each age
after 30 deduct 1 year. It is obvious that no consideration of compound
interest can have entered into this estimate; and it is easy to see that
it is equivalent to assuming that all persons who attain the age of 30
will certainly live to the age of 60, and then certainly die. Compared
with this estimate, that which was propounded by the praetorian prefect
Ulpian was a great improvement. His table is as follows:--
+-------------+-----------+------------+-----------+
| Age. | Years' | Age. | Years' |
| | Purchase. | | Purchase |
+-------------+-----------+------------+-----------+
| Birth to 20 | 30 | 45 to 46 | 14 |
| 20 " 25 | 28 | 46 " 47 | 13 |
| 25 " 30 | 25 | 47 " 48 | 12 |
| 30 " 35 | 22 | 48 " 49 | 11 |
| 35 " 40 | 20 | 49 " 50 | 10 |
| 40 " 41 | 19 | 50 " 55 | 9 |
| 41 " 42 | 18 | 55 " 60 | 7 |
| 42 " 43 | 17 | 60 and | |
| 43 " 44 | 16 | upwards | 5 |
| 44 " 45 | 15 | | |
+-------------+-----------+------------+-----------+
Here also we have no reason to suppose that the element of interest was
taken into consideration; and the assumption, that between the ages of
40 and 50 each addition of a year to the nominee's age diminishes the
value of the annuity by one year's purchase, is equivalent to assuming
that there is no probability of the nominee dying between the ages of 40
and 50. Considered, however, simply as a table of the average duration
of life, the values are fairly accurate. At all events, no more correct
estimate appears to have been arrived at until the close of the 17th
century.
The mathematics of annuities has been very fully treated in Demoivre's
_Treatise on Annuities_ (1725); Simpson's _Doctrine of Annuities and
Reversions_ (1742); P. Gray, _Tables and Formulae_; Baily's _Doctrine
of Life Annuities_; there are also innumerable compilations of
_Valuation Tables_ and _Interest Tables_, by means of which the value
of an annuity at any age and any rate of interest may be found. See
also the article INTEREST, and especially that on INSURANCE.
_Commutation tables_, aptly so named in 1840 by Augustus De Morgan (see
his paper "On the Calculation of Single Life Contingencies," _Assurance
Magazine_, xii. 328), show the proportion in which a benefit due at one
age ought to be changed, so as to retain the same value and be due at
another age. The earliest known specimen of a commutation table is
contained in William Dale's _Introduction to the Study of the Doctrine
of Annuities_, published in 1772. A full account of this work is given
by F. Hendriks in the second number of the _Assurance Magazine_, pp.
15-17. William Morgan's _Treatise on Assurances_, 1779, also contains a
commutation table. Morgan gives the table as furnishing a convenient
means of checking the correctness of the values of annuities found by
the ordinary process. It may be assumed that he was aware that the table
might be used for the direct calculation of annuities; but he appears to
have been ignorant of its other uses.
The first author who fully developed the powers of the table was John
Nicholas Tetens, a native of Schleswig, who in 1785, while professor of
philosophy and mathematics at Kiel, published in the German language an
_Introduction to the Calculation of Life Annuities and Assurances_. This
work appears to have been quite unknown in England until F. Hendriks
gave, in the first number of the _Assurance Magazine_, pp. 1-20 (Sept.
1850), an account of it, with a translation of the passages describing
the construction and use of the commutation table, and a sketch of the
author's life and writings, to which we refer the reader who desires
fuller information. It may be mentioned here that Tetens also gave only
a specimen table, apparently not imagining that persons using his work
would find it extremely useful to have a series of commutation tables,
calculated and printed ready for use.
The use of the commutation table was independently developed in
England-apparently between the years 1788 and 1811--by George Barrett,
of Petworth, Sussex, who was the son of a yeoman farmer, and was himself
a village schoolmaster, and afterwards farm steward or bailiff. It has
been usual to consider Barrett as the originator in England of the
method of calculating the values of annuities by means of a commutation
table, and this method is accordingly sometimes called Barrett's method.
(It is also called the commutation method and the columnar method.)
Barrett's method of calculating annuities was explained by him to
Francis Baily in the year 1811, and was first made known to the world in
a paper written by the latter and read before the Royal Society in 1812.
By what has been universally considered an unfortunate error of
judgment, this paper was not recommended by the council of the Royal
Society to be printed, but it was given by Baily as an appendix to the
second issue (in 1813) of his work on life annuities and assurances.
Barrett had calculated extensive tables, and with Baily's aid attempted
to get them published by subscription, but without success; and the only
printed tables calculated according to his manner, besides the specimen
tables given by Baily, are the tables contained in Babbage's
_Comparative View of the various Institutions for the Assurance of
Lives_, 1826.
In the year 1825 Griffith Davies published his _Tables of Life
Contingencies_, a work which contains, among others, two tables, which
are confessedly derived from Baily's explanation of Barrett's tables.
Those who desire to pursue the subject further can refer to the
appendix to Baily's _Life Annuities and Assurances_, De Morgan's paper
"On the Calculation of Single Life Contingencies," _Assurance
Magazine_, xii. 348-349; Gray's _Tables and Formulae_ chap. viii.; the
preface to Davies's _Treatise on Annuities_; also Hendriks's papers in
the _Assurance Magazine_, No. 1, p. 1, and No. 2, p. 12; and in
particular De Morgan's "Account of a Correspondence between Mr George
Barrett and Mr Francis Baily," in the _Assurance Magazine_, vol. iv.
p. 185.
The principal commutation tables published in England are contained in
the following works:--David Jones, _Value of Annuities and
Reversionary Payments_, issued in parts by the Useful Knowledge
Society, completed in 1843; Jenkin Jones, _New Rate of Mortality_,
1843; G. Davies, _Treatise on Annuities_, 1825 (issued 1855); David
Chisholm, _Commutation Tables_, 1858; Nelson's _Contributions to Vital
Statistics_, 1857; Jardine Henry, _Government Life Annuity Commutation
Tables_, 1866 and 1873; _Institute of Actuaries Life Tables_, 1872;
R.P. Hardy, _Valuation Tables_, 1873; and Dr William Farr's
contributions to the sixth (1844), twelfth (1849), and twentieth
(1857) _Reports_ of the Registrar General in England (English Tables,
I. 2), and to the _English Life Table_, 1864.
The theory of annuities may be further studied in the discussions in
the English _Journal of the Institute of Actuaries_. The institute was
founded in the year 1848, the first sessional meeting being held in
January 1849. Its establishment has contributed in various ways to
promote the study of the theory of life contingencies. Among these may
be specified the following:--Before it was formed, students of the
subject worked for the most part alone, and without any concert; and
when any person had made an improvement in the theory, it had little
chance of becoming publicly known unless he wrote a formal treatise on
the whole subject. But the formation of the institute led to much
greater interchange of opinion among actuaries, and afforded them a
ready means of making known to their professional associates any
improvements, real or supposed, that they thought they had made.
Again, the discussions which follow the reading of papers before the
institute have often served, first, to bring out into bold relief
differences of opinion that were previously unsuspected, and
afterwards to soften down those differences,--to correct extreme
opinions in every direction, and to bring about a greater agreement of
opinion on many important subjects. In no way, probably, have the
objects of the institute been so effectually advanced as by the
publication of its _Journal_. The first number of this work, which was
originally called the _Assurance Magazine_, appeared in September
1850, and it has been continued quarterly down to the present time. It
was originated by the public spirit of two well-known actuaries (Mr
Charles Jellicoe and Mr Samuel Brown), and was adopted as the organ of
the Institute of Actuaries in the year 1852, and called the _Assurance
Magazine and Journal of the Institute of Actuaries_, Mr Jellicoe
continuing to be the editor,--a post he held until the year 1867, when
he was succeeded by Mr T.B. Sprague (who contributed to the 9th
edition of this Encyclopaedia an elaborate article on "Annuities," on
which the above account is based). The name was again changed in 1866,
the words "Assurance Magazine" being dropped; but in the following
year it was considered desirable to resume these, for the purpose of
showing the continuity of the publication, and it is now called the
_Journal of the Institute of Actuaries and Assurance Magazine_. This
work contains not only the papers read before the institute (to which
have been appended of late years short abstracts of the discussions on
them), and many original papers which were unsuitable for reading,
together with correspondence, but also reprints of many papers
published elsewhere, which from various causes had become difficult of
access to the ordinary reader, among which may be specified various
papers which originally appeared in the _Philosophical Transactions_,
the _Philosophical Magazine_, the _Mechanics' Magazine_, and the
_Companion to the Almanac_; also translations of various papers from
the French, German, and Danish. Among the useful objects which the
continuous publication of the _Journal_ of the institute has served,
we may specify in particular two:--that any supposed improvement in
the theory was effectually submitted to the criticisms of the whole
actuarial profession, and its real value speedily discovered; and that
any real improvement, whether great or small, being placed on record,
successive writers have been able, one after the other, to take it up
and develop it, each commencing where the previous one had left off.
ANNULAR, ANNULATE, &c. (Lat. _annulus_, a ring), ringed. "Annulate" is
used in botany and zoology in connexion with certain plants, worms, &c.
(see ANNELIDA), either marked with rings or composed of ring-like
segments. The word "annulated" is also used in, heraldry and
architecture. An annulated cross is one with the points ending in an
"annulet" (an heraldic ring, supposed to be taken from a coat of mail),
while the annulet in architecture is a small fillet round a column,
which encircles the lower part of the Doric capital immediately above
the neck or trachelium. The word "annulus" (for "ring") is itself used
technically in geometry, astronomy, &c., and the adjective "annular"
corresponds. An _annular space_ is that between an inner and outer ring.
The _annular finger_ is the ring finger. An _annular eclipse_ is an
eclipse of the sun in which the visible part of the latter completely
encircles the dark body of the moon; for this to happen, the centres of
the sun and moon, and the point on the earth where the observer is
situated, must be collinear. Certain nebulae having the form of a ring
are also called "annular."
ANNUNCIATION, the announcement made by the angel Gabriel to the Virgin
Mary of the incarnation of Christ (Luke i, 26-38). The Feast of the
Annunciation in the Christian Church is celebrated on the 25th of March.
The first authentic allusions to it are in a canon, of the council of
Toledo (656), and another of the council of Constantinople "in Trullo"
(692), forbidding the celebration of all festivals in Lent, excepting
the Lord's day and the Feast of the Annunciation. An earlier origin has
been claimed for it on the ground that it is mentioned in sermons of
Athanasius and of Gregory Thaumaturgus, but both of these documents are
now admitted to be spurious. A synod held at Worcester, England (1240),
forbade all servile work on this feast day. See further LADY DAY.
