[1] _Fasti S. J._, by P. Joannis Drews (pub. 1723), p. 160.
[2] _Cal. of St. Pap.--Venetian_, x. 513.
ANNE OF FRANCE (1460-1522), dame de Beaujeu, was the eldest daughter of
Louis XI. and Charlotte of Savoy. Louis XI. betrothed her at first to
Nicholas of Anjou, and afterwards offered her hand successively to
Charles the Bold, to the duke of Brittany, and even to his own brother,
Charles of France. Finally she married Pierre de Beaujeu, a younger
brother of the duke of Bourbon. Before his death Louis XI. entrusted to
Pierre de Beaujeu and Anne the entire charge of his son, Charles VIII.,
a lad of thirteen; and from 1483 to 1492 the Beaujeus exercised a
virtual regency. Anne was a true daughter of Louis XI. Energetic,
obstinate, cunning and unscrupulous, she inherited, too, her father's
avarice and rapacity. Although they made some concessions, the Beaujeus
succeeded in maintaining the results of the previous reign, and in
triumphing over the feudal intrigues and coalitions, as was seen from
the meeting of the estates general in 1484, and the results of the "Mad
War" (1485) and the war with Brittany (1488); and in spite of the
efforts of Maximilian of Austria they concluded the marriage of Charles
VIII. and Anne, duchess of Brittany (1491). But a short time afterwards
the king disengaged himself completely from their tutelage, to the great
detriment of the kingdom. In 1488 Pierre de Beaujeu had succeeded to the
Bourbonnais, the last great fief of France. He died in 1503, but Anne
survived him twenty years. From her establishments at Moulins and
Chantelle in the Bourbonnais she continued henceforth vigorously to
defend the Bourbon cause against the royal family. Anne's only daughter,
Suzanne, had married in 1505 her cousin, Charles of Bourbon, count of
Montpensier, the future constable; and the question of the succession of
Suzanne, who died in 1521, was the determining factor of the treason of
the constable de Bourbon (1523). Anne had died some months before, on
the 14th of November 1522.
See P. Pelicier, _Essai sur le gouvernement de la Dame de Beaujeu_
(Chartres, 1882). (J. I.)
ANNEALING, HARDENING AND TEMPERING. Annealing (from the prefix _an_, and
the old English _aelan_, to burn or bake; the meaning has probably also
been modified from the French _nieler_, to enamel black on gold or
silver, from the med. Lat. _nigellare_, to make black; cf. _niello_) is
a process of treating a metal or alloy by heat with the object of
imparting to it a certain condition of ductility, extensibility, or a
certain grade of softness or hardness, with all that is involved in and
follows from those conditions. The effect may be mechanical only, or a
chemical change may take place also. Sometimes the causes are obvious,
in other cases they are more or less obscure. But of the actual facts,
and the immense importance of this operation as well as of the related
ones of tempering and hardening in shop processes, there is no question.
When the treatment is of a mechanical character only, there can be no
reasonable doubt that the common belief is correct, namely, that the
metallic crystals or fibres undergo a molecular rearrangement of some
kind. When it is of a chemical character, the process is one of
cementation, due to the occlusion of gases in the molecules of the
metals.
Numerous examples of annealing due to molecular rearrangement might be
selected from the extensive range of workshop operations. The following
are a few only:--when a boiler-maker bends the edges of a plate of steel
or iron by hammer blows (flanging), he does so in successive stages
(heats), at each of which the plate has to be reheated, with inevitable
cooling down during the time work is being done upon it. The result is
that the plate becomes brittle over the parts which have been subjected
to this treatment; and this brittleness is not uniformly distributed,
but is localized, and is a source of weakness, inducing a liability to
crack. If, however, the plate when finished is raised to a full red
heat, and allowed to cool down away from access of cool air, as in a
furnace, or underneath wood ashes, it resumes its old ductility. The
plate has been annealed, and is as safe as it was before it was flanged.
Again, when a sheet of thin metal is forced to assume a shape very
widely different from its original plane aspect, as by hammering, or by
drawing out in a press--a cartridge case being a familiar example--it is
necessary to anneal it several times during the progress of the
operation. Without such annealing it would never arrive at the final
stage desired, but would become torn asunder by the extension of its
metallic fibres. Cutting tools are made of steel having sufficient
carbon to afford capacity for hardening. Before the process is
performed, the condition in which the carbon is present renders the
steel so hard and tough as to render the preliminary turning or shaping
necessary in many cases (e.g. in milling cutters) a tedious operation.
To lessen this labour, the steel is first annealed. In this case it is
brought to a low red heat, and allowed to cool away from the air. It can
then be machined with comparative ease and be subsequently hardened or
tempered. When a metallic structure has endured long service a state of
fatigue results. Annealing is, where practicable, resorted to in order
to restore the original strength. A familiar illustration is that of
chains which are specially liable to succumb to constant overstrain if
continued for only a year or two. This is so well known that the
practice is regularly adopted of annealing the chains at regular
intervals. They are put into a clear hot furnace and raised to a low red
heat, continued for a few hours, and then allowed to cool down in the
furnace after the withdrawal of the source of heat. Before the annealing
the fracture of a link would be more crystalline than afterwards.
