Give me, nahkchams | Give us, nahkteea
_Mamans_ inserted in a word, signifies a desire to do a thing; thus,
_winaskin_ means to go; and _winasmamankin_, I am wishing to go. The
syllable _weltin_, affixed to a word, expresses that a thing has been
done effectively;--_tlokhtinnaweltin_, I have fastened it well, or
thoroughly. _Tata_ is a negative preposition.
THE LORD'S PRAYER.
Takamote nemeemult skatzazact whohakn nil
Our Father who art in
kakhtomew. Axseeas chutam clas squest awee. Eyah
heaven. Good to be done the name thine. Good
huntohs stakums asait cunamah axclahaks swonakum
make haste all men come truly
eah tuksmite Jesu Cree huntoseamal. Awee kaseah
good children of Jesus Christ make haste. Thy will
eah ah chuwo naanatomew, clah seeatahah L'angels
good done on earth, as the angels
archkhwamo incheah nilkahtomew. Takamose nuk
do there heaven. All and
stakum a tseetlekut nahkteea nemeemult stakums as
every day give us all our
skhlayans. Altla quonquonstyea nemeenult takamote
food. And forgive us all
nemeemult outkest, tseeah nemeemult quonquonstama
our evil, as we forgive
takamote tooal saitcunama aks weetsikteese tekest whoa
all of men who accomplish any evil to
nemeemult. Atahmose tah hoshaman as masteel
us. Never let the evil one lead
nemeemult axkhokestumtum a quonteese akest. Kamult
us to wish to lay hold of any evil. But
akklokpistyip nemeemult takamote too a kest wilkakow.
deliver us all that is evil far from us.
Shutenmeenwawee takamose atomew. Shutenmeenwawee
Thine all the world. Thine
takamose azozoht. Shutenmeenwawee takamose
all strength. Thine all
asyameet. Taeah asklakameemus astinansouse,
worship. Good evermore to come,
asklakameemus astinansouse. Axseahs.
evermore to come. Amen.
[Sidenote: PUGET SOUND DIALECTS.]
Proceeding southward to Puget Sound, we have the Shimiahmoo, Nooksak,
Lummi, Samish, Snohomish, and others; and around Cape Flattery, the
Classet. The Makah, Classet, or Klaizzaht, I have spoken of already,
in connection with the language of Vancouver Island, and it also
appears that the Clallam, S'klalum, or as they call themselves,
Nusklaiyum, is also connected with the Vancouver Island
language.[III'-25] It is probably the same which Dr Scouler has called
the Noosdalum. The Lummi, or Nukhlumi, and the Shimiahmoo have also
some affinity with the Sanetch dialect of Vancouver Island, and the
languages of the Skagits and Samish approach that of the Nisquallies.
Yet while the Clallam and Lummi show certain affinities to the Nootka
dialect, they nevertheless clearly belong to the Salish, or Flathead
family.[III'-26]
* * * * *
[Sidenote: SALISH DIALECTS.]
We now come to the great interior Salish family, although I shall have
occasion again to refer to the coast language in this vicinity. The
northernmost Salish language is the Shushwap, or Atnah, which
approaches near to its neighbor the Salish proper;[III'-27] then there
are the Kullespelm, or Pend d'Oreille, the Spokane, the Soaiatlpi, and
the Okanagan, which with others spoken on the Columbia show close
affinities.