ANNUNZIO, GABRIELE D' (1863- ), Italian novelist and poet, of
Dalmatian extraction, was born at Pescara (Abruzzi) in 1863. The first
years of his youth were spent in the freedom of the open fields; at
sixteen he was sent to school in Tuscany. While still at school he
published a small volume of verses called _Primo Vere_ (1879), in which,
side by side with some almost brutal imitations of Lorenzo Stecchetti,
the then fashionable poet of _Postuma_, were some translations from the
Latin, distinguished by such agile grace that Giuseppe Chiarini on
reading them brought the unknown youth before the public in an
enthusiastic article. The young poet then went to Rome, where he was
received as one of their own by the _Cronaca Bizantina_ group (see
CARDUCCI). Here he published _Canto Nuovo_ (1882), _Terra Vergine_
(1882), _L' Intermezzo di Rime_ (1883), _Il Libro delle Vergini_ (1884),
and the greater part of the short stories that were afterwards collected
under the general title of _San Pantaleone_ (1886). In _Canto Nuovo_ we
have admirable poems full of pulsating youth and the promise of power,
some descriptive of the sea and some of the Abruzzi landscape,
commented on and completed in prose by _Terra Vergine_, the latter a
collection of short stories dealing in radiant language with the peasant
life of the author's native province. With the _Intermezzo di Rime_ we
have the beginning of d'Annunzio's second and characteristic manner. His
conception of style was new, and he chose to express all the most subtle
vibrations of voluptuous life. Both style and contents began to startle
his critics; some who had greeted him as an _enfant prodige_--Chiarini
amongst others--rejected him as a perverter of public morals, whilst
others hailed him as one bringing a current of fresh air and the impulse
of a new vitality into the somewhat prim, lifeless work hitherto
produced.
Meanwhile the Review of Angelo Sommaruga perished in the midst of
scandal, and his group of young authors found itself dispersed. Some
entered the teaching career and were lost to literature, others threw
themselves into journalism. Gabriele d'Annunzio took this latter course,
and joined the staff of the _Tribuna_. For this paper, under the
pseudonym of "Duca Minimo," he did some of his most brilliant work, and
the articles he wrote during that period of originality and exuberance
would well repay being collected. To this period of greater maturity and
deeper culture belongs _Il Libro d' Isotta_ (1886), a love poem, in
which for the first time he drew inspiration adapted to modern
sentiments and passions from the rich colours of the Renaissance. _Il
Libro d' Isotta_ is interesting also, because in it we find most of the
germs of his future work, just as in _Intermezzo melico_ and in certain
ballads and sonnets we find descriptions and emotions which later went
to form the aesthetic contents of _Il Piacere_, _Il Trionfo della
Morte_, and _Elegie Romane_ (1892).
D' Annunzio's first novel _Il Piacere_ (1889)--translated into English
as _The Child of Pleasure_--was followed in 1891 by _L' Innocente_ (_The
Intruder_), and in 1892 by _Giovanni Episcopo_. These three novels
created a profound impression. _L' Innocente_, admirably translated into
French by Georges Herelle, brought its author the notice and applause of
foreign critics. His next work, _Il Trionfo della Morte_ (_The Triumph
of Death_) (1894), was followed at a short distance by _La Vergini della
Roccio_ (1896) and _Il Fuoco_ (1900), which in its descriptions of
Venice is perhaps the most ardent glorification of a city existing in
any language.
D' Annunzio's poetic work of this period, in most respects his finest,
is represented by _Il Poema Paradisiaco_ (1893), the _Odi Navali_
(1893), a superb attempt at civic poetry, and _Laudi_ (1900).
A later phase of d' Annunzio's work is his dramatic production,
represented by _Il Sogno di un mattino di primavera_ (1897), a lyrical
fantasia in one act; his _Cilia Morta_ (1898), written for Sarah
Bernhardt, which is certainly among the most daring and original of
modern tragedies, and the only one which by its unity, persistent
purpose, and sense of fate seems to continue in a measure the traditions
of the Greek theatre. In 1898 he wrote his _Sogno di un Pomeriggio d'
Autunno_ and _La Gioconda_; in the succeeding year _La Gloria_, an
attempt at contemporary political tragedy which met with no success,
probably through the audacity of the personal and political allusions in
some of its scenes; and then _Francesca da Rimini_ (1901), a perfect
reconstruction of medieval atmosphere and emotion, magnificent in style,
and declared by one of the most authoritative Italian critics--Edoardo
Boutet--to be the first real although not perfect tragedy which has ever
been given to the Italian theatre.
The work of d' Annunzio, although by many of the younger generation
injudiciously and extravagantly admired, is almost the most important
literary work given to Italy since the days when the great classics
welded her varying dialects into a fixed language. The psychological
inspiration of his novels has come to him from many sources--French,
Russian, Scandinavian, German--and in much of his earlier work there is
little fundamental originality. His creative power is intense and
searching, but narrow and personal; his heroes and heroines are little
more than one same type monotonously facing a different problem at a
different phase of life. But the faultlessness of his style and the
wealth of his language have been approached by none of his
contemporaries, whom his genius has somewhat paralysed. In his later
work, when he begins drawing his inspiration from the traditions of
bygone Italy in her glorious centuries, a current of real life seems to
run through the veins of his personages. And the lasting merit of
d'Annunzio, his real value to the literature of his country, consists
precisely in that he opened up the closed mine of its former life as a
source of inspiration for the present and of hope for the future, and
created a language, neither pompous nor vulgar, drawn from every source
and district suited to the requirements of modern thought, yet
absolutely classical, borrowed from none, and, independently of the
thought it may be used to express, a thing of intrinsic beauty. As his
sight became clearer and his purpose strengthened, as exaggerations,
affectations, and moods dropped away from his conceptions, his work
became more and more typical Latin work, upheld by the ideal of an
Italian Renaissance.
ANOA, the native name of the small wild buffalo of Celebes, _Bos_
(_Bubalus_) _depressicornis_, which stands but little over a yard at the
shoulder, and is the most diminutive of all wild cattle. It is nearly
allied to the larger Asiatic buffaloes, showing the same reversal of the
direction of the hair on the back. The horns are peculiar for their
upright direction and comparative straightness, although they have the
same triangular section as in other buffaloes. White spots are sometimes
present below the eyes, and there may be white markings on the legs and
back; and the absence or presence of these white markings may be
indicative of distinct races. The horns of the cows are very small. The
nearest allies of the anoa appear to be certain extinct buffaloes, of
which the remains are found in the Siwalik Hills of northern India. In
habits the animal appears to resemble the Indian buffalo.
ANODYNE (from Gr. [Greek: an-], privative, and [Greek: odune], pain), a
cause which relieves pain. The term is commonly applied to medicines
which lessen the sensibility of the brain or nervous system, such as
morphia, &c.
ANOINTING, or greasing with oil, fat, or melted butter, a process
employed ritually in all religions and among all races, civilized or
savage, partly as a mode of ridding persons and things of dangerous
influences and diseases, especially of the demons (Persian _drug_, Greek
[Greek: keres], Armenian _dev_) which are or cause those diseases; and
partly as a means of introducing into things and persons a sacramental
or divine influence, a holy emanation, spirit or power. The riddance of
an evil influence is often synonymous with the introduction of the good
principle, and therefore it is best to consider first the use of
anointing in consecrations.
The Australian natives believed that the virtues of one killed could be
transferred to survivors if the latter rubbed themselves with his
caul-fat. So the Arabs of East Africa anoint themselves with lion's fat
in order to gain courage and inspire the animals with awe of themselves.
Such rites are often associated with the actual eating of the victim
whose virtues are coveted. Human fat is a powerful charm all over the
world; for, as R. Smith points out, after the blood the fat was
peculiarly the vehicle and seat of life. This is why fat of a victim was
smeared on a sacred stone, not only in acts of homage paid to it, but in
the actual consecration thereof. In such cases the influence of the god,
communicated to the victim, passed with the unguent into the stone. But
the divinity could by anointing be transferred into men no less than
into stones; and from immemorial antiquity, among the Jews as among
other races, kings were anointed or greased, doubtless with the fat of
the victims which, like the blood, was too holy to be eaten by the
common votaries.
Butter made from the milk of the cow, the most sacred of animals, is
used for anointing in the Hindu religion. A newly-built house is smeared
with it, so are demoniacs, care being taken to smear the latter
downwards from head to foot.
In the Christian religion, especially where animal sacrifices, together
with the cult of totem or holy animals, have been given up, it is usual
to hallow the oil used in ritual anointings with special prayers and
exorcisms; oil from the lamps lit before the altar has a peculiar virtue
of its own, perhaps because it can be burned to give light, and
disappears to heaven in doing so. In any case oil has ever been regarded
as the aptest symbol and vehicle of the holy and illuminating spirit.
For this reason the catechumens are anointed with holy oil both before
and after baptism; the one act (of eastern origin) assists the expulsion
of the evil spirits, the other (of western origin), taken in conjunction
with imposition of hands, conveys the spirit and retains it in the
person of the baptized. In the postbaptismal anointing the oil was
applied to the organs of sense, to the head, heart, and midriff. Such
ritual use of oil as a [Greek: sfragis] or seal may have been suggested
in old religions by the practice of keeping wine fresh in jars and
amphorae by pouring on a top layer of oil; for the spoiling of wine was
attributed to the action of demons of corruption, against whom many
ancient formulae of aversion or exorcism still exist.
The holy oil, chrism, or [Greek: muron], as the Easterns call it, was
prepared and consecrated on Maundy Thursday, and in the Gelasian
sacramentary the formula used runs thus: "Send forth, O Lord, we beseech
thee, thy Holy Spirit the Paraclete from heaven into this fatness of
oil, which thou hast deigned to bring forth out of the green wood for
the refreshing of mind and body; and through thy holy benediction may it
be for all who anoint with it, taste it, touch it, a safeguard of mind
and body, of soul and spirit, for the expulsion of all pains, of every
infirmity, of every sickness of mind and body. For with the same thou
hast anointed priests, kings, and prophets and martyrs with this thy
chrism, perfected by thee, O Lord, blessed, abiding within our bowels in
the name of our Lord Jesus Christ."
In various churches the dead are anointed with holy oil, to guard them
against the vampires or ghouls which ever threaten to take possession of
dead bodies and live in them. In the Armenian church, as formerly in
many Greek churches, a cross is not holy until the Spirit has been
formally led into it by means of prayer and anointing with holy oil. A
new church is anointed at its four corners, and also the altar round
which it is built; similarly tombs, church gongs, and all other
instruments and utensils dedicated to cultual uses. In churches of the
Greek rite a little of the old year's chrism is left in the jar to
communicate its sanctity to that of the new. (F. C. C.)
ANOMALY (from Gr. [Greek: anomalia], unevenness, derived from [Greek:
an-], privative, and [Greek: homalos], even), a deviation from the
common rule. In astronomy the word denotes the angular distance of a
body from the pericentre of the orbit in which it is moving. Let AB be
the major axis of the orbit, B the pericentre, F the focus or centre of
motion, P the position of the body. The anomaly is then the angle BFP
which the radius vector makes with the major axis. This is the actual or
_true anomaly_. _Mean anomaly_ is the anomaly which the body would have
if it moved from the pericentre around F with a uniform angular motion
such that its revolution would be completed in its actual time (see
ORBIT). _Eccentric anomaly_ is defined thus:--Draw the circumscribing
circle of the elliptic orbit around the centre C of the orbit. Drop the
perpendicular RPQ through P, the position of the planet, upon the major
axis. Join CR; the angle CRQ is then the eccentric anomaly.
[Illustration]
In the ancient astronomy the anomaly was taken as the angular distance
of the planet from the point of the farthest recession from the earth.
_Kepler's Problem_, namely, that of finding the co-ordinates of a planet
at a given time, which is equivalent--given the mean anomaly--to that of
determining the true anomaly, was solved approximately by Kepler, and
more completely by Wallis, Newton and others.
The anomalistic revolution of a planet or other heavenly body is the
revolution between two consecutive passages through the pericentre.
Starting from the pericentre, it is completed on the return to the
pericentre. If the pericentre is fixed, this is an actual revolution;
but if it moves the anomalistic revolution is greater or less than a
complete circumference.