In these examples, and others of which these are typical, two conditions
are essential, one being the grade of temperature, the other the
cooling. The temperature must never be so high as to cause the metal to
become overheated, with risk of burning, nor so low as to prevent the
penetration of the substance with a good volume of heat. It must also be
continued for sufficient time. More than this cannot be said. Each
particular piece of work requires its own treatment and period, and
nothing but experience of similar work will help the craftsman. The
cooling must always be gradual, such as that which results from removing
the source of heat, as by drawing a furnace fire, or covering with
non-conducting substances.
The chemical kind of annealing is specifically that employed in the
manufacture of malleable cast iron. In this process, castings are made
of white iron,--a brittle quality which has its carbon wholly in the
combined state. These castings, when subjected to heat for a period of
ten days or a fortnight, in closed boxes, in the presence of substances
containing oxygen, become highly ductile. This change is due to the
absorption of the carbon by the oxygen in the cementing material, a
comparatively pure soft iron being left behind. The result is that the
originally hard, brittle castings after this treatment may be cut with a
knife, and be bent double and twisted into spirals without fracturing.
The distinction between _hardening_ and _tempering_ is one of degree
only, and both are of an opposite character to annealing. Hardening, in
the shop sense, signifies the making of a piece of steel about as hard
as it can be made--"glass hard"--while tempering indicates some stage in
an infinite range between the fully hardened and the annealed or
softened condition. As a matter of convenience only, hardening is
usually a stage in the work of tempering. It is easier to harden first,
and "let down" to the temper required, than to secure the exact heat for
tempering by raising the material to it. This is partly due to the long
established practice of estimating temperature by colour tints; but this
is being rapidly invaded by new methods in which the temper heat is
obtained in furnaces provided with pyrometers, by means of which exact
heat regulation is readily secured, and in which the heating up is done
gradually. Such furnaces are used for hardening balls for bearings,
cams, small toothed wheels and similar work, as well as for tempering
springs, milling cutters and other kinds of cutting tools. But for the
cutting tools having single edges, as used in engineers' shops, the
colour test is still generally retained.
In the practice of hardening and tempering tools by colour, experience
is the only safe guide. Colour tints vary with degrees of light; steels
of different brands require different treatment in regard to temperature
and quenching; and steels even of identical chemical composition do not
always behave alike when tempered. Every fresh brand of steel has,
therefore, to be treated at first in a tentative and experimental
fashion in order to secure the best possible results. The larger the
masses of steel, and the greater the disparity in dimensions of adjacent
parts, the greater is the risk of cracking and distortion. Excessive
length and the presence of keen angles increase the difficulties of
hardening. The following points have to be observed in the work of
hardening and tempering.
A grade of steel must be selected of suitable quality for the purpose
for which it has to be used. There are a number of such grades, ranging
from about 1-1/2 to 1/2% content of carbon, and each having its special
utility. Overheating must be avoided, as that burns the steel and
injures or ruins it. A safe rule is never to heat any grade of steel to
a temperature higher than that at which experience proves it will take
the temper required. Heating must be regular and thorough throughout,
and must therefore be slowly done when dealing with thick masses.
Contact with sulphurous fuel must be avoided. Baths of molten alloys of
lead and tin are used when very exact temperatures are required, and
when articles have thick and thin parts adjacent. But the gas furnaces
have the same advantages in a more handy form. Quenching is done in
water, oil, or in various hardening mixtures, and sometimes in solids.
Rain water is the principal hardening agent, but various saline
compounds are often added to intensify its action. Water that has been
long in use is preferred to fresh. Water is generally used cold, but in
many cases it is warmed to about 80 deg. F., as for milling cutters and
taps, warmed water being less liable to crack the cutters than cold. Oil
is preferred to water for small springs, for guns and for many cutters.
Mercury hardens most intensely, because it does not evaporate, and so
does lead or wax for the same reason; water evaporates, and in the
spheroidal state, as steam, leaves contact with the steel. This is the
reason why long and large objects are moved vertically about in the
water during quenching, to bring them into contact with fresh cold
water.
There is a good deal of mystery affected by many of the hardeners, who
are very particular about the composition of their baths, various oils
and salts being used in an infinity of combinations. Many of these are
the result of long and successful experience, some are of the nature of
"fads." A change of bath may involve injury to the steel. The most
difficult articles to harden are springs, milling cutters, taps,
reamers. It would be easy to give scores of hardening compositions.
Hardening is performed the more efficiently the more rapidly the
quenching is done. In the case of thick objects, however, especially
milling cutters, there is risk of cracking, due to the difference of
temperature on the outside and in the central body of metal. Rapid
hardening is impracticable in such objects. This is the cause of the
distortion of long taps and reamers, and of their cracking, and explains
why their teeth are often protected with soft soap and other substances.
The presence of the body of heat in a tool is taken advantage of in the
work of tempering. The tool, say a chisel, is dipped, a length of 2 in.
or more being thus hardened and blackened. It is then removed, and a
small area rubbed rapidly with a bit of grindstone, observations being
made of the changing tints which gradually appear as the heat is
communicated from the hot shank to the cooled end. The heat becomes
equalized, and at the same time the approximate temperature for
quenching for temper is estimated by the appearance of a certain tint;
at that instant the article is plunged and allowed to remain until quite
cold. For every different class of tool a different tint is required.