The Salish proper, or Flathead, is harsh and guttural. The letters
_b_, _d_, _f_, _r_, _v_, do not exist in this language. The plural of
substantives is formed in different ways: first, by duplicating the
root--_skoi_, mother; _skoikoi_, mothers: second by duplicating and
dropping a vowel from the root--_skaltmigu_, man; _sklkaltmigu_, men;
_esmòck_, mountain; _esmòkmck_, mountains: third, by duplicating a
consonant in the middle of the word--_skòlchemùs_, eyelid;
_skòlchammùs_, eyelids: fourth, by prefixing the syllable
_ul_--_nackoèmen_, thief; _ulnakoèmen_, thieves: and lastly there are
divers formations, as _es´schíte_, tree; _szlzlíl_, trees, forest;
_s´m´èm_, woman (mulier); _pèlplgui_, women. Diminutives are expressed
by placing _l_ before the root, as, _s´m´èm_, woman; _slm´èm_, small
woman; _lùk_, wood; _llùl´lk_, a small piece of wood. Augmentatives
are formed by prefixing the syllable _kutn_, or _kuti_, when the word
commences with an _s_ or _l_, thus, _skagae_, horse; _kuti-skagae_, a
great horse; _sm´ot_, smoke; _kuti-sm´ot_, a great smoke. There are
pronouns, personal, possessive, demonstrative, relative,
interrogative, and indefinite. According to Mengarini the personal
pronoun has two forms, absolute and copulative, the exact meaning
attached to these terms not being explained.
ABSOLUTE. COPULATIVE.
I koie ko
Thou anúi ku
He zuilz
We kaémpile kae
You mpilèpstemp p, or mp
They zni´ilz
As examples of the others there are possessives--mine, _in_; thine,
_an_; his, _s_; ours, _kao_; yours, _mp_; theirs, _s_:
demonstratives--this, _iè_; that, _zi_: interrogative--who, _suèt_:
and indefinite--some one, _chnáksi_.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE ANGRY.
PRESENT INDICATIVE.
I am angry, tnes aimt-i | We are angry, kaes aimt-i
Thou art angry, kues aimt-i | You are angry, pes aimt-i
He is angry, es aimt-i | They are angry, es afimt-i
PERFECT.
I have been angry, tn-aimt or tnes aimt
FIRST FUTURE.
I shall be angry, nem tn aimt
IMPERATIVE.
Be angry, aimt sch
PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.
If I be angry, tiks aimt-i | If we be angry, kaeks aímt-i
If thou be angry, kuks aimt-i | If you be angry, pks aimt-i
If he be angry, ks aimt-i | If they be angry, ks aíimt-i
IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.
If I were angry, k neu tn aimt
OPTATIVE.
If I might be angry, komi tn aimt
Following is a Lord's Prayer, the nationality not given:
Kae l'eu l's'chichmáskat u ku l'zii, asku èst kuks
Our father in heaven who liveth, thy name of thee
gamènchltm; ku kl chèltich s esià sp'us; aszntèls ks
be loved; thou be Lord of all hearts; thy will
kólli iè l stóligu, ezgail l's'chichmáskat. Kae guizlilt
be done this on earth, as in heaven. Us give to-day
iè tlgoa lu kaesiapzínm. Kaelkolgoèllilt lu kae gulguílt
what we need. Us forgive our debts,
ezgail lu tkaempilè kaes kolgoelltm, lu e épl gulguílt l
as we forgive (those) who have debts with
kaempilè. Kae olkschílilt ta ka keskuèstm lu tèie; u kai
us. Us assist not at any time receive evil; but us
gulguillilt lu tel teié. Komi ezgail.
preserve uninjured from evil. Be it so.[III'-28]
The above is taken from the grammar of Mengarini, written in Latin;
following is a Lord's Prayer of the Pend d'Oreilles, from Father De
Smet, who wrote in French:
Kyleeyou, Itchitchemask, askwees kowaaskshamenshem
Our father of heaven, that your name be respected
ailetzemilkou yeelskyloog; ntziezie telletzia spoo
by all the earth; reign in all the
oez. Assinteels astskole, yelstoloeg etzageel
hearts. That your will be done on earth as also
Itchichemask. Hoogwitzilt yettilgwa lokaitssia petzim.
in heaven. Give us now all our necessaries.
Knwaasksmeemiltem klotayie kloitskeyen etzageel
Forgive us the evil which we have done, as
kaitsskolgwelem klotoiye kloitskwen klielskyloog.
we forgive (the evil) to those who us have offended.