An _Anomalistic year_ is the time (365 days, 6 hours, 13 minutes, 48
seconds) in which the earth (and similarly for any other planet) passes
from perihelion to perihelion, or from any given value of the anomaly to
the same again. Owing to the precession of the equinoxes it is longer
than a tropical or sidereal year by 25 minutes and 2.3 seconds. An
_Anomalistic month_ is the time in which the moon passes from perigee to
perigee, &c.
For the mathematics of Kepler's problem see E.W. Brown, _Lunar Theory_
(Cambridge 1896), or the work of Watson or of Bauschinger on
Theoretical Astronomy.
ANORTHITE, an important mineral of the felspar group, being one of the
end members of the plagioclase (q.v.) series. It is a calcium and
aluminium silicate, CaAl2Si2O3, and crystallizes in the anorthic system.
Like all the felspars, it possesses two cleavages, one perfect and the
other less so, here inclined to one another at an angle of 85 deg. 50'.
The colour is white, greyish or reddish, and the crystals are
transparent to translucent. The hardness is 6-6-1/2, and the specific
gravity 2.75.
[Illustration: Anorthite]
Anorthite is an essential constituent of many basic igneous rocks, such
as gabbro and basalt, also of some meteoric stones. The best developed
crystals are those which accompany mica, augite, sanidine, &c., in the
ejected blocks of metamorphosed limestone from Monte Somma, the ancient
portion of Mount Vesuvius; these are perfectly colourless and
transparent, and are bounded by numerous brilliant faces. Distinctly
developed crystals are also met with in the basalts of Japan, but are
usually rare at other localities.
The name anorthite was given to the Vesuvian mineral by G. Rose in 1823,
on account of its anorthic crystallization. The species had, however,
been earlier described by the comte de Bournon under the name indianite,
this name being applied to a greyish or reddish granular mineral forming
the matrix of corundum from the Carnatic in India. Several unimportant
varieties have been distinguished. (L. J. S.)
ANQUETIL, LOUIS PIERRE (1723-1808), French historian, was born in Paris,
on the 21st of February 1723. He entered the congregation of
Sainte-Genevieve, where he took holy orders and became professor of
theology and literature. Later, he became director of the seminary at
Reims, where he wrote his _Histoire civile et politique de Reims_ (3
vols., 1756-1757), perhaps his best work. He was then director of the
college of Senlis, where he composed his _Esprit de la Ligue ou histoire
politique des troubles de la Fronde pendant le XVI^e et le XVII^e
siecles_ (1767). During the Reign of Terror he was imprisoned at St
Lazare; there he began his _Precis de l'histoire universelle_,
afterwards published in nine volumes. On the establishment of the
national institute he was elected a member of the second group (moral
and political sciences), and was soon afterwards employed in the office
of the ministry of foreign affairs, profiting by his experience to write
his _Motifs des guerres et des traites de paix sous Louis XIV., Louis
XV, et Louis XVI._ He is said to have been asked by Napoleon to write
his _Histoire de France_ (14 vols., 1805), a mediocre compilation at
second or third hand, with the assistance of de Mezeray and of Paul
Francois Velly (1709-1759). This work, nevertheless, passed through
numerous editions, and by it his name is remembered. He died on the 6th
of September 1808.
ANQUETIL, DUPERRON, ABRAHAM HYACINTHE (1731-1805), French orientalist,
brother of Louis Pierre Anquetil, the historian, was born in Paris on
the 7th of December 1731. He was educated for the priesthood in Paris
and Utrecht, but his taste for Hebrew, Arabic, Persian, and other
languages of the East developed into a passion, and he discontinued his
theological course to devote himself entirely to them. His diligent
attendance at the Royal Library attracted the attention of the keeper of
the manuscripts, the Abbe Sallier, whose influence procured for him a
small salary as student of the oriental languages. He had lighted on
some fragments of the _Vendidad Sade_, and formed the project of a
voyage to India to discover the works of Zoroaster. With this end in
view he enlisted as a private soldier, on the 2nd of November 1754, in
the Indian expedition which was about to start from the port of
L'Orient. His friends procured his discharge, and he was granted a free
passage, a seat at the captain's table, and a salary, the amount of
which was to be fixed by the governor of the French settlement in India.
After a passage of six months, Anquetil landed, on the 10th of August
1755, at Pondicherry. Here he remained a short time to master modern
Persian, and then hastened to Chandernagore to acquire Sanskrit. Just
then war was declared between France and England; Chandernagore was
taken, and Anquetil returned to Pondicherry by land. He found one of his
brothers at Pondicherry, and embarked with him for Surat; but, with a
view of exploring the country, he landed at Mahe and proceeded on foot.
At Surat he succeeded, by perseverance and address in his intercourse
with the native priests, in acquiring a sufficient knowledge of the Zend
and Pahlavi languages to translate the liturgy called the _Vendidad
Sade_ and some other works. Thence he proposed going to Benares, to
study the language, antiquities, and sacred laws of the Hindus; but the
capture of Pondicherry obliged him to quit India. Returning to Europe in
an English vessel, he spent some time in London and Oxford, and then set
out for France. He arrived in Paris on the 14th of March 1762 in
possession of one hundred and eighty oriental manuscripts, besides other
curiosities. The Abbe Barthelemy procured for him a pension, with the
appointment of interpreter of oriental languages at the Royal Library.
In 1763 he was elected an associate of the Academy of Inscriptions, and
began to arrange for the publication of the materials he had collected
during his eastern travels. In 1771 he published his _Zend-Avesta_ (3
vols.), containing collections from the sacred writings of the
fire-worshippers, a life of Zoroaster, and fragments of works ascribed
to him. In 1778 he published at Amsterdam his _Legislation orientate_,
in which he endeavoured to prove that the nature of oriental despotism
had been greatly misrepresented. His _Recherches historiques et
geographiques sur l'Inde_ appeared in 1786, and formed part of
Thieffenthaler's _Geography of India_. The Revolution seems to have
greatly affected him. During that period he abandoned society, and lived
in voluntary poverty on a few pence a day. In 1798 he published _L'Inde
en rapport avec l'Europe_ (Hamburg, 2 vols.), which contained much
invective against the English, and numerous misrepresentations. In
1802-1804 he published a Latin translation (2 vols.) from the Persian of
the _Oupnek'hat_ or _Upanishada_. It is a curious mixture of Latin,
Greek, Persian, Arabic, and Sanskrit. He died in Paris on the 17th of
January 1805.
See _Biographie universelle_; Sir William Jones, _Works_ (vol. x.,
1807); and the _Miscellanies_ of the Philobiblon Society (vol. iii.,
1856-1857). For a list of his scattered writings see Querard, _La
France litteraire_.
ANSA (from Lat. _ansa_, a handle), in astronomy, one of the apparent
ends of the rings of Saturn as seen in perspective from the earth:
so-called because, in the earlier telescopes, they looked like handles
projecting from the planet. In anatomy the word is applied to nervous
structures which resemble loops. In archaeology it is used for the
engraved and ornamented handle of a vase, which has often survived when
the vase itself, being less durable, has disappeared.
ANSBACH, or ANSPACH, originally _Onolzbach_, a town of Germany, in the
kingdom of Bavaria, on the Rezat, 27 m. by rail S.W. of Nuremberg, and
90 m. N. of Munich. Pop. (1900) 17,555. It contains a palace, once the
residence of the margraves of Anspach, with fine gardens, several
churches, the finest of which are those dedicated to St John, containing
the vault of the former margraves, and St Gumbert; a gymnasium; a
picture gallery; a municipal museum and a special technical school.
Ansbach possesses monuments to the poets August, Count von
Platen-Hallermund, and Johann Peter Uz, who were born here, and to
Kaspar Hauser, who died here. The chief manufactures are machinery,
toys, woollen, cotton, and half-silk stuffs, embroideries, earthenware,
tobacco, cutlery and playing cards. There is considerable trade in
grain, wool and flax. In 1791 the last margrave of Anspach sold his
principality to Frederick William II., king of Prussia; it was
transferred by Napoleon to Bavaria in 1806, an act which was confirmed
by the congress of Vienna in 1815.
ANSDELL, RICHARD (1815-1885), English painter, was born in Liverpool,
and first exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1840. He was a painter of
genre, chiefly animal and sporting pictures, and he became very popular,
being elected A.R.A. in 1861 and R.A. in 1870. His "Stag at Bay" (1846),
"The Combat" (1847), and "Battle of the Standard" (1848), represent his
best work, in which he showed himself a notable follower of Landseer.
ANSELM (c. 1033-1109), archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Aosta in
Piedmont. His family was accounted noble, and was possessed of
considerable property. Gundulph, his father, was by birth a Lombard, and
seems to have been a man of harsh and violent temper; his mother,
Ermenberga, was a prudent and virtuous woman, from whose careful
religious training the young Anselm derived much benefit. At the age of
fifteen he desired to enter a convent, but he could not obtain his
father's consent. Disappointment brought on an illness, on his recovery
from which he seems for a time to have given up his studies, and to have
plunged into the gay life of the world. During this time his mother
died, and his father's harshness became unbearable. He left home, and
with only one attendant crossed the Alps, and wandered through Burgundy
and France. Attracted by the fame of his countryman, Lanfranc, then
prior of Bec, he entered Normandy, and, after spending some time at
Avranches, settled at the monastery of Bec. There, at the age of
twenty-seven, he became a monk; three years later, when Lanfranc was
promoted to the abbacy of Caen, he was elected prior. This office he
held for fifteen years, and then, in 1078, on the death of Herlwin, the
warrior monk who had founded the monastery, he was made abbot. Under his
rule Bec became the first seat of learning in Europe, a result due not
more to his intellectual powers than to the great moral influence of his
noble character and kindly discipline. It was during these quiet years
at Bec that Anselm wrote his first philosophical and religious works,
the dialogues on Truth and Freewill, and the two celebrated treatises,
the _Monologion_ and _Proslogion_.
Meanwhile the convent had been growing in wealth, as well as in
reputation, and had acquired considerable property in England, which it
became the duty of Anselm occasionally to visit. By his mildness of
temper and unswerving rectitude, he so endeared himself to the English
that he was looked upon and desired as the natural successor to
Lanfranc, then archbishop of Canterbury. But on the death of that great
man, the ruling sovereign, William Rufus, seized the possessions and
revenues of the see, and made no new appointment. About four years
after, in 1092, on the invitation of Hugh, earl of Chester, Anselm with
some reluctance, for he feared to be made archbishop, crossed to
England. He was detained by business for nearly four months, and when
about to return, was refused permission by the king. In the following
year William fell ill, and thought his death was at hand. Eager to make
atonement for his sin with regard to the archbishopric, he nominated
Anselm to the vacant see, and after a great struggle compelled him to
accept the pastoral staff of office. After obtaining dispensation from
his duties in Normandy, Anselm was consecrated in 1093. He demanded of
the king, as the conditions of his retaining office, that he should give
up all the possessions of the see, accept his spiritual counsel, and
acknowledge Urban as pope in opposition to the anti-pope, Clement. He
only obtained a partial consent to the first of these, and the last
involved him in a serious difficulty with the king. It was a rule of the
church that the consecration of metropolitans could not be completed
without their receiving the _pallium_ from the hands of the pope.