"Blazing off" is a particular method of hardening applied to small
springs. The springs are heated and plunged in oils, fats, or tallow,
which is burned off previous to cooling in air, or in the ashes of the
forge, or in oil, or water usually. They are hardened, reheated and
tempered, and the tempering by blazing off is repeated for heavy
springs. The practice varies almost infinitely with dimensions, quality
of steel, and purpose to which the springs have to be applied.
The range of temper for most cutting tools lies between a pale straw or
yellow, and a light purple or plum colour. The corresponding range of
temperatures is about 430 deg. F. to 530 deg. F., respectively. "Spring
temper" is higher, from dark purple to blue, or 550 deg. F. to 630 deg.
F. In many fine tools the range of temperature possible between good and
poor results lies within from 5 deg. to 10 deg. F.
There is another kind of hardening which is of a superficial character
only--"case hardening." It is employed in cases where toughness has to
be combined with durability of surface. It is a cementation process,
practised on wrought iron and mild steel, and applied to the link
motions of engines, to many pins and studs, eyes of levers, &c. The
articles are hermetically luted in an iron box, packed with nitrogenous
and saline substances such as potash, bone dust, leather cuttings, and
salt. The box is placed in a furnace, and allowed to remain for periods
of from twelve to thirty-six hours, during which period the surface of
the metal, to a depth of 1/32 to 1/16 in., is penetrated by the
cementing materials, and converted into steel. The work is then thrown
into water and quenched.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Automatic Oil Muffle Furnace.]
A muffle furnace, employed for annealing, hardening and tempering is
shown in fig. 1; the heat being obtained by means of petroleum, which is
contained in the tank A, and is kept under pressure by pumping at
intervals with the wooden handle, so that when the valve B is opened the
oil is vaporized by passing through a heating coil at the furnace
entrance, and when ignited burns fiercely as a gas flame. This passes
into the furnace through the two holes, C, C, and plays under and up
around the muffle D, standing on a fireclay slab. The doorway is closed
by two fireclay blocks at E. A temperature of over 2000 deg. F. can be
obtained in furnaces of this class, and the heat is of course under
perfect control.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Reverbatory Furnace.]
A reverberatory type of gas furnace, shown in fig. 2, differs from the
oil furnace in having the flames brought down through the roof, by pipes
A, A, A, playing on work laid on the fireclay slab B, thence passing
under this and out through the elbow-pipe C. The hinged doors, D, give a
full opening to the interior of the furnace. It will be noticed in both
these furnaces (by Messrs Fletcher, Russell & Co., Ltd.) that the iron
casing is a mere shell, enclosing very thick firebrick linings, to
retain the heat effectively. (J. G. H.)
ANNECY, the chief town of the department of Haute Savoie in France. Pop.
(1906) 10,763. It is situated at a height of 1470 ft., at the northern
end of the lake of Annecy, and is 25 m. by rail N.E. of Aix les Bains.
The surrounding country presents many scenes of beauty. The town itself
is a pleasant residence, and contains a 16th century cathedral church,
an 18th century bishop's palace, a 14th-16th century castle (formerly
the residence of the counts of the Genevois), and the reconstructed
convent of the Visitation, wherein now reposes the body of St Francois
de Sales (born at the castle of Sales, close by, in 1567; died at Lyons
in 1622), who held the see from 1602 to 1622. There is also a public
library, with 20,000 volumes, and various scientific collections, and a
public garden, with a statue of the chemist Berthollet (1748-1822), who
was born not far off. The bishop's see of Geneva was transferred hither
in 1535, after the Reformation, but suppressed in 1801, though revived
in 1822. There are factories of linen and cotton goods, and of felt
hats, paper mills, and a celebrated bell foundry at Annecy le Vieux.
This last-named place existed in Roman times. Annecy itself was in the
10th century the capital of the counts of the Genevois, from whom it
passed in 1401 to the counts of Savoy, and became French in 1860 on the
annexation of Savoy.
The LAKE OF ANNECY is about 9 m. in length by 2 m. in breadth, its
surface being 1465 ft. above the level of the sea. It discharges its
waters, by means of the Thioux canal, into the Fier, a tributary of the
Rhone. (W. A. B. C.)
ANNELIDA, a name derived from J.B.P. Lamarck's term _Annelides_, now
used to denote a major phylum or division of coelomate invertebrate
animals. Annelids are segmented worms, and differ from the Arthropoda
(q.v.), which they closely resemble in many respects, by the possession
of a portion of the coelom traversed by the alimentary canal. In the
latter respect, and in the fact that they frequently develop by a
metamorphosis, they approach the Mollusca (q.v.), but they differ from
that group notably in the occurrence of metameric segmentation affecting
many of the systems of organs. The body-wall is highly muscular and,
except in a few probably specialized cases, possesses chitinous spines,
the setae, which are secreted by the ectoderm and are embedded in pits
of the skin. They possess a modified anterior end, frequently with
special sense organs, forming a head, a segmented nervous system,
consisting of a pair of anterior, dorsally-placed ganglia, a ring
surrounding the alimentary canal, and a double ventral ganglionated
chain, a definite vascular system, an excretory system consisting of
nephridia, and paired generative organs formed from the coelomic
epithelium. They are divided as follows: (1) Haplodrili (q.v.) or
Archiannelida; (2) Chaetopoda (q.v.); (3) Myzostomida (q.v.), probably
degenerate Polychaeta; (4) Hirudinea (see CHAETOPODA and LEECH); (5)
Echiuroidea (q.v.). (P. C. M.)