Koaxalock shitem takaakskwentem klotaiye;
Accord to us assistance to evade evil;
kowaaksgweeltem klotaiye. Komieetzegeel.
but deliver us from evil. So be it.[III'-29]
Also belonging to this family are the languages spoken by the
Skitsuish, Pisquouse, Nsietshaws, Nisquallies, and Chehalis. The
Nsietshaw differs more than the others from the Salish proper, which
is the stock language of this family, and particularly in not
possessing any labials; the letters _m_ and _b_ being changed to _w_,
and _p_ to _h_. Thus, in the Chehalis and Nisqually languages, we
have, _numan_, son; _tomokh_, earth; _pansototsi_, winter; which, in
the Nsietshaw, are pronounced respectively, _nuwon_, _tawekh_ and
_hansototsi_. The Chehalis is spoken in three dialects, the Chehalis
proper, the Quaiantl, and the Queniauitl.[III'-30]
The languages of the Salish Family, particularly that of the Chehalis,
are rich in words, by means of which everything coming within their
knowledge may find expression; they are not easily acquired by
strangers; it is difficult for the different nations and tribes to
make themselves understood to one another. This is owing principally
to the many localisms in vogue among them, of which there is a good
specimen in the Chehalis language. Thus, _tolneuch_ means west-wind,
off shore, toward the sea, or to the west. Now, if the Chehalis are
leaving the shore in a canoe, and one of them wants to tell his mate
to put her head off shore, he will say _tolneuch_, but if in a hurry,
_neuch neuch_. _Claathlum_ signifies east-wind, also ashore; this they
transpose into _clath clath_.[III'-31] The Clallum and Lummi languages
have another peculiarity, which is a certain nasal sound at the
commencement and ending of words like a strong nasal _ns_; also a
broad _a_ sound as in far, path. The sounds of the letters _v_, _r_,
_z_, are wanting.[III'-32] The frequently occurring ending _tl_ has also
led to speculation, and to a search for Aztec affinities among these
languages, but nothing except this phonetic similarity has been
discovered. This _tl_ ending is very common. Swan says that,
"sometimes they will, as if for amusement, end all their words with
_tl_; and the effect is ludicrous to hear three or four talking at the
same time, with this singular sound, like so many sitting hens.'[III'-33]
East of the Salish, the Kitunaha, Kootenai, or Coutanie language is
spoken. Authorities differ widely in describing this language. Parker
calls it "open and sonorous, and free from gutturals, which are common
in the language of the surrounding tribes;" while Capt. Palliser
affirms that it is "most guttural and unpronounceable by a European,
every word appearing to be brought from their lowest extremities with
difficulty."[III'-34] The following Lord's Prayer, taken by a Frenchman
will give a better idea of the language than any description:
Katitoe naitle naite, akiklenais zedabitskinne
Our father, who art in heaven, may thy name be great
wilkane. Ninshalinne oshemake kapaik akaitlainam.
and honored. Be thou the master of all hearts.
Inshazetluité younoamake yekakaekinaitte.
May thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven.
Komnakaike logenie niggenawaishne naiosaem miaitéke.
Grant us this day all our wants.
Kekepaime nekoetjekoetleaitle ixzeai, iyakaikakaaike
Forgive us all the evil we have done, as we forgive
iyazeaikinawash kokakipaimenaitle. Amatikezawes
all the evil done unto us. Strengthen us
itchkestshimmekakkowêlle akatakzen. Shaeykiakakaaike.
against all evil, and deliver us from it. May it be so.[III'-35]
[Sidenote: SAHAPTIN LANGUAGES.]
The languages of the Sahaptin family are spoken along the Lewis and
Snake Rivers and their tributaries, as far as the foot of the Rocky
Mountains. The Walla Walla, Palouse, Yakima, Kliketat, and Sahaptin
proper, some of them widely divergent from the mother tongue, are of
this family.[III'-36] The Walla Walla differs from the Sahaptin proper
not more than the Portuguese from the Spanish. Father Pandosy made a
grammar of the Yakima language, under which he ranges the whole
Sahaptin family, dividing it into dialects, as the Walla Walla, the
Tairtla, the Roilroilpam, or Kliketat, and the Palouse.[III'-37]
In the Nez Percé language, the following letters only are found: _h_,
_k_, _l_, _m_, _n_, _p_, _s_, _t_, _w_, _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_, but
the missionaries having introduced some new words, it was found
necessary to add _b_, _d_, _f_, _g_, _v_, _z_. Agglutination is
carried to a great length, and long words are very frequent. In fact,
wherever a sentence can be expressed by joining one word to another,
it is done, leaving out letters in places, for the sake of euphony.