Anselm, accordingly, insisted that he must proceed to Rome to receive
the pall. But William would not permit this; he had not acknowledged
Urban, and he maintained his right to prevent any pope being
acknowledged by an English subject without his permission. A great
council of churchmen and nobles, held to settle the matter, advised
Anselm to submit to the king, but failed to overcome his mild and
patient firmness. The matter was postponed, and William meanwhile
privately sent messengers to Rome, who acknowledged Urban and prevailed
on him to send a legate to the king bearing the archiepiscopal pall. A
partial reconciliation was then effected, and the matter of the pall was
compromised. It was not given by the king, but was laid on the altar at
Canterbury, whence Anselm took it.
Little more than a year after, fresh trouble arose with the king, and
Anselm resolved to proceed to Rome and seek the counsel of his spiritual
father. With great difficulty he obtained a reluctant permission to
leave, and in October 1097 he set out for Rome. William immediately
seized on the revenues of the see, and retained them to his death.
Anselm was received with high honour by Urban, and at a great council
held at Bari, he was put forward to defend the doctrine of the
procession of the Holy Ghost against the representatives of the Greek
Church. But Urban was too politic to embroil himself with the king of
England, and Anselm found that he could obtain no substantial result. He
withdrew from Rome, and spent some time at the little village of
Schiavi, where he finished his treatise on the atonement, _Cur Deus
homo_, and then retired to Lyons.
In 1100 William was killed, and Henry, his successor, at once recalled
Anselm. But Henry demanded that he should again receive from him in
person investiture in his office of archbishop, thus making the dignity
entirely dependent on the royal authority. Now, the papal rule in the
matter was plain; all homage and lay investiture were strictly
prohibited. Anselm represented this to the king; but Henry would not
relinquish a privilege possessed by his predecessors, and proposed that
the matter should be laid before the Holy See. The answer of the pope
reaffirmed the law as to investiture. A second embassy was sent, with a
similar result. Henry, however, remained firm, and at last, in 1103,
Anselm and an envoy from the king set out for Rome. The pope, Paschal,
reaffirmed strongly the rule of investiture, and passed sentence of
excommunication against all who had infringed the law, except Henry.
Practically this left matters as they were, and Anselm, who had received
a message forbidding him to return to England unless on the king's
terms, withdrew to Lyons, where he waited to see if Paschal would not
take stronger measures. At last, in 1105, he resolved himself to
excommunicate Henry. His intention was made known to the king through
his sister, and it seriously alarmed him, for it was a critical period
in his affairs. A meeting was arranged, and a reconciliation between
them effected. In 1106 Anselm crossed to England, with power from the
pope to remove the sentence of excommunication from the illegally
invested churchmen. In 1107 the long dispute as to investiture was
finally ended by the king resigning his formal rights. The remaining two
years of Anselm's life were spent in the duties of his archbishopric. He
died on the 21st of April 1109. He was canonized in 1494 by Alexander
VI.
Anselm may, with some justice, be considered the first scholastic
philosopher and theologian. His only great predecessor, Scotus Erigena,
had more of the speculative and mystical element than is consistent with
a schoolman; but in Anselm are found that recognition of the relation of
reason to revealed truth, and that attempt to elaborate a rational
system of faith, which form the special characteristics of scholastic
thought. His constant endeavour is to render the contents of the
Christian consciousness clear to reason, and to develop the intelligible
truths interwoven with the Christian belief. The necessary preliminary
for this is the possession of the Christian consciousness. "He who does
not believe will not experience; and he who has not experienced will not
understand." That faith must precede knowledge is reiterated by him.
_"Negue enim quaero intelligere ut credam, sed credo ut intelligam. Nam
et hoc credo, quia, nisi credidero, non intelligam."_ ("Nor do I seek to
understand that I may believe, but I believe that I may understand. For
this too I believe, that unless I first believe, I shall not
understand.") But after the faith is held fast, the attempt must be made
to demonstrate by reason the truth of what we believe. It is wrong not
to do so. _"Negligentiae mihi esse videtur, si, postquam confirmati
sumus in fide, non studemus quod credimus, intelligere."_ ("I hold it to
be a failure in duty if after we have become steadfast in the faith we
do not strive to understand what we believe.") To such an extent does he
carry this demand for rational explanation that, at times, it seems as
if he claimed for unassisted intelligence the power of penetrating even
to the mysteries of the Christian faith. On the whole, however, the
qualified statement is his real view; merely rational proofs are always,
he affirms, to be tested by Scripture. (_Cur Deus homo_, i. 2 and 38;
_De Fide Trin_. 2.)
The groundwork of his theory of knowledge is contained in the tract _De
Veritate_, in which, from the consideration of truth as in knowledge, in
willing, and in things, he rises to the affirmation of an absolute
truth, in which all other truth participates. This absolute truth is God
himself, who is therefore the ultimate ground or principle both of
things and of thought. The notion of God comes thus into the foreground
of the system; before all things it is necessary that it should be made
clear to reason, that it should be demonstrated to have real existence.
This demonstration is the substance of the _Monologion_ and
_Proslogion_. In the first of these the proof rests on the ordinary
grounds of realism, and coincides to some extent with the earlier theory
of Augustine, though it is carried out with singular boldness and
fulness. Things, he says, are called good in a variety of ways and
degrees; this would be impossible if there were not some absolute
standard, some good in itself, in which all relative goods participate.
Similarly with such predicates as great, just; they involve a certain
greatness and justice. The very existence of things is impossible
without some one Being, by whom they are. This absolute Being, this
goodness, justice, greatness, is God. Anselm was not thoroughly
satisfied with this reasoning; it started from _a posteriori grounds_,
and contained several converging lines of proof. He desired to have some
one short demonstration. Such a demonstration he presented in the
_Proslogion_; it is his celebrated ontological proof. God is that being
than whom none greater can be conceived. Now, if that than which nothing
greater can be conceived existed only in the intellect, it would not be
the absolutely greatest, for we could add to it existence in reality. It
follows, then, that the being than whom nothing greater can be
conceived, i.e. God, necessarily has real existence. This reasoning, in
which Anselm partially anticipated the Cartesian philosophers, has
rarely seemed satisfactory. It was opposed at the time by the monk
Gaunilo, in his _Liber pro Insipiente_, on the ground that we cannot
pass from idea to reality. The same criticism is made by several of the
later schoolmen, among others by Aquinas, and is in substance what Kant
advances against all ontological proof. Anselm replied to the objections
of Gaunilo in his _Liber Apologeticus_. The existence of God being thus
held proved, he proceeds to state the rational grounds of the Christian
doctrines of creation and of the Trinity. With reference to this last,
he says we cannot know God from himself, but only after the analogy of
his creatures; and the special analogy used is the self-consciousness of
man, its peculiar double nature, with the necessary elements, memory and
intelligence, representing the relation of the Father to the Son. The
mutual love of these two, proceeding from the relation they hold to one
another, symbolizes the Holy Spirit. The further theological doctrines
of man, original sin, free will, are developed, partly in the
_Monologion_, partly in other mixed treatises. Finally, in his greatest
work, _Cur Deus homo_, he undertakes to make plain, even to infidels,
the rational necessity of the Christian mystery of the atonement. The
theory rests on three positions: that satisfaction is necessary on
account of God's honour and justice; that such satisfaction can be given
only by the peculiar personality of the God-man; that such satisfaction
is really given by the voluntary death of this infinitely valuable
person. The demonstration is, in brief, this. All the actions of men are
due to the furtherance of God's glory; if, then, there be sin, i.e. if
God's honour be wounded, man of himself can give no satisfaction. But
the justice of God demands satisfaction; and as an insult to infinite
honour is in itself infinite, the satisfaction must be infinite, i.e. it
must outweigh all that is not God. Such a penalty can only be paid by
God himself, and, as a penalty for man, must be paid under the form of
man. Satisfaction is only possible through the God-man. Now this
God-man, as sinless, is exempt from the punishment of sin; His passion
is therefore voluntary, not given as due. The merit of it is therefore
infinite; God's justice is thus appeased, and His mercy may extend to
man. This theory has exercised immense influence on the form of church
doctrine. It is certainly an advance on the older patristic theory, in
so far as it substitutes for a contest between God and Satan, a contest
between the goodness and justice of God; but it puts the whole relation
on a merely legal footing, gives it no ethical bearing, and neglects
altogether the consciousness of the individual to be redeemed. In this
respect it contrasts unfavourably with the later theory of Abelard.
Anselm's speculations did not receive, in the middle ages, the respect
and attention justly their due. This was probably due to their
unsystematic character, for they are generally tracts or dialogues on
detached questions, not elaborate treatises like the great works of
Albert, Aquinas, and Erigena. They have, however, a freshness and
philosophical vigour, which more than makes up for their want of system,
and which raises them far above the level of most scholastic writings.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The main sources for the history of St Anselm and his
times are Eadmer's _Vita Anselmi_ and his _Historia Novorum_, edited
by M. Rule in _Rolls Series_ (London, 1884); the best modern work is
by Pere Ragey, _Histoire de Saint Anselme_ (Paris, 1890), and _Saint
Anselme professeur_ (Paris, 1890). Other appreciations are by A.
Mohler, _Anselm Erzbischof von Canterbury_ (Regensburg, 1839; Eng.
trans. by H. Rymer, London, 1842); F.R. Hasse, _Anselm von Canterbury_
(2 vols., Leipzig, 1842-1853); C. de Remusat, _S. Anseime de
Cantorbery_ (Paris, 1853, new ed. 1868); R.W. Church, _St Anselm_,
first published in _Sunday Library_ (London, 1870; often reprinted);
Martin Rule, _Life and Times of St Anselm_ (London, 1883).
_Works_: The best edition of St Anselm's complete works is that of
Dom Gerberon (Paris, 1675); reprinted with many notes in 1712;
incorporated by J. Migne in his _Patrologia Latina_, tomi
clviii.-clix. (Paris. 1853-1854). Migne's reprint contains many
errors. The _Cur Deus homo_ may be best studied in the editions
published by D. Nutt (London, 1885) and by Griffith (1898). The
_Mariale_, or poems in honour of the Blessed Virgin, has been
carefully edited by P. Ragey (Tournai, 1885); the _Monologion_ and
_Proslogion_, by C.E. Ubaghs (Louvain, 1854; Eng. trans. by S.N.
Deane, Chicago, 1903); the _Meditationes_, many of which are wrongly
attributed to Anselm, have been frequently reprinted, and were
included in Methuen's _Library of Devotion_ (London, 1903).
The best criticism of Anselm's philosophical works is by J.M. Rigg
(London, 1896), and Domet de Verges (_Grands Philosophes_ series,
Paris, 1901). For a complete bibliography, see A. Vacant's
_Dictionnaire de theologie_.
ANSELM, of Laon (d. 1117), French theologian, was born of very humble
parents at Laon before the middle of the 11th century. He is said to
have studied under St Anselm at Bec. About 1076 he taught with great
success at Paris, where, as the associate of William of Champeaux, he
upheld the realistic side of the scholastic controversy. Later he
removed to his native place, where his school for theology and exegetics
rapidly became the most famous in Europe. He died in 1117. His greatest
work, an interlinear gloss on the Scriptures, was one of the great
authorities of the middle ages. It has been frequently reprinted. Other
commentaries apparently by him have been ascribed to various writers,
principally to the great Anselm. A list of them, with notice of Anselm's
life, is contained in the _Histoire litteraire de la France_, x.
170-189.
The works are collected in Migne's _Patrologia Latina_, tome 162; some
unpublished _Sententiae_ were edited by G. Lefevre (Milan, 1894), on
which see Haureau in the _Journal des savants_ for 1895.