ANNET, PETER (1693-1769), English deist, is said to have been born at
Liverpool. A schoolmaster by profession, he became prominent owing to
his attacks on orthodox theologians, and his membership of a
semi-theological debating society, the Robin Hood Society, which met at
the "Robin Hood and Little John" in Butcher Row. To him has been
attributed a work called _A History of the Man after God's own Heart_
(1761), intended to show that George II. was insulted by a current
comparison with David. The book is said to have inspired Voltaire's
_Saul_. It is also attributed to one John Noorthouck (Noorthook). In
1763 he was condemned for blasphemous libel in his paper called the
_Free Enquirer_ (nine numbers only). After his release he kept a small
school in Lambeth, one of his pupils being James Stephen (1758-1832),
who became master in Chancery. Annet died on the 18th of January 1769.
He stands between the earlier philosophic deists and the later
propagandists of Paine's school, and "seems to have been the first
freethought lecturer" (J.M. Robertson); his essays (_A Collection of the
Tracts of a certain Free Enquirer_, 1739-1745) are forcible but lack
refinement. He invented a system of shorthand (2nd ed., with a copy of
verses by Joseph Priestley).
ANNEXATION (Lat. _ad_, to, and _nexus_, joining), in international law,
the act by which a state adds territory to its dominions; the term is
also used generally as a synonym for acquisition. The assumption of a
protectorate over another state, or of a sphere of influence, is not
strictly annexation, the latter implying the complete displacement in
the annexed territory of the government or state by which it was
previously ruled. Annexation may be the consequence of a voluntary
cession from one state to another, or of conversion from a protectorate
or sphere of influence, or of mere occupation in uncivilized regions, or
of conquest. The cession of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany by France,
although brought about by the war of 1870, was for the purposes of
international law a voluntary cession. Under the treaty of the 17th of
December 1885, between the French republic and the queen of Madagascar,
a French protectorate was established over this island. In 1896 this
protectorate was converted by France into an annexation, and Madagascar
then became "French territory." The formal annexation of
Bosnia-Herzegovina by Austria (Oct. 5, 1908) was an unauthorized
conversion of an "occupation" authorized by the Treaty of Berlin (1878),
which had, however, for years operated as a _de facto_ annexation. A
recent case of conquest was that effected by the South African War of
1899-1902, in which the Transvaal republic and the Orange Free State
were extinguished, first _de facto_ by occupation of the whole of their
territory, and then _de jure_ by terms of surrender entered into by the
Boer generals acting as a government.
By annexation, as between civilized peoples, the annexing state takes
over the whole succession with the rights and obligations attaching to
the ceded territory, subject only to any modifying conditions contained
in the treaty of cession. These, however, are binding only as between
the parties to them. In the case of the annexation of the territories of
the Transvaal republic and Orange Free State, a rather complicated
situation arose out of the facts, on the one hand, that the ceding
states closed their own existence and left no recourse to third parties
against the previous ruling authority, and, on the other, that, having
no means owing to the _de facto_ British occupation, of raising money by
taxation, the dispossessed governments raised money by selling certain
securities, more especially a large holding of shares in the South
African Railway Company, to neutral purchasers. The British government
repudiated these sales as having been made by a government which the
British government had already displaced. The question of at what point,
in a war of conquest, the state succession becomes operative is one of
great delicacy. As early as the 6th of January 1900, the high
commissioner at Cape Town issued a proclamation giving notice that H.M.
government would "not recognize as valid or effectual" any conveyance,
transfer or transmission of any property made by the government of the
Transvaal republic or Orange Free State subsequently to the 10th of
October 1899, the date of the commencement of the war. A proclamation
forbidding transactions with a state which might still be capable of
maintaining its independence could obviously bind only those subject to
the authority of the state issuing it. Like paper blockades (see
BLOCKADE) and fictitious occupations of territory, such premature
proclamations are viewed by international jurists as not being _jure
gentium_. The proclamation was succeeded, on the 9th of March 1900, by
another of the high commissioner at Cape Town, reiterating the notice,
but confining it to "lands, railways, mines or mining rights." And on
the 1st of September 1900 Lord Roberts proclaimed at Pretoria the
annexation of the territories of the Transvaal republic to the British
dominions. That the war continued for nearly two years after this
proclamation shows how fictitious the claim of annexation was. The
difficulty which arose out of the transfer of the South African Railway
shares held by the Transvaal government was satisfactorily terminated by
the purchase by the British government of the total capital of the
company from the different groups of shareholders (see on this case, Sir
Thomas Barclay, _Law Quarterly Review_, July 1905; and Professor
Westlake, in the same _Review_, October 1905).
In a judgment of the judicial committee of the privy council in 1899
(_Coote_ v. _Sprigg_, A.C. 572), Lord Chancellor Halsbury made an
important distinction as regards the obligations of state succession.
The case in question was a claim of title against the crown, represented
by the government of Cape Colony. It was made by persons holding a
concession of certain rights in eastern Pondoland from a native chief.