The following is a fair illustration: _hitautualawihnankauna_, he
traveled past in a rainy night. Analysed, _hi_ expresses the third
person singular; _tau_ a thing done at night; _tuala_, something done
in the rain; _wihnan_, to travel on foot; _kau_ is derived from the
verb _kokauna_, to pass by; _na_ expresses the indicative mood, aorist
tense, direction from the speaker. The plural of substantives is
formed by duplicating the first syllable: _pitin_, girl; _pipitin_,
girls. Or when the word commences with a vowel, the vowel is sometimes
repeated: _atwai_, old woman; _aatwai_, old women. Exceptions to this
rule are made in words expressing family relations, the prefix _ma_
being employed in such cases, as _pika_, mother; _pikama_, mothers. If
_p_ terminates the word, it is omitted, as _askap_, plural _askama_.
To express gender, the words _hama_, male, and _aiat_, female, are
employed, but the substantive remains unchanged. Nouns are declined
either by changing their terminals, or by affixes:
Nom. a house init
Gen. of a house ininm
Acc. house inina
1st Dat. to or for a house initph
2d Dat. in on, or upon a house initpa
1st Abl. with a house initki
2d Abl. from a house initpkinih
3d Abl. for the purpose of a house initain
Comparison--_tahs_, good; _tahs kanmakanm_, better; _tahsni_, best.
Personal prounouns--_in_, I; _im_, thou; _ipi_, he, or she; _nun_,
we; _ima_, ye; _imma_, they. Of the verb numerous variations are made.
They are divided into three classes, neuter, active transitive, and
active intransitive. The two neuter verbs are _wash_, to be; and
_witsasha_, to become. Active intransitive verbs cannot be followed by
any accusative.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE.
PRESENT INDICATIVE.
DIRECTION FROM. DIRECTION TOWARDS.
I am, in wash
Thou art, im a wash im a wam
He is, it is his, ipi hiwash, ipnim ush ipi hiwam
We are, nun washih
You are, ima ath washih ima ath washinm
They are, it is theirs, imma hiushih, imman aushih imma hiushinm
RECENT PAST TENSE.
I have just been, waka wamka
Thou hast just been, a waka a wamka
He has just been,
it has just been his, hiwaka, awaka hiwamka
We have just been, washeka washinmka
You have just been, ath washeka ath washinmka
They have just been,
it has just been theirs, kinsheka, ausheka hiushinmka
[III'-38]
[Sidenote: YAKIMA, WALLA WALLA, AND PALOUSE.]
The following grammatical notes will serve to illustrate the Yakima
and some of the other languages of the Sahaptin family.
SINGULAR.
Nom. the horse kussi-nan
Gen. of the horse kussi-nmi
Dat. to the horse kussi-ow
Acc. the horse kussi-nan
Voc. O horse na-kussi
Abl. for the horse kussi-ei
PLURAL.
Nom. the horses kussi-ma
Gen. of the horses kussi-ma mi
Dat. to the horses kussi-ma-miow
Acc. the horses kussi ma-man
Voc. O horses na-kussi-ma
Abl. for the horses kussi-ma-miei
In the Palouse and Walla Walla languages the affix _nan_ is changed
into _na_. Personal pronouns--I, _ink_, _nes_, _nesh_, or _sh_; of
me, _enmi_; to me, _enmiow_; me, _inak_; for me, _enmiei_; we,
_namak_, _natés_, _nanam_, _aatés_, or _namtk_; of us, _néémi_; to us
_néémiow_; us, _némanak_; for us, _néémiei_. The Walla Wallas leaves
off the _k_ from the affix _ak_; thus, instead of _inak_, me, they say
_ina_, and instead of _namak_, we, _nama_.