ANSELME (Father Anselme of the Virgin Mary) (1625-1694), French
genealogist, was born in Paris in 1625. As a layman his name was Pierre
Guibours. He entered the order of the barefooted Augustinians on the
31st of March 1644, and it was in their monastery (called the Couvent
des Petits Peres, near the church of Notre-Dame des Victoires) that he
died, on the 17th of January 1694. He devoted his entire life to
genealogical studies. In 1663 he published _Le Palais de l'honneur_,
which besides giving the genealogy of the houses of Lorraine and Savoy,
is a complete treatise on heraldry, and in 1664 _Le Palais de la
gloire_, dealing with the genealogy of various illustrious French and
European families. These books made friends for him, the most intimate
among whom, Honore Caille, seigneur du Fourny (1630-1713), persuaded him
to publish his _Histoire genealogique de la maison royale de France, et
des grands officiers de la couronne_ (1674, 2 vols. 4); after Father
Anselme's death, Honore Caille collected his papers, and brought out a
new edition of this highly important work in 1712. The task was taken up
and continued by two other friars of the Couvent des Petits Peres,
Father Ange de Sainte-Rosalie (Francois Raffard, 1655-1726), and Father
Simplicien (Paul Lucas, 1683-1759), who published the first and second
volumes of the third edition in 1726. This edition consists of nine
volumes folio; it is a genealogical and chronological history of the
royal house of France, of the peers, of the great officers of the crown
and of the king's household, and of the ancient barons of the kingdom.
The notes were generally compiled from original documents, references to
which are usually given, so that they remain useful to the present day.
The work of Father Anselme, his collaborators and successors, is even
more important for the history of France than is Dugdale's _Baronage of
England_ for the history of England. (C. B.*)
ANSON, GEORGE ANSON, BARON (1697-1762), British admiral, was born on the
23rd of April 1697. He was the son of William Anson of Shugborough in
Staffordshire, and his wife Isabella Carrier, who was the sister-in-law
of Lord Chancellor Macclesfield, a relationship which proved very useful
to the future admiral. George Anson entered the navy in February 1712,
and by rapid steps became lieutenant in 1716, commander in 1722, and
post-captain in 1724. In this rank he served twice on the North American
station as captain of the "Scarborough" and the "Squirrel" from 1724 to
1730 and from 1733 to 1735. In 1737 he was appointed to the "Centurion,"
60, on the eve of war with Spain, and when hostilities had begun he was
chosen to command as commodore the squadron which was sent to attack her
possessions in South America in 1740. The original scheme was ambitious,
and was not carried out. Anson's squadron, which sailed later than had
been intended, and was very ill-fitted, consisted of six ships, which
were reduced by successive disasters to his flagship the "Centurion."
The lateness of the season forced him to round Cape Horn in very stormy
weather, and the navigating instruments of the time did not allow of
exact observation. Two of his vessels failed to round the Horn, another,
the "Wager," was wrecked in the Golfo de Panas on the coast of Chile. By
the time Anson reached the island of Juan Fernandez in June 1741, his
six ships had been reduced to three, while the strength of his crews had
fallen from 961 to 335. In the absence of any effective Spanish force on
the coast he was able to harass the enemy, and to capture the town of
Paita on the 13th-15th of November 1741. The steady diminution of his
crew by sickness, and the worn-out state of his remaining consorts,
compelled him at last to collect all the survivors in the "Centurion."
He rested at the island of Tinian, and then made his way to Macao in
November 1742. After considerable difficulties with the Chinese, he
sailed again with his one remaining vessel to cruise for one of the
richly laden galleons which conducted the trade between Mexico and the
Philippines. The indomitable perseverance he had shown during one of the
most arduous voyages in the history of sea adventure was rewarded by the
capture of an immensely rich prize, the "Nuestra Senora de Covadonga,"
which was met off Cape Espiritu Santo on the 20th of June 1743. Anson
took his prize back to Macao, sold her cargo to the Chinese, keeping the
specie, and sailed for England, which he reached by the Cape of Good
Hope on the 15th of June 1744. The prize-money earned by the capture of
the galleon had made him a rich man for life, and under the influence of
irritation caused by the refusal of the admiralty to confirm a
captain's commission he had given to one of his officers, Anson refused
the rank of rear-admiral, and was prepared to leave the service. His
fame would stand nearly as high as it does if he had done so, but he
would be a far less important figure in the history of the navy. By the
world at large he is known as the commander of the voyage of
circumnavigation, in which success was won by indomitable perseverance,
unshaken firmness, and infinite resource. But he was also the severe and
capable administrator who during years of hard work at the admiralty did
more than any other to raise the navy from the state of corruption and
indiscipline into which it had fallen during the first half of the
eighteenth century. Great anger had been caused in the country by the
condition of the fleet as revealed in the first part of the war with
France and Spain, between 1739 and 1747. The need for reform was
strongly felt, and the politicians of the day were conscious that it
would not be safe to neglect the popular demand for it. In 1745 the duke
of Bedford, the new first lord, invited Anson to join the admiralty with
the rank of rear-admiral of the white. As subordinate under the duke, or
Lord Sandwich, and as first lord himself, Anson was at the admiralty
with one short break from 1745 till his death in 1762. His chiefs in the
earlier years left him to take the initiative in all measures of reform,
and supported him in their own interest. After 1751 he was himself first
lord, except for a short time in 1756 and 1757. At his suggestion, or
with his advice, the naval administration was thoroughly overhauled. The
dockyards were brought into far better order, and though corruption was
not banished, it was much reduced. The navy board was compelled to
render accounts, a duty it had long neglected. A system of regulating
promotion to flag rank, which has been in the main followed ever since,
was introduced. The Navy Discipline Act was revised in 1749, and
remained unaltered till 1865. Courts martial were put on a sound
footing. Inspections of the fleet and the dockyards were established,
and the corps of Marines was created in 1755. The progressive
improvement which raised the navy to the high state of efficiency it
attained in later years dates from Anson's presence at the admiralty. In
1747 he, without ceasing to be a member of the board, commanded the
Channel fleet which on the 3rd of May scattered a large French convoy
bound to the East, and West Indies, in an action off Cape Finisterre.
Several men-of-war and armed French Indiamen were taken, but the
overwhelming superiority of Anson's fleet (fourteen men-of-war, to six
men-of-war and four Indiamen) in the number and weight of ships deprives
the action of any strong claim to be considered remarkable. In society
Anson seems to have been cold and taciturn. The sneers of Horace
Walpole, and the savage attack of Smollett in _The Adventures of an
Atom_, are animated by personal or political spite. Yet they would not
have accused him of defects from which he was notoriously free. In
political life he may sometimes have given too ready assent to the
wishes of powerful politicians. He married the daughter of Lord
Chancellor Hardwicke on the 27th of April 1748. There were no children
of the marriage. His title of Baron Anson of Soberton was given him in
1747, but became extinct on his death. The title of Viscount Anson was,
however, created in 1806 in favour of his great-nephew, the grandson of
his sister Janetta and Mr Sambrook Adams, whose father had assumed the
name and arms of Anson. The earldom of Lichfield was conferred on the
family in the next generation. A fine portrait of the admiral by
Reynolds is in the possession of the earl of Lichfield, and there are
copies in the National Portrait Gallery and at Greenwich. Anson's
promotions in flag rank were: rear-admiral in 1745, vice-admiral in
1746, and admiral in 1748. In 1749 he became vice-admiral of Great
Britain, and in 1761 admiral of the fleet. He died on the 6th of June
1762.
A life of Lord Anson, inaccurate in some details but valuable and
interesting, was published by Sir John Barrow in 1839. The standard
account of his voyage round the world is that by his chaplain Richard
Walter, 1748, often reprinted. A share in the work has been claimed on
dubious grounds for Benjamin Robins, the mathematician. Another and
much inferior account was published in 1745 by Pascoe Thomas, the
schoolmaster of the "Centurion." (D. H.)
ANSON, SIR WILLIAM REYNELL, BART. (1843- ), English jurist, was born
on the 14th of November 1843, at Walberton, Sussex, son of the second
baronet. Educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford, he took a first
class in the final classical schools in 1866, and was elected to a
fellowship of All Souls in the following year. In 1869 he was called to
the bar, and went the home circuit until 1873, when he succeeded to the
baronetcy. In 1874 he became Vinerian reader in English law at Oxford, a
post which he held until he became, in 1881, warden of All Souls
College. He identified himself both with local and university interests;
he became an alderman of the city of Oxford in 1892, chairman of quarter
sessions for the county in 1894, was vice-chancellor of the university
in 1898-1899, and chancellor of the diocese of Oxford in 1899. In that
year he was returned, without opposition, as M.P. for the university in
the Liberal Unionist interest, and consequently resigned the
vice-chancellorship. In parliament he preserved an active interest in
education, being a member of the newly created consultative committee of
the Board of Education in 1900, and in 1902 he became parliamentary
secretary. He took an active part in the foundation of a school of law
at Oxford, and his volumes on _The Principles of the English Law of
Contract_, (1884, 11th ed. 1906), and on _The Law and Custom of the
Constitution_ in two parts, "The Parliament" and "The Crown" (1886-1892.
3rd ed. 1907, pt. i. vol. ii.), are standard works.
ANSONIA, a city of New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A., coextensive
with the township of the same name, on the Naugatuck river, immediately
N. of Derby and about 12 m. N.W. of New Haven. It is served by the New
York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and by interurban electric lines
running N., S. and E. Pop. (1900) 12,681, of whom 4296 were foreign
born; (1910 census) 13,152. Land area about 5.4 sq. m. The city has
extensive manufactures of heavy machinery, electric supplies, brass and
copper products and silk goods. In 1905 the capital invested in
manufacturing was $7,625,864, and the value of the products was
$19,132,455. Ansonia, Derby and Shelton form one of the most important
industrial communities in the state. The city, settled in 1840 and named
in honour of the merchant and philanthropist, Anson Green Phelps
(1781-1853), was originally a part of the township of Derby; it was
chartered as a borough in 1864 and as a city in 1893, when the township
of Ansonia, which had been incorporated in 1889, and the city were
consolidated.
ANSTED, DAVID THOMAS (1814-1880), English geologist, was born in London
on the 5th of February 1814. He was educated at Jesus College,
Cambridge, and after taking his degree of M.A. in 1839 was elected to a
fellowship of the college. Inspired by the teachings of Adam Sedgwick,
his attention was given to geology, and in 1840 he was elected professor
of geology in King's College, London, a post which he held until 1853.
Meanwhile he became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1844, and from that
date until 1847 he was vice-secretary of the Geological Society and
edited its Quarterly Journal. The practical side of geology now came to
occupy his chief attention, and he visited various parts of Europe and
the British Islands as a consulting geologist and mining engineer. He
was also in 1868 and for many years examiner in physical geography to
the science and art department. He died at Melton near Woodbridge, on
the 13th of May 1880.
PUBLICATIONS.--_Geology, Introductory, Descriptive and Practical_ (2
vols., 1844); _The Ionian Islands_ (1863); _The Applications of
Geology to the Arts and Manufactures_ (1865); _Physical Geography_
(1867); _Water and Water Supply_ (Surface Water) (1878); and _The
Channel Islands_ (with R.G. Latham) (1862).