Before the grantees had taken up their grant by acts of possession,
Pondoland was annexed to Cape Colony. The colonial government refused to
recognize the grant on different grounds, the chief of them being that
the concession conferred no legal rights before the annexation and
therefore could confer none afterwards, a sufficiently good ground in
itself. The judicial committee, however, rested its decision chiefly on
the allegation that the acquisition of the territory was an act of state
and that "no municipal court had authority to enforce such an
obligation" as the duty of the new government to respect existing
titles. "It is no answer," said Lord Halsbury, "to say that by the
ordinary principles of international law private property is respected
by the sovereign which accepts the cession and assumes the duties and
legal obligations of the former sovereign with respect to such private
property within the ceded territory. All that can be meant by such a
proposition is that according to the well-understood rules of
international law a change of sovereignty by cession ought not to affect
private property, but no municipal tribunal has authority to enforce
such an obligation. And if there is either an express or a
well-understood bargain between the ceding potentate and the government
to which the cession is made that private property shall be respected,
that is only a bargain which can be enforced by sovereign against
sovereign in the ordinary course of diplomatic pressure." In an
editorial note on this case the _Law Quarterly Review_ of Jan. 1900 (p.
1), dissenting from the view of the judicial committee that "no
municipal tribunal has authority to enforce such an obligation," the
writer observes that "we can read this only as meant to lay down that,
on the annexation of territory even by peaceable cession, there is a
total abeyance of justice until the will of the annexing power is
expressly made known; and that, although the will of that power is
commonly to respect existing private rights, there is no rule or
presumption to that effect of which any court must or indeed can take
notice." So construed the doctrine is not only contrary to international
law, but according to so authoritative an exponent of the common law as
Sir F. Pollock, there is no warrant for it in English common law.
An interesting point of American constitutional law has arisen out of
the cession of the Philippines to the United States, through the fact
that the federal constitution does not lend itself to the exercise by
the federal congress of unlimited powers, such as are vested in the
British parliament. The sole authority for the powers of the federal
congress is a written constitution with defined powers. Anything done in
excess of those powers is null and void. The Supreme Court of the United
States, on the other hand, has declared that, by the constitution, a
government is ordained and established "for the United States of
America" and not for countries outside their limits (_Ross's Case_, 140
U.S. 453, 464), and that no such power to legislate for annexed
territories as that vested in the British crown in council is enjoyed by
the president of the United States (_Field_ v. _Clark_, 143 U.S. 649,
692). Every detail connected with the administration of the territories
acquired from Spain under the treaty of Paris (December 10, 1898) has
given rise to minute discussion.
See Carman F. Randolph, _Law and Policy of Annexation_ (New York and
London, 1901); Charles Henry Butler, _Treaty-making Power of the
United States_ (New York, 1902), vol. i. p. 79 et seq. (T. Ba.)
ANNICERIS, a Greek philosopher of the Cyrenaic school. There is no
certain information as to his date, but from the statement that he was a
disciple of Paraebates it seems likely that he was a contemporary of
Alexander the Great. A follower of Aristippus, he denied that pleasure
is the general end of human life. To each separate action there is a
particular end, namely the pleasure which actually results from it.
Secondly, pleasure is not merely the negation of pain, inasmuch as death
ends all pain and yet cannot be regarded as pleasure. There is, however,
an absolute pleasure in certain virtues such as belong to the love of
country, parents and friends. In these relations a man will have
pleasure, even though it may result in painful and even fatal
consequences. Friendship is not merely for the satisfaction of our
needs, but is in itself a source of pleasure. He maintains further, in
opposition to most of the Cyrenaic school, that wisdom or prudence alone
is an insufficient guarantee against error. The wise man is he who has
acquired a habit of wise action; human wisdom is liable to lapses at any
moment. Diogenes Laertius says that Anniceris ransomed Plato from
Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, for twenty minas. If we are right in
placing Anniceris in the latter half of the 4th century, it is clear
that the reference here is to an earlier Anniceris, who, according to
Aelian, was a celebrated charioteer.
ANNING, MARY (1799-1847), English fossil-collector, the daughter of
Richard Anning, a cabinet-maker, was born at Lyme Regis in May 1799. Her
father was one of the earliest collectors and dealers in fossils,
obtained chiefly from the Lower Lias in that famous locality. When but a
child in 1811 she discovered the first specimen of _Ichthyosaurus_ which
was brought into scientific notice; in 1821 she found remains of a new
saurian, the _Plesiosaurus_ and in 1828 she procured, for the first time
in England, remains of a pterodactyl (_Dimorphodon_). She died on the
9th of March 1847.
ANNISTON, a city and the county seat of Calhoun county, Alabama, U.S.A.,
in the north-eastern part of the state, about 63 m. E. by N. of
Birmingham. Pop. (1890) 9998; (1900), 9695, of whom 3669 were of negro
descent; (1910 census) 12,794. Anniston is served by the Southern, the
Seaboard Air Line, and the Louisville & Nashville railways. The city is
situated on the slope of Blue Mountain, a chain of the Blue Ridge, and
is a health resort. It is the seat of the Noble Institute (for girls),
established in 1886 by Samuel Noble (1834-1888), a wealthy iron-founder,
and of the Alabama Presbyterian College for Men (1905). There are vast
quantities of iron ore in the vicinity of the city, the Coosa
coal-fields being only 25 m. distant. Anniston is an important
manufacturing city, the principal industries being the manufacture of
iron, steel and cotton. In 1905 the city's factory products were valued
at $2,525,455. An iron furnace was established on the site of Anniston
during the Civil War, but it was destroyed by the federal troops in
1865; and in 1872 it was rebuilt on a much larger scale. The city was
founded in 1872 as a private enterprise, by the Woodstock Iron Company,
organized by Samuel Noble and Gen. Daniel Tyler (1799-1882); but it was
not opened for general settlement until twelve years later. It was
chartered as a city in 1879.