YAKIMA. WALLA WALLA AND PALOUSE.
He penk penk
Of him pin-mink pinmin
To him pin-miwk pinmiow
Him pin-nim pinminnan
For Him pin-mikaiei pinmiei
They pmak pma
Of Them pe-mink pamin
To them pe-miwk pamiwk
Them pe-minak pamanak
For them pe-mikaiei pamikaiei
In one dialect the terminal _ak_ is changed into _ei_.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO HAVE.
PRESENT INDICATIVE.
I have, nesh wa, or wash nesh
Thou hast, mesh wa, or wash mesh
He has, penk awa, or pinmink awa
We have, natesh wa, or wash natesh
You have, matesh wa, or wash matesh.
They have, pa wa, or pemink awa
PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT.
I had, or have had, nesh wacha
FIRST FUTURE.
I shall have, nesh wata
As a specimen of agglutination there is the word
_ipinashapatawtrahliktamawarsha_, he himself makes night disagreeably
tiresome long wait; that is, he keeps one long waiting for him at
night.
YAKIMA LORD'S PRAYER.
Neemi Psht, imk nam wamsh Roiemich-nik;
Our Father, thou who art high on the side (heaven);
shir nam 'manak p'a t-maknani tarnei wanicht; shir
well thou they (indef.) should respect the name; well
ewianawitarnei emink miawarwit; shir nammanak pa
should arrive thy chieftainship; well thee they
twanenitarnei, ichinak techampa, tenma, prw,
should follow here earth (on) inhabitants (the) will
amakwsrimmanak pa twanenishamsh roiemipama
thou as thyself they follow high of the (heaven)
tenma. Nemanak nim t-kwatak kwalissim maisr
inhabitants (the). Our (us) give us food always to-morrow
maisr. Nemanak laknanim chélwitit: aateskwsri
to-morrow. Our (us) forget sins: us as
namak t'normaman laknánisha chélwitit anakwnkink
we others forget sins have by which
neémiow pa chelwitia. R-t-to anianim nemanak
us have offended. Strong make our (us)
temna; t-kraw krial. Nemanak eikrenkem chelwitknik
heart; that it fall not. Us snatch bad from the side.
Ekws iwa neemi temna.
So it is our heart.[III'-39]
The Nez Percés make use of two languages, one the native language
proper, or, as a European might say, the court language, and the other
a slave language, or jargon. They differ so much, that a stranger
fully conversant with one cannot understand the other. This jargon
originated, probably, from intermixing prisoners of war of different
nationalities who were enslaved, and their languages mingled with each
other, and with that of their conquerors. The pure-blooded Nez
Percés all understand the jargon, learning it when children, together
with their own proper language. Nor is this all. The jargon is more or
less modified by each of the several languages, or dialects, in which
it is spoken. The employés of the fur companies, who first came in
contact with the Sahaptins, were greatly annoyed by this multiformity;
as, for example, one Nez Percé coming to sell a beaver skin would say,
_tammecess taxpool_, I wish to sell a beaver; another would say,
_towèyou weespoose_, I wish to trade a beaver; and a third would say,
_e'towpa e'yechcoe_, I wish to trade a beaver.
[Sidenote: COURT LANGUAGE OF THE SAHAPTINS.]
The following short vocabulary will show some of the differences
between the Nez Percé language and the jargon:
NEZ PERCÉ JARGON.