ANSTEY, CHRISTOPHER (1724-1805), English poet, was the son of the rector
of Brinkley, Cambridgeshire, where he was born on the 31st of October
1724. He was educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, where he
distinguished himself for his Latin verses. He became a fellow of his
college (1745); but the degree of M.A. was withheld from him, owing to
the offence caused by a speech made by him beginning: "Doctores sine
doctrina, magistri artium sine artibus, et baccalaurei baculo potius
quam lauro digni." In 1754 he succeeded to the family estates and left
Cambridge; and two years later he married the daughter of Felix Calvert
of Albury Hall, Herts. For some time Anstey published nothing of any
note, though he cultivated letters as well as his estates. Some visits
to Bath, however, where later, in 1770, he made his permanent home,
resulted in 1766 in his famous rhymed letters, _The New Bath Guide_ or
_Memoirs of the B ... r ... d_ [_Blunderhead_] _Family_..., which had
immediate success, and was enthusiastically praised for its original
kind of humour by Walpole and Gray. The _Election Ball, in Poetical
Letters from Mr Inkle at Bath to his Wife at Gloucester_ (1776)
sustained the reputation won by the Guide. Anstey's other productions in
verse and prose are now forgotten. He died on the 3rd of August 1805.
His _Poetical Works_ were collected in 1808 (2 vols.) by the author's
son John (d. 1819), himself author of _The Pleader's Guide_ (1796), in
the same vein with the _New Bath Guide_.
ANSTRUTHER (locally pronounced _Anster_), a seaport of Fifeshire,
Scotland. It comprises the royal and police burghs of Anstruther Easter
(pop. 1190), Anstruther Wester (501) and Kilrenny (2542), and lies 9 m.
S.S.E. of St Andrews, having a station on the North British railway
company's branch line from Thornton Junction to St Andrews. The chief
industries include coast and deep-sea fisheries, shipbuilding, tanning,
the making of cod-liver oil and fish-curing. The harbour was completed
in 1877 at a cost of L80,000. The two Anstruthers are divided only by a
small stream called Dreel Burn. James Melville (1556-1614), nephew of
the more celebrated reformer, Andrew Melville, who was minister of
Kilrenny, has given in his _Diary_ a graphic account of the arrival at
Anstruther of a weatherbound ship of the Armada, and the tradition of
the intermixture of Spanish and Fifeshire blood still prevails in the
district. Anstruther fair supplied William Tennant (1784-1848), who was
born and buried in the town, with the subject of his poem of "Anster
Fair." Sir James Lumsden, a soldier of fortune under Gustavus Adolphus,
who distinguished himself in the Thirty Years' War, was born in the
parish of Kilrenny about 1598. David Martin (1737-1798), the painter and
engraver; Thomas Chalmers (1780-1847), the great divine; and John
Goodsir (1814-1867), the anatomist, were natives of Anstruther. Little
more than a mile to the west lies the royal and police burgh of
Pittenweem (Gaelic, "the hollow of the cave"), a quaint old fishing town
(pop. 1863), with the remains of a priory. About 2 m. still farther
westwards is the fishing town of St Monans or Abercromby (pop. 1898),
with a fine old Gothic church, picturesquely perched on the rocky shore.
These fisher towns on the eastern and south-eastern coasts of Fifeshire
furnish artists with endless subjects. Archibald Constable (1774-1827),
Sir Walter Scott's publisher, was born in the parish of Carnbee, about 3
m. to the north of Pittenweem. The two Anstruthers, Kilrenny and
Pittenweem unite with St Andrews, Cupar and Crail, in sending one member
to parliament.
ANSWER (derived from _and_, against, and the same root as _swear_),
originally a solemn assertion in opposition to some one or something,
and thus generally any counter-statement or defence, a reply to a
question or objection, or a correct solution of a problem. In English
law, the "answer" in pleadings was, previous to the Judicature Acts
1873-1875, the statement of defence, especially as regards the facts and
not the law. Its place is now taken by a "statement of defence."
"Answer" is the term still applied in divorce proceedings to the reply
of the respondent (see PLEADING). The famous Latin _Responsa Prudentum_
("answers of the learned") were the accumulated views of many successive
generations of Roman lawyers, a body of legal opinion which gradually
became authoritative. In music an "answer" is the technical name in
counterpoint for the repetition by one part or instrument of a theme
proposed by another.
ANT (O. Eng. _aemete_, from Teutonic a, privative, and _maitan_, cut or
bite off, i.e. "the biter off"; _aemete_ in Middle English became
differentiated in dialect use to _amete_, then _amte_, and so _ant_, and
also to _emete_, whence the synonym "emmet," now only used provincially,
"ant" being the general literary form). The fact that the name of the
ant has come down in English from a thousand years ago shows that this
class of insects impressed the old inhabitants of England as they
impressed the Hebrews and Greeks. The social instincts and industrious
habits of ants have always made them favourite objects of study, and a
vast amount of literature has accumulated on the subject of their
structure and their modes of life.
_Characters._--An ant is easily recognized both by the casual observer
and by the student of insects. Ants form a distinct and natural family
(_Formicidae_) of the great order _Hymenoptera_, to which bees, wasps
and sawflies also belong. The insects of this order have mandibles
adapted for biting, and two pairs of membranous wings are usually
present; the first abdominal segment (propodeum) becomes closely
associated with the fore-body (thorax), of which it appears to form a
part. In all ants the second (apparently the first) abdominal segment is
very markedly constricted at its front and hind edges, so that it forms
a "node" at the base of the hind-body (fig. 1), and in many ants the
third abdominal segment is similarly "nodular" in form (fig. 3, _b,
c._). It is this peculiar "waist" that catches the eye of the observer,
and makes the insects so easy of recognition. Another conspicuous and
well-known feature of ants is the wingless condition of the "workers,"
as the specialized females, with undeveloped ovaries, which form the
largest proportion of the population of ant-communities, are called.
Such "workers" are essential to the formation of a social community of
Hymenoptera, and their wingless condition among the ants shows that
their specialization has been carried further in this family than among
the wasps and bees. Further, while among wasps and bees we find some
solitary and some social genera, the ants as a family are social, though
some aberrant species are dependent on the workers of other ants. It is
interesting and suggestive that in a few families of digging Hymenoptera
(such as the _Mutillidae_), allied to the ants, the females are
wingless. The perfect female or "queen" ants (figs. 1, 1, 3, a) often
cast their wings (fig. 3, b) after the nuptial flight; in a few species
the females, and in still fewer the males, never develop wings. (For the
so-called "white ants," which belong to an order far removed from the
_Hymenoptera_, see TERMITE.)
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Wood Ant (_Formica rufa_). 1, Queen; 2, male; 3,
worker.]
_Structure._--The head of an ant carries a pair of elbowed feelers, each
consisting of a minute basal and an elongate second segment, forming the
stalk or "scape," while from eight to eleven short segments make up the
terminal "flagellum." These segments are abundantly supplied with
elongate tooth-like projections connected with nerve-endings probably
olfactory in function. The brain is well developed and its
"mushroom-bodies" are exceptionally large. The mandibles, which are
frequently used for carrying various objects, are situated well to the
outside of the maxillae, so that they can be opened and shut without
interfering with the latter. The peculiar form and arrangement of the
anterior abdominal segments have already been described. The fourth
abdominal segment is often very large, and forms the greater part of the
hind-body; this segment is markedly constricted at its basal (forward)
end, where it is embraced by the small third segment. In many of those
ants whose third abdominal segment forms a second "node," the basal
dorsal region of the fourth segment is traversed by a large number of
very fine transverse striations; over these the sharp hinder edge of the
third segment can be scraped to and fro, and the result is a
stridulating organ which gives rise to a note of very high pitch. For
the appreciation of the sounds made by these stridulators, the ants are
furnished with delicate organs of hearing (chordotonal organs) in the
head, in the three thoracic and two of the abdominal segments and in the
shins of the legs.
The hinder abdominal segments and the stings of the queens and workers
resemble those of other stinging Hymenoptera. But there are several
subfamilies of ants whose females have the lancets of the sting useless
for piercing, although the poison-glands are functional, their secretion
being ejected by the insect, when occasion may arise, from the greatly
enlarged reservoir, the reduced sting acting as a squirt.
_Nests._--The nests of different kinds of ants are constructed in very
different situations; many species (_Lasius_, for example) make
underground nests; galleries and chambers being hollowed out in the
soil, and opening by small holes on the surface, or protected above by a
large stone. The wood ant (_Formica rufa_, fig. 1) piles up a heap of
leaves, twigs and other vegetable refuse, so arranged as to form an
orderly series of galleries, though the structure appears at first sight
a chaotic heap. Species of _Camponotus_ and many other ants tunnel in
wood. In tropical countries ants sometimes make their nests in the
hollow thorns of trees or on leaves; species with this habit are
believed to make a return to the tree for the shelter that it affords by
protecting it from the ravages of other insects, including their own
leaf-cutting relations.
_Early Stages._--The larvae of ants (fig. 3, e) are legless and helpless
maggots with very small heads (fig. 3, f), into whose mouths the
requisite food has to be forced by the assiduous "nurse" workers. The
maggots are tended by these nurses with the greatest care, and carried
to those parts of the nest most favourable for their health and growth.
When fully grown, the maggot spins an oval silken cocoon within which it
pupates (fig. 3, g). These cocoons, which may often be seen carried
between the mandibles of the workers, are the "ants' eggs" prized as
food for fish and pheasants. The workers of a Ceylonese ant (_Oecophylla
smaragdina_) are stated by D. Sharp to hold the maggots between their
mandibles and induce them to spin together the leaves of trees from
which they form their shelters, as the adult ants have no silk-producing
organs.
_Origin of Societies._--Ant-colonies are founded either by a single
female or by several in association. The foundress of the nest lays eggs
and at first feeds and rears the larvae, the earliest of which develop
into workers. C. Janet observed that in a nest of _Lasius alienus_,
established by a single female, the first workers emerged from their
cocoons on the 102nd day. These workers then take on themselves the
labour of the colony, some collecting food, which they transfer to their
comrades within the nest whose duty is to tend and feed the larvae. The
foundress-queen is now waited on by the workers, who supply her with
food and spare her all cares of work, so that henceforth she may devote
her whole energies to egg-laying. The population of the colony increases
fast, and a well-grown nest contains several "queens" and males, besides
a large number of workers. One of the most interesting features of
ant-societies is the dimorphism or polymorphism that may often be seen
among the workers, the same species being represented by two or more
forms. Thus the British "wood ant" (_Formica rufa_) has a smaller and a
larger race of workers ("minor" and "major" forms), while in _Ponera_ we
find a blind race of workers and another race provided with eyes, and in
_Atta_, _Eciton_ and other genera, four or five forms of workers are
produced, the largest of which, with huge heads and elongate trenchant
mandibles, are known as the "soldier" caste. The development of such
diversely-formed insects as the offspring of the unmodified females
which show none of their peculiarities raises many points of difficulty
for students in heredity. It is thought that the differences are, in
part at least, due to differences in the nature of the food supplied to
larvae, which are apparently all alike. But the ovaries of worker ants
are in some cases sufficiently developed for the production of eggs,
which may give rise parthenogenetically to male, queen or worker
offspring.