ANNO, or HANNO, SAINT (c. 1010-1075), archbishop of Cologne, belonged to
a Swabian family, and was educated at Bamberg. He became confessor to
the emperor Henry III., who appointed him archbishop of Cologne in 1056.
He took a prominent part in the government of Germany during the
minority of King Henry IV., and was the leader of the party which in
1062 seized the person of Henry, and deprived his mother, the empress
Agnes, of power. For a short time Anno exercised the chief authority in
the kingdom, but he was soon obliged to share this with Adalbert,
archbishop of Bremen, retaining for himself the supervision of Henry's
education and the title of _magister_. The office of chancellor of the
kingdom of Italy was at this period regarded as an appanage of the
archbishopric of Cologne, and this was probably the reason why Anno had
a considerable share in settling the papal dispute in 1064. He declared
Alexander II. to be the rightful pope at a synod held at Mantua in May
1064, and took other steps to secure his recognition. Returning to
Germany, he found the chief power in the hands of Adalbert, and as he
was disliked by the young king, he left the court but returned and
regained some of his former influence when Adalbert fell from power in
1066. He succeeded in putting down a rising against his authority in
Cologne in 1074, and it was reported he had allied himself with William
the Conqueror, king of England, against the emperor. Having cleared
himself of this charge, Anno took no further part in public business,
and died at Cologne on the 4th of December 1075. He was buried in the
monastery of Siegburg and was canonized in 1183 by Pope Lucius III. He
was a founder of monasteries and a builder of churches, advocated
clerical celibacy and was a strict disciplinarian. He was a man of great
energy and ability, whose action in recognizing Alexander II. was of the
utmost consequence for Henry IV. and for Germany.
There is a _Vita Annonis_, written about 1100, by a monk of Siegburg,
but this is of slight value. It appears in the _Monumenta Germaniae
historica: Scriptores_, Bd. xi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). There
is an "Epistola ad monachos Malmundarienses" by Anno in the _Neues
Archiv der Gesellschaft fur altere deutsche Geschichtskunde_, Bd. xiv.
(Hanover, 1876 seq.). See also the _Annolied_, or _Incerti poetae
Teutonici rhythmus de S. Annone_, written about 1180, and edited by J.
Kehrein (Frankfort, 1865); Th. Lindner, _Anno II. der Heilige,
Erzbischof von Koln_ (Leipzig, 1869).
ANNOBON, or ANNO BOM, an island in the Gulf of Guinea, in 1 deg. 24' S.
and 5 deg. 35' E., belonging to Spain. It is 110 m. S.W. of St Thomas.
Its length is about 4 m., its breadth 2, and its area 6-3/4 sq. m.
Rising in some parts nearly 3000 ft. above the sea, it presents a
succession of beautiful valleys and steep mountains, covered with rich
woods and luxuriant vegetation. The inhabitants, some 3000 in number,
are negroes and profess belief in the Roman Catholic faith. The chief
town and residence of the governor is called St Antony (San Antonio de
Praia). The roadstead is tolerably safe, and passing vessels take
advantage of it in order to obtain water and fresh provisions, of which
Annobon contains an abundant supply. The island was discovered by the
Portuguese on the 1st of January 1473, from which circumstance it
received its name (= New Year). Annobon, together with Fernando Po, was
ceded to Spain by the Portuguese in 1778. The islanders revolted against
their new masters and a state of anarchy ensued, leading, it is averred,
to an arrangement by which the island was administered by a body of five
natives, each of whom held the office of governor during the period that
elapsed till ten ships touched at the island. In the latter part of the
19th century the authority of Spain was re-established.
ANNONA (from Lat. _annus_, year), in Roman mythology, the
personification of the produce of the year. She is represented in works
of art, often together with Ceres, with a _cornucopia_ (horn of plenty)
in her arm, and a ship's prow in the background, indicating the
transport of grain over the sea. She frequently occurs on coins of the
empire, standing between a _modius_ (corn-measure) and the prow of a
galley, with ears of corn in one hand and a _cornucopia_ in the other;
sometimes she holds a rudder or an anchor. The Latin word itself has
various meanings: (1) the produce of the year's harvest; (2) all means
of subsistence, especially grain stored in the public granaries for
provisioning the city; (3) the market-price of commodities, especially
corn; (4) a direct tax in kind, levied in republican times in several
provinces, chiefly employed in imperial times for distribution amongst
officials and the support of the soldiery.
In order to ensure a supply of corn sufficient to enable it to be sold
at a very low price, it was procured in large quantities from Umbria,
Etruria and Sicily. Almost down to the times of the empire, the care of
the corn-supply formed part of the aedile's duties, although in 440 B.C.