Man kewas winch
Woman eyatt tealacky
Boy tachnutsem tuchnoot
Girl tochanough peten
No waatown, tsya
Knife waltz whapallmeh,
Horse she came koosy
Hair tootanick kookoo
Eyes shelaw Atchass.[III'-40]
Professor Rafinesque, out of twenty-four Sahaptin words, claims to
have found six bearing close affinities to the English, but Buschmann
says that of these twenty-four, many are not Sahaptin at all.[III'-41]
The Waiilatpu language, conterminous with the Sahaptin, is spoken in
two dialects, the Cayuse and Mollale. The Cayuses mingle frequently
with the Sahaptins, and therefore many words of the latter have been
adopted into their tongue. They mostly understand and speak the
Sahaptin, and frequently the Walla Walla, and this not from any
relationship in the several languages, but from intercourse.[III'-42]
Like their neighbors, the Cayuses employ two languages; one in the
transaction of the common affairs of life, and the other on high state
occasions, such as when making speeches round the council fire, to
determine questions of war and peace, as well as all other intertribal
affairs. That is to say, the Sahaptins use their court language on all
ordinary, as well as extraordinary occasions, keeping the jargon for
their servants, while the Cayuses employ the baser tongue for common,
and the higher for state occasions.
The Cayuses were eloquent speakers; their language abounded in
elegant expressions, and they well knew how to make the most of it.
When first known to Europeans, it was fast fading away, and
subsequently merged into the Sahaptin; so fleeting are these native
idioms.[III'-43]
[Sidenote: DIFFICULTIES OF THE CHINOOK.]
The Chinook language is spoken by the different tribes inhabiting the
banks of the Lower Columbia and adjacent country. This family is
divided into many dialects, which diverge from the mother tongue as we
ascend the river; in fact, the upper tribes have mostly to employ an
interpreter, when they communicate with those on the lower part of the
river. The chief diversities of this language are the Chinook proper,
the Wakiakum, Cathlamet, and Clatsop, and the various dialects
mentioned by Lewis and Clarke as belonging to those inhabiting this
region at the time of their expedition, but which cannot now be
positively identified with any of the languages known to us. Two of
the last-mentioned dialects, the Multnomah and the Skilloot, the
explorers describe as belonging to the Chinook.[III'-44] Among all the
languages of north-western America, except perhaps that of the
Thlinkeets, the Chinook is considered in its construction the most
intricate; and in its pronunciation the most difficult. No words are
to be found in the English vocabulary which can accurately describe
it. To say that it is guttural, clucking, spluttering, and the like
conveys but a faint conception of the sound produced by a Chinook in
his frantic effort to unburden his mind of an idea. He does not appear
to have yet discovered the use of the lips and tongue in speaking, but
struggles with the lower part of the throat to produce sounds for the
expression of his thoughts. Some declare that the speech of the
Thlinkeets, whose language like that of the Chinook contains no
labials, is melody in comparison to the croakings of the Chinooks.
Ross says, that "to speak the Chinook dialect, you must be a
Chinook."[III'-45] Indeed, they appear to have become tired of their own
language and to have voluntarily abandoned it, for, to-day, the
youthful Chinook speaks almost wholly Chehalis and the jargon. The
employés of the fur companies, voyageurs, trappers and traders, who
were accustomed to master with little difficulty the aboriginal
tongues which they encountered, were completely nonplussed by the
Chinook. A Canadian of Astor's company is the only person known to
have acquired it so as to speak it fluently. During a long illness he
was nursed by the Chinooks, and during his convalescence devoted his
entire time to perfecting himself in their tongue.[III'-46]
Here the sounds of the letters _f_, _r_, _v_, and _z_ do not exist,
the pronunciation is generally very indistinct, and _ç_ and _s_, _k_
and _g_, _d_ and _t_, are almost always confounded.
In the first person of the dual and plural of pronouns, the person
present and addressed is either included or excluded according to the
form used.
Personal pronouns in the Watlala dialect are:
SINGULAR. DUAL. PLURAL.
I naika | We (two) (exc.) ndaika | We (ex.) nçtaika
| We (two) (incl.) tkhaika | We (incl.) olkhaika
Thou maika | You (two) mdaika | You miçaika
He iakhka | They (two) içtakhka | They tkhlaitçka
Of the possessive pronouns the following will serve as examples. They
are joined to the noun _itukutkhle_, or _itukwutkhle_, house.
SINGULAR.
My house kukwutkhl
Thy house meokwitkhl
His house iakwitkhl
DUAL. PLURAL.
Our house (exc.) ndakwitkhl ntçakwitkhl (exc.)