_Food._--Different kinds of ants vary greatly in the substances which
they use for food. Honey forms the staple nourishment of many ants, some
of the workers seeking nectar from flowers, working it up into honey
within their stomachs and regurgitating it so as to feed their comrades
within the nest, who, in their turn, pass it on to the grubs. A curious
specialization of certain workers in connexion with the transference of
honey has been demonstrated by H.C. McCook in the American genus
_Myrmecocystus_, and by later observers in Australian and African
species of _Plagiolepis_ and allied genera. The workers in question
remain within the nest, suspended by their feet, and serve as living
honey-pots for the colony, becoming so distended by the supplies of
honey poured into their mouths by their foraging comrades that their
abdomens become sub-globular, the pale intersegmental membrane being
tightly stretched between the widely-separated dark sclerites. The
"nurse" workers in the nest can then draw their supplies from these
"honey-pots." Very many ants live by preying upon various insects, such
as the British "red ants" with well-developed stings (_Myrmica rubra_),
and the notorious "driver ants" of Africa and America, the old-world
species of which belong to _Dorylus_ and allied genera, and the
new-world species to _Eciton_ (fig. 2, _2, 3_). In these ants the
difference between the large, heavy, winged males and females, and the
small, long-legged, active workers, is so great, that various forms of
the same species have been often referred to distinct genera; in
_Eciton_, for example, the female has a single petiolate abdominal
segment, the worker two. The workers of these ants range over the
country in large armies, killing and carrying off all the insects and
spiders that they find and sometimes attacking vertebrates. They have
been known to enter human dwellings, removing all the verminous insects
contained therein. These driver ants shelter in temporary nests made in
hollow trees or similar situations, where the insects may be seen,
according to T. Belt, "clustered together in a dense mass like a great
swarm of bees hanging from the roof."
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Leaf-cutting and Foraging Ants. 1. _Atta
cephalus_; 2. _Eciton drepanophora_; 3. _Eciton erratica_.]
The harvesting habits of certain ants have long been known, the
subterranean store-houses of Mediterranean species of _Aphaenogaster_
having been described by J.T. Moggridge and A. Forel, and the complex
industries of the Texan _Pogonomyrmex barbatus_ by H.C. McCook and W.M.
Wheeler. The colonies of _Aphaenogaster_ occupy nests extending over an
area of fifty to a hundred square yards several feet below the surface
of the ground. Into these underground chambers the ants carry seeds of
grasses and other plants of which they accumulate large stores. The
species of _Pogonomyrmex_ strip the husks from the seeds and carry them
out of the nest, making a refuse heap near the entrance. The seeds are
harvested from various grasses, especially from _Aristida oligantha_, a
species known as "ant rice," which often grows in quantity close to the
site selected for the nest, but the statement that the ants deliberately
sow this grass is an error, due, according to Wheeler, to the sprouting
of germinating seeds which the ants have turned out of their
store-chambers.
Perhaps no ants have such remarkable habits as those of the genus
_Atta_,--the leaf-cutting ants of tropical America (fig. 2, 1). There
are several forms of worker in these species, some with enormous heads,
which remain in the underground nests, while their smaller comrades
scour the country in search of suitable trees, which they ascend, biting
off small circular pieces from the leaves, and carrying them off to the
nests. Their labour often results in the complete defoliation of the
tree. The tracks along which the ants carry the leaves to their nests
are often in part subterranean. H.C. McCook describes an almost straight
tunnel, nearly 450 ft. long, made by _Atta fervens_.
Within the nest, the leaves are cut into very minute fragments and
gathered into small spherical heaps forming a spongy mass,
which--according to the researches of A. Moller--serves as the
substratum for a special fungus (_Rozites gongylophora_), the staple
food of the ants. The insects cultivate their fungus, weeding out mould
and bacterial growths, and causing the appearance, on the surface of
their "mushroom garden," of numerous small white bodies formed by
swollen ends of the fungus hyphae. When the fungus is grown elsewhere
than in the ants' nest it produces gonidia instead of the white masses
on which the ants feed, hence it seems that these masses are indeed
produced as the result of some unknown cultural process. Other genera of
South American ants--_Apterostigma_ and _Cyphomyrmex_--make similar
fungal cultivations, but they use wood, grain or dung as the substratum
instead of leaf fragments. Each kind of ant is so addicted to its own
particular fungal food that it refuses disdainfully, even when hungry,
the produce of an alien nest.
_Guests of Ants._--Many ants feed largely and some almost entirely on the
saccharine secretions of other insects, the best known of which are the
Aphides (plant-lice or "green-fly"). This consideration leads us to one
of the most remarkable and fascinating features of ant-communities--the
presence in the nests of insects and other small arthropods, which are
tended and cared for by the ants as their "guests," rendering to the ants
in return the sweet food which they desire. The relation between ants and
aphids has often been compared to that between men and milch cattle. Sir
J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury) states that the common British yellow ants
(_Lasius flavus_) collect flocks of root-feeding aphids in their
underground nests, protect them, build earthen shelters over them, and
take the greatest care of their eggs. Other ants, such as the British
black garden species (_L. niger_), go after the aphids that frequent the
shoots of plants. Many species of aphid migrate from one plant to another
at certain stages in their life-cycle when their numbers have very
largely increased, and F.M. Webster has observed ants, foreseeing this
emigration, to carry aphids from apple trees to grasses. It has been
shown by M. Busgen that the sweet secretion (honey-dew) of the aphids is
not derived, as generally believed, from the paired cornicles on the
fifth abdominal segment, but from the intestine, whence it exudes in
drops and is swallowed by the ants.
Besides the aphids, other insects, such as scale insects (_Coccidae_),
caterpillars of blue butterflies (_Lycaenidae_), and numerous beetles,
furnish the ants with nutrient secretions. The number of species of
beetles that inhabit ants' nests is almost incredibly large, and most of
these are never found elsewhere, being blind, helpless and dependent on
the ants' care for protection and food; these beetles belong for the
most part to the families _Pselaphidae, Paussidae_ and _Staphylinidae_.
Spring-tails and bristle-tails (order _Aptera_) of several species also
frequent ants' nests. While some of these "guest" insects produce
secretions that furnish the ants with food, some seem to be useless
inmates of the nest, obtaining food from the ants and giving nothing in
return. Others again play the part of thieves in the ant society; C.
Janet observed a small bristle-tail (_Lepismima_) to lurk beneath the
heads of two Lasius workers, while one passed food to the other, in
order to steal the drop of nourishment and to make off with it. The same
naturalist describes the association with Lasius of small mites
(_Antennophorus_) which are carried about by the worker ants, one of
which may have a mite beneath her mouth, and another on either side of
her abdomen. On patting their carrier or some passing ant, the mites are
supplied with food, no service being rendered by them in return for the
ants' care. Perhaps the ants derive from these seemingly useless guests
the same satisfaction as we obtain by keeping pet animals. Recent
advance in our knowledge of the guests and associates of ants is due
principally to E. Wasmann, who has compiled a list of nearly 1500
species of insects, arachnids and crustaceans, inhabiting ants' nests.
The warmth, shelter and abundant food in the nests, due both to the
fresh supplies brought in by the ants and to the large amount of waste
matter that accumulates, must prove strongly attractive to the various
"guests." Some of the inmates of ants' nests are here for the purpose of
preying upon the ants or their larvae, so that we find all kinds of
relations between the owners of the nests and their companions, from
mutual benefit to active hostility.
Among these associations or guests other species of ants are not
wanting. For example, a minute species (_Solenopsis fugax_) lives in a
compound nest with various species of _Formica_, forming narrow
galleries which open into the larger galleries of its host. The
_Solenopsis_ can make its way into the territory of the _Formica_ to
steal the larvae which serve it as food, but the _Formica_ is too large
to pursue the thief when it returns to its own galleries.
_Slaves._--Several species of ants are found in association with another
species which stands to them in the relation of slave to master.
_Formica sanguinea_ is a well-known European slave-making ant that
inhabits England; its workers raid the nests of _F. fusca_ and other
species, and carry off to their own nests pupae from which workers are
developed that live contentedly as slaves of their captors. _F.
sanguinea_ can live either with or without slaves, but another European
ant (_Polyergus rufescens_) is so dependent on its slaves--various
species of _Formica_--that its workers are themselves unable to feed the
larvae. The remarkable genus _Anergates_ has no workers, and its
wingless males and females are served by communities of _Tetramorium
cespitum_ (fig. 3).
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Ant, _Tetramorium cespitum_ (Linn.), a, Female;
b, female after loss of wings; c, male; d, worker; e, larva; g, pupa; f,
head of larva more highly magnified. After Marlatt, _Bull_. 4 (n.s.)
_Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. Agriculture_]
_Senses and Intelligence of Ants._--That ants possess highly developed
senses and the power of communicating with one another has long been
known to students of their habits; the researches of P. Huber and Sir J.
Lubbock (Lord Avebury) on these subjects are familiar to all
naturalists. The insects are guided by light, being very sensitive to
ultra-violet rays, and also by scent and hearing. Recent experiments by
A.M. Fielde show that an ant follows her own old track by a scent
exercised by the tenth segment of the feeler, recognizes other inmates
of her nest by a sense of smell resident in the eleventh segment, is
guided to the eggs, maggots and pupae, which she has to tend, by
sensation through the eighth and ninth segments, and appreciates the
general smell of the nest itself by means of organs in the twelfth
segment. Lubbock's experiments of inducing ants to seek objects that had
been removed show that they are guided by scent rather than by sight,
and that any disturbance of their surroundings often causes great
uncertainty in their actions. Ants invite one another to work, or ask
for food from one another, by means of pats with the feelers; and they
respond to the solicitations of their guest--beetles or mites, who ask
for food by patting the ants with their feet. In all probability the
actions of ants are for the most part instinctive or reflex, and some
observers, such as A. Bethe, deny them all claim to psychical qualities.
But it seems impossible to doubt that in many cases ants behave in a
manner that must be considered intelligent, that they can learn by
experience and that they possess memory. Lubbock goes so far as to
conclude the account of his experiments with the remark that "It is
difficult altogether to deny them the gift of reason ... their mental
powers differ from those of men, not so much in kind as in degree."
Wasmann considers that ants are neither miniature human beings nor mere
reflex automata, and most students of their habits will probably accept
this intermediate position as the most satisfactory. C.L. Morgan sums up
a discussion on Lubbock's experiments in which the ants failed to
utilize particles of earth for bridge-making, with the suggestive remark
that "What these valuable experiments seem to show is that the ant,
probably the most intelligent of all insects, has no claim to be
regarded as a rational being." Nevertheless, ants can teach "rational
beings" many valuable lessons.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature on ants is so vast that it is only
possible to refer the reader to a few of the most important works on
the family. Pierre Huber's _Traite des moeurs des fourmis indigenes_
(Geneve, 1810) is the most famous of the older memoirs. H.W. Bates, _A
Naturalist on the Amazons_; T. Belt, _A Naturalist in Nicaragua_; H.C.
McCook, _Agricultural Ant of Texas_ (Philadelphia, 1880); and A.
Moller's paper in _Botan. Mitt, aus den Tropen_, (1893), contain
classical observations on American species. Sir J. Lubbock's (Lord
Avebury) _Ants, Bees and Wasps_ (London 1882), dealing with British
and European species, has been followed by numerous important papers
by A. Forel and C. Emery in various Swiss and German periodicals, and
especially by C. Janet in his _Etudes sur les fourmis, les guepes et
les abeilles_ (Paris, &c., 1893-1904). Forel (_Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg._
xlvii., 1893, _Journ. Bomnay N.H. Soc._ 1900-1903, and _Biologia Cent.
Americana_) and Emery (_Zool. Jahrb. Syst._ viii., 1896) have written
on the classification of the _Formicidae_. Among recent American
writers on habit may be mentioned W.M. Wheeler (_American Naturalist_,
1900-1902) and A.M. Fielde (_Proc. Acad. Sci. Philadelphia_, 1901); E.