(if the statement in Livy iv. 12, 13 is correct, which is doubtful) the
senate appointed a special officer, called _praefectus annonae_, with
greatly extended powers. As a consequence of the second Punic War, Roman
agriculture was at a standstill; accordingly, recourse was had to Sicily
and Sardinia (the first two Roman provinces) in order to keep up the
supply of corn; a tax of one-tenth was imposed on it, and its export to
any country except Italy forbidden. The price at which the corn was sold
was always moderate; the corn law of Gracchus (123 B.C.) made it
absurdly low, and Clodius (58 B.C.) bestowed it gratuitously. The number
of the recipients of this free gift grew so enormously, that both Caesar
and Augustus were obliged to reduce it. From the time of Augustus to the
end of the empire the number of those who were entitled to receive a
monthly allowance of corn on presenting a ticket was 200,000. In the 3rd
century, bread formed the dole. A _praefectus annonae_ was appointed by
Augustus to superintend the corn-supply; he was assisted by a large
staff in Rome and the provinces, and had jurisdiction in all matters
connected with the corn-market. The office lasted till the latest times
of the empire.
ANNONAY, a town of south-eastern France, in the north of the department
of Ardeche, 50 m. S. of Lyons by the Paris-Lyons railway. Pop. (1906)
15,403. Annonay is built on the hill overlooking the meeting of the deep
gorges of the Deome and the Cance, the waters of which supply power to
the factories of the town. By means of a dam across the Ternay, an
affluent of the Deome, to the north-west of the town, a reservoir is
provided, in which an additional supply of water, for both industrial
and domestic purposes, is stored. At Annonay there is an obelisk in
honour of the brothers Montgolfier, inventors of the balloon, who were
natives of the place. A tribunal of commerce, a board of
trade-arbitrators, a branch of the Bank of France, and chambers of
commerce and of arts and manufactures are among the public institutions.
Annonay is the principal industrial centre of its department, the chief
manufactures being those of leather, especially for gloves, paper, silk
and silk goods, and flour. Chemical manures, glue, gelatine, brushes,
chocolate and candles are also produced.
ANNOY (like the French _ennui_, a word traced by etymologists to a Lat.
phrase, _in odio esse_, to be "in hatred" or hateful of someone), to vex
or affect with irritation. In the sense of "nuisance," the noun
"annoyance," apart from its obvious meaning, is found in the English
"Jury of Annoyance" appointed by an act of 1754 to report upon
obstructions in the highways.
ANNUITY (from Lat. _annus_, a year), a periodical payment, made
annually, or at more frequent intervals, either for a fixed term of
years, or during the continuance of a given life, or a combination of
lives. In technical language an annuity is said to be payable for an
assigned _status_, this being a general word chosen in preference to
such words as "time," "term" or "period," because it may include more
readily either a term of years certain, or a life or combination of
lives. The magnitude of the annuity is the sum to be paid (and received)
in the course of each year. Thus, if L100 is to be received each year by
a person, he is said to have "an annuity of L100." If the payments are
made half-yearly, it is sometimes said that he has "a half-yearly
annuity of L100"; but to avoid ambiguity, it is more commonly said he
has an annuity of L100, payable by half-yearly instalments. The former
expression, if clearly understood, is preferable on account of its
brevity. So we may have quarterly, monthly, weekly, daily annuities,
when the annuity is payable by quarterly, monthly, weekly or daily
instalments. An annuity is considered as accruing during each instant of
the status for which it is enjoyed, although it is only payable at fixed
intervals. If the enjoyment of an annuity is postponed until after the
lapse of a certain number of years, the annuity is said to be deferred.
If an annuity, instead of being payable at the end of each year,
half-year, &c., is payable in advance, it is called an annuity-due.
If an annuity is payable for a term of years independent of any
contingency, it is called an _annuity certain_; if it is to continue for
ever, it is called a _perpetuity_; and if in the latter case it is not
to commence until after a term of years, it is called a _deferred
perpetuity_. An annuity depending on the continuance of an assigned life
or lives, is sometimes called a life annuity; but more commonly the
simple term "annuity" is understood to mean a life annuity, unless the
contrary is stated. A life annuity, to cease in any event after a
certain term of years, is called a _temporary annuity_. The holder of an
annuity is called an annuitant, and the person on whose life the annuity
depends is called the nominee.
If not otherwise stated, it is always understood that an annuity is
payable yearly, and that the annual payment (or rent, as it is sometimes
called) is L1. It is, however, customary to consider the annual payment
to be, not L1, but simply 1, the reader supplying whatever monetary unit
he pleases, whether pound, dollar, franc, Thaler, &c.
The annuity is the totality of the payments to be made (and received),
and is so understood by all writers on the subject; but some have also
used the word to denote an individual payment (or rent), speaking, for
instance, of the first or second year's annuity,--a practice which is
calculated to introduce confusion and should therefore be carefully
avoided.
Instances of perpetuities are the dividends upon the public stocks in
England, France and some other countries. Thus, although it is usual to
speak of L100 consols, the reality is the yearly dividend which the
government pays by quarterly instalments. The practice of the French in
this, as in many other matters, is more logical. In speaking of their
public funds (_rentes_) they do not mention the ideal capital sum, but
speak of the annuity or annual payment that is received by the public
creditor. Other instances of perpetuities are the incomes derived from
the debenture stocks of railway companies, also the feu-duties commonly
payable on house property in Scotland. The number of years' purchase
which the perpetual annuities granted by a government or a railway
company realize in the open market, forms a very simple test of the
credit of the various governments or railways.
_Terminable Annuities_ are employed in the system of British public
finance as a means of reducing the National Debt (q.v.). This result is
attained by substituting for a perpetual annual charge (or one lasting
until the capital which it represents can be paid off _en bloc_), an
annual charge of a larger amount, but lasting for a short term. The
latter is so calculated as to pay off, during its existence, the capital
which it replaces, with interest at an assumed or agreed rate, and under
specified conditions. The practical effect of the substitution of a
terminable annuity for an obligation of longer currency is to bind the
present generation of citizens to increase its own obligations in the
present and near future in order to diminish those of its successors.