Our house (incl.) tkhakwitkhl olkhakwitkhl (incl.)
Your house mdakwitkhl mçakwitkhl
Their house içtakwitkhl tkhlakwitkhl
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE COLD.
PRESENT INDICATIVE, SINGULAR.
I am cold, naika tçinokhkeakh
Thou art cold, maika tçiçomkeakh
He is cold, iakhka tçikeakh
DUAL.
We (two) are cold (exc.), ndaika tçiçontkeakh
We (two) are cold (incl.), tkhaika tçiçtkeakh
You (two) are cold, mdaika tçimokeakh
They (two) are cold, ictakhka tçiçtkeakh
PLURAL.
We are cold (exc.), ntçaika tçicontçkeakh
We are cold (incl.), olkhaika tçilokeakh
You are cold, mçaika tçiçomçkeakh
They are cold, tkhlaitçka tçiçotkhlkeakh
IMPERFECT.
Yesterday I was cold, takotkhl naika tçinotkeakh
FIRST FUTURE.
By and bye I shall be cold, atkhlke naika tçiçonkhatka
I shall be cold, naika onçkhatka tçiç
THE VERB TO KILL.
I kill thee, aminowagua
I kill him, tçinowagua
I kill you (dual), omtkinowagua
I kill them (dual), oçtkinowagua
I kill you (pl.), omçkinowagua
I kill them, otkhlkinowngua
You kill him, omçkiwagua
You kill them, otkhlkiwagua
Dialectic differences particularly among the upper Chinooks, or
Watlalas, are found principally in words; grammatical forms being
alike in both.[III'-47] Kane remarks as a peculiarity that this
language contains "no oaths, or any words conveying gratitude or
thanks."[III'-48]
Moving again southward to the Willamette Valley, I find the Calapooya
language, and for the first time a soft and harmonious idiom. Although
the guttural _kh_ sometimes occurs, it is more frequently softened to
_h_. The consonants are _ç_, or _s_, _f_, _j_, _k_, _l_, _m_, _n_,
_ng_, _p_, or _b_, _t_, or _d_, _q_, and _w_. Unlike the Sahaptin and
Chinook there are neither dual nor plural forms in the Calapooya
language.
[Sidenote: CALAPOOYA PRONOUNS.]
The personal pronouns are:
I tsi, or tsii
Thou maha, or maa
He koka, or kak
We soto
You miti
They kinuk
My father tsi simna
Thy father maha kaham
His father kok inifam
Our father soto tufam
Your father miti tifam
Their father kinuk inifam
My mother tsi sinni
Thy mother maha kanni
His mother kok ininnim
Our mother soto tunnim
Your mother miti tinnim
Their mother kinuk ininnim
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE SICK, ILFATIN.
PRESENT NEUTER.
I am sick, tsi ilfatin
Thou art sick, intsi ilfatin
He is sick, ilfatin
We are sick, tsiti ilfaf
You are sick, intsip ilfaf
They are sick, kinuk in ilfaf
NEGATIVE.
I am not sick, wangk tsik ilfatit
IMPERFECT.
I was sick yesterday, ilfatin tsi kuyi
Thou wast sick yesterday, imku ilfatin
He was sick yesterday, hu ilfatin
FIRST FUTURE.
To-morrow I shall be sick, midji taïlfit tsii
The following example will serve to illustrate the great changes verbs
undergo in their conjugations;--_ksitapatsitup maha_, I love thee;
_tsitapintsuo kok_, I love him; _himtapintsiwata tsii kak_, he loves
me; _hintsitapintsiwata tsii_, dost thou love me?[III'-49]
The Yamkally is spoken at the sources of the Willamette River. A
comparison of the Yamkally and Calapooya vocabularies shows a certain
relationship between them.[III'-50]
[Sidenote: COLUMBIAN AND MEXICAN COMPARISONS.]
I have said that certain affinities are discovered between the
Waiilatpu and Mollale, and also between the Watlala and Chinook; in
these, as well as in the Calapooya and Yamkally, Buschmann discovers
faint traces of the Aztec language. Others have discovered a