Wasmann (_Kritisches Verzeichniss der myrmecophilen und termitophilen
Arthropoden_, Berlin, 1894, and _3^me Congres Intern. Zool._ 1895) is
the great authority on ant-guests and associates. D. Sharp's general
account of ants in the _Cambridge Nat. Hist_. (vol. vi., 1898) is
excellent. For discussions on intelligence see A. Bethe, _Journ. f. d.
ges. Physiol._ lxx. (1898); Wasmann, _Die psychischen Fahigkeiten der
Ameisen_ (Stuttgart, 1899); C. Ll. Morgan, _Animal Behaviour_ (London,
1900.) (G. H. C.)
ANTAE (a Lat. plural word, possibly from _ante_, before), an
architectural term given to slightly projecting pilaster strips which
terminate the winged walls of the naos of a Greek temple. They owe their
origin to the vertical posts of timber employed in the primitive palaces
or temples of Greece, as at Tiryns and in the Heraeum at Olympia, to
carry the roof timbers, as no reliance could be placed on the walls
built with unburnt brick or in rubble masonry with clay mortar. When
between these winged walls there are columns to carry the architrave, so
as to form a porch, the latter is said to be in-antis. (See TEMPLE.)
ANTAEUS, in Greek mythology, a giant of Libya, the son of Poseidon and
Gaea. He compelled all strangers passing through the country to wrestle
with him, and as, when thrown, he derived fresh strength from each
successive contact with his mother earth, he proved invincible. With the
skulls of those whom he had slain he built a temple to his father.
Heracles, in combat with him, discovered the source of his strength, and
lifting him up from the earth crushed him to death (Apollodorus ii. 5;
Hyginus, _Fab_. 31). The struggle between Antaeus and Heracles is a
favourite subject in ancient sculpture.
ANTALCIDAS, Spartan soldier and diplomatist. In 393 (or 392 B.C.) he was
sent to Tiribazus, satrap of Sardis, to undermine the friendly relations
then existing between Athens and Persia by offering to recognize Persian
claims to the whole of Asia Minor. The Athenians sent an embassy under
Conon to counteract his efforts. Tiribazus, who was favourable to
Sparta, threw Conon into prison, but Artaxerxes II. (Mnemon) disapproved
and recalled his satrap. In 388 Antalcidas, then commander of the
Spartan fleet, accompanied Tiribazus to the Persian court, and secured
the active assistance of Persia against Athens. The success of his naval
operations in the neighbourhood of the Hellespont was such that Athens
was glad to accept terms of peace (the "Peace of Antalcidas"), by which
(1) the whole of Asia Minor, with the islands of Clazomenae and Cyprus,
was recognized as subject to Persia, (2) all other Greek cities--so far
as they were not under Persian rule--were to be independent, except
Lemnos, Imbros and Scyros, which were to belong, as formerly, to the
Athenians. The terms were announced to the Greek envoys at Sardis in the
winter 387-386, and were finally accepted by Sparta in 386. Antalcidas
continued in favour with Artaxerxes, until the annihilation of Spartan
supremacy at Leuctra diminished his influence. A final mission to
Persia, probably in 367, was a failure, and Antalcidas, deeply chagrined
and fearful of the consequences, is said to have starved himself to
death. (See SPARTA.)
ANTANANARIVO, i.e. "town of a thousand" (Fr. spelling _Tananarive_), the
capital of Madagascar, situated centrally as regards the length of the
island, but only about 90 m. distant from the eastern coast, in 18 deg.
55' S., 47 deg. 30' E. It is 135 m. W.S.W. of Tamatave, the principal
seaport of the island, with which it is connected by railway, and for
about 60 m. along the coast lagoons, a service of small steamers. The
city occupies a commanding position, being chiefly built on the summit
and slopes of a long and narrow rocky ridge, which extends north and
south for about 2-1/2 m., dividing to the north in a Y-shape, and rising
at its highest point to 690 ft. above the extensive rice plain to the
west, which is itself 4060 ft. above sea-level. For long only the
principal village of the Hova chiefs, Antananarivo advanced in
importance as those chiefs made themselves sovereigns of the greater
part of Madagascar, until it became a town of some 80,000 inhabitants.
Until 1869 all buildings within the city proper were of wood or rush,
but even then it possessed several timber palaces of considerable size,
the largest being 120 ft. high. These crown the summit of the central
portion of the ridge; and the largest palace, with its lofty roof and
towers, is the most conspicuous object from every point of view. Since
the introduction of stone and brick, the whole city has been rebuilt and
now contains numerous structures of some architectural pretension, the
royal palaces, the houses formerly belonging to the prime minister and
nobles, the French residency, the Anglican and Roman Catholic
cathedrals, several stone churches, as well as others of brick,
colleges, schools, hospitals, courts of justice and other government
buildings, and hundreds of good dwelling-houses. Since the French
conquest in 1895 good roads have been constructed throughout the city,
broad flights of steps connect places too steep for the formation of
carriage roads, and the central space, called Andohalo, has become a
handsome _place_, with walks and terraces, flower-beds and trees. A
small park has been laid out near the residency, and the planting of
trees and the formation of gardens in various parts of the city give it
a bright and attractive appearance. Water is obtained from springs at
the foot of the hill, but it is proposed to bring an abundant supply
from the river Ikopa, which skirts the capital to the south and west.
The population, including that of the suburbs, is 69,000 (1907). The
city is guarded by two forts built on hills to the east and south-west
respectively. Including an Anglican and a Roman Catholic cathedral,
there are about fifty churches in the city and its suburbs, as well as a
Mahommedan mosque. (J. Si.*)
'ANTARA IBN SHADDAD, Arabian poet and warrior of the 6th century, was
famous both for his poetry and his adventurous life. His chief poem is
contained in the _Mo'allakat_. The account of his life forms the basis
of a long and extravagant romance. His father Shaddad was a soldier, his
mother Zabuba a negro slave. Neglected at first, he soon claimed
attention and respect for himself, and by his remarkable personal
qualities and courage in battle he gained his freedom and the
acknowledgment of his father. He took part in the great war between the
related tribes of Abs and Dhubyan, which began over a contest of horses
and was named after them the war of Dahis and Ghabra. He died in a
fight against the tribe of Tai. His poems, which are chiefly concerned
with fighting or with his love for Abla, are published in W. Ahlwardt's
_The Diwans of the six ancient Arabic Poets_ (London, 1870); they have
also been published separately at Beirut (1888). As regards their
genuineness, cf. W. Ahlwardt's _Bemerkungen uber die Aechtheit der alten
arabichen Gedichte_ (Greifswald, 1872), pp. 50 ff. _The Romance of
'Antar_ (Sirat 'Antar ibn Shaddad) is a work which was long handed down
by oral tradition only, has grown to immense proportions and has been
published in 32 vols. at Cairo, 1307 (A.D. 1889), and in 10 vols. at
Beirut, 1871. It was partly translated by Terrick Hamilton under the
title _'Antar, a Bedoueen Romance_ (4 vols., London, 1820).
For an account of the poet and his works see H. Thorbeckes, _Antarah,
ein vorislamischer Dichter_ (Leipzig, 1867), and cf. the _Book of
Songs_ (see ABULFARAJ), vol. vii. pp. 148-153. (G. W. T.)
ANTARCTIC (Gr. [Greek: anti], opposite, and [Greek: arktos], the Bear,
the northern constellation of _Ursa Major_), the epithet applied to the
region (including both the ocean and the lands) round the South Pole.
The Antarctic circle is drawn at 66 deg. 30' S., but polar conditions of
climate, &c., extend considerably north of the area thus enclosed. (See
POLAR REGIONS.)
ANTEATER, a term applied to several mammals, but (zoologically at any
rate) specially indicating the tropical American anteaters of the family
_Myrmecophagidae_ (see EDENTATA). The typical and largest representative
of the group is the great anteater or ant-bear (_Myrmecophaga jubata_),
an animal measuring 4 ft. in length without the tail, and 2 ft. in
height at the shoulder. Its prevailing colour is grey, with a broad
black band, bordered with white, commencing on the chest, and passing
obliquely over the shoulder, diminishing gradually in breadth as it
approaches the loins, where it ends in a point. It is extensively
distributed in the tropical parts of South and Central America,
frequenting low swampy savannas, along the banks of rivers, and the
depths of the humid forests, but is nowhere abundant. Its food consists
mainly of termites, to obtain which it opens their nests with its
powerful sharp anterior claws, and as the insects swarm to the damaged
part of their dwelling, it draws them into its mouth by means of its
long, flexible, rapidly moving tongue covered with glutinous saliva. The
great anteater is terrestrial in habits, not burrowing underground like
armadillos. Though generally an inoffensive animal, when attacked it can
defend itself vigorously and effectively with its sabre-like anterior
claws. The female produces a single young at a birth. The tamandua
anteaters, as typified by _Tamandua_ (or _Uroleptes_) _tetradactyla_,
are much smaller than the great anteater, and differ essentially from it
in their habits, being mainly arboreal. They inhabit the dense primeval
forests of South and Central America. The usual colour is
yellowish-white, with a broad black lateral band, covering nearly the
whole of the side of the body.
The little or two-toed anteater (_Cyclopes_ or _Cycloturus didactylus_)
is a native of the hottest parts of South and Central America, and about
the size of a rat, of a general yellowish colour, and exclusively
arboreal in its habits. The name scaly anteater is applied to the
pangolin (q.v.); the banded anteater (_Myrmecobius fasciatus_) is a
marsupial, and the spiny anteater (_Echidna_) is one of the monotremes
(see MARSUPIALIA and MONOTREMATA).
ANTE-CHAPEL, the term given to that portion of a chapel which lies on
the western side of the choir screen. In some of the colleges at Oxford
and Cambridge the ante-chapel is carried north and south across the west
end of the chapel, constituting a western transept or narthex. This
model, based on Merton College chapel (13th century), of which only
chancel and transept were built though a nave was projected, was
followed at Wadham, New and Magdalen Colleges, Oxford, in the new chapel
of St John's College, Cambridge, and in Eton College. In Jesus College,
Cambridge, the transept and a short nave constitute the ante-chapel; in
Clare College an octagonal vestibule serves the same purpose; and in
Christ's, Trinity and King's Colleges, Cambridge, the ante-chapel is a
portion of the main chapel, divided off from the chancel by the choir
screen.
ANTE-CHOIR, the term given to the space enclosed in a church between the
outer gate or railing of the rood screen and the door of the screen;
sometimes there is only one rail, gate or door, but in Westminster Abbey
it is equal in depth to one bay of the nave. The ante-choir is also
called the "fore choir."
ANTE-FIXAE (from Lat. _antefigere_, to fasten before), the vertical
blocks which terminate the covering tiles of the roof of a Greek temple;
as spaced they take the place of the cymatium and form a cresting along
the sides of the temple. The face of the ante-fixae was richly carved
with the anthemion (q.v.) ornament.
ANTELOPE, a zoological name which, so far as can be determined, appears
to trace its origin, through the Latin, to _Pantholops_, the old Coptic,
and _Antholops_, the late Greek name of the fabled unicorn. Its adoption
by the languages of Europe cannot apparently be traced farther back than
the 4th century of our era, at which date it was employed to designate
an imaginary animal living on the banks of the Euphrates. By the earlier
English naturalists, and afterwards by Buffon, it was, however, applied
to the Indian blackbuck, which is thus entitled to rank as _the_
antelope. It follows that the subfamily typified by this species, in
which are included the gazelles, is the one to which alone the term
antelopes should be applied if it were employed in a restricted and
definable sense.