This end might be attained in other ways; for instance, by setting aside
out of revenue a fixed annual sum for the purchase and cancellation of
debt (Pitt's method, in intention), or by fixing the annual debt charge
at a figure sufficient to provide a margin for reduction of the
principal of the debt beyond the amount required for interest (Sir
Stafford Northcote's method), or by providing an annual surplus of
revenue over expenditure (the "Old Sinking Fund"), available for the
same purpose. All these methods have been tried in the course of British
financial history, and the second and third of them are still employed;
but on the whole the method of terminable annuities has been the one
preferred by chancellors of the exchequer and by parliament.
Terminable annuities, as employed by the British government, fall under
two heads:--(a) Those issued to, or held by private persons; (b) those
held by government departments or by funds under government control. The
important difference between these two classes is that an annuity under
(a), once created, cannot be modified except with the holder's consent,
i.e. is practically unalterable without a breach of public faith;
whereas an annuity under (b) can, if necessary, be altered by
interdepartmental arrangement under the authority of parliament. Thus
annuities of class (a) fulfil most perfectly the object of the system as
explained above; while those of class (b) have the advantage that in
times of emergency their operation can be suspended without any
inconvenience or breach of faith, with the result that the resources of
government can on such occasions be materially increased, apart from any
additional taxation. For this purpose it is only necessary to retain as
a charge on the income of the year a sum equal to the (smaller)
perpetual charge which was originally replaced by the (larger)
terminable charge, whereupon the difference between the two amounts is
temporarily released, while ultimately the increased charge is extended
for a period equal to that for which it is suspended. Annuities of class
(a) were first instituted in 1808, but are at present mainly regulated
by an act of 1829. They may be granted either for a specified life, or
two lives, or for an arbitrary term of years; and the consideration for
them may take the form either of cash or of government stock, the latter
being cancelled when the annuity is set up. Annuities (b) held by
government departments date from 1863. They have been created in
exchange for permanent debt surrendered for cancellation, the principal
operations having been effected in 1863, 1867, 1870, 1874, 1883 and
1899. Annuities of this class do not affect the public at all, except of
course in their effect on the market for government securities. They are
merely financial operations between the government, in its capacity as
the banker of savings banks and other funds, and itself, in the capacity
of custodian of the national finances. Savings bank depositors are not
concerned with the manner in which government invests their money, their
rights being confined to the receipt of interest and the repayment of
deposits upon specified conditions. The case is, however, different as
regards forty millions of consols (included in the above figures),
belonging to suitors in chancery, which were cancelled and replaced by a
terminable annuity in 1883. As the liability to the suitors in that case
was for a specified amount of stock, special arrangements were made to
ensure the ultimate replacement of the precise amount of stock
cancelled.
_Annuity Calculations._--The mathematical theory of life annuities is
based upon a knowledge of the rate of mortality among mankind in
general, or among the particular class of persons on whose lives the
annuities depend. It involves a mathematical treatment too complicated
to be dealt with fully in this place, and in practice it has been
reduced to the form of tables, which vary in different places, but which
are easily accessible. The history of the subject may, however, be
sketched. Abraham Demoivre, in his _Annuities on Lives_, propounded a
very simple law of mortality which is to the effect that, out of 86
children born alive, 1 will die every year until the last dies between
the ages of 85 and 86. This law agreed sufficiently well at the middle
ages of life with the mortality deduced from the best observations of
his time; but, as observations became more exact, the approximation was
found to be not sufficiently close. This was particularly the case when
it was desired to obtain the value of joint life, contingent or other
complicated benefits. Therefore Demoivre's law is entirely devoid of
practical utility. No simple formula has yet been discovered that will
represent the rate of mortality with sufficient accuracy.
The rate of mortality at each age is, therefore, in practice usually
determined by a series of figures deduced from observation; and the
value of an annuity at any age is found from these numbers by means of a
series of arithmetical calculations. The mortality table here given is
an example of modern use.
The first writer who is known to have attempted to obtain, on correct
mathematical principles, the value of a life annuity, was Jan De Witt,
grand pensionary of Holland and West Friesland. Our knowledge of his
writings on the subject is derived from two papers contributed by
Frederick Hendriks to the _Assurance Magazine_, vol. ii. p. 222, and
vol. in. p. 93. The former of these contains a translation of De Witt's
report upon the value of life annuities, which was prepared in
consequence of the resolution passed by the states-general, on the 25th
of April 1671, to negotiate funds by life annuities, and which was
distributed to the members on the 30th of July 1671. The latter contains
the translation of a number of letters addressed by De Witt to
Burgomaster Johan Hudde, bearing dates from September 1670 to October
1671. The existence of De Witt's report was well known among his
contemporaries, and Hendriks collected a number of extracts from various
authors referring to it; but the report is not contained in any
collection of his works extant, and had been entirely lost for 180
years, until Hendriks discovered it among the state archives of Holland
in company with the letters to Hudde. It is a document of extreme
interest, and (notwithstanding some inaccuracies in the reasoning) of
very great merit, more especially considering that it was the very first
document on the subject that was ever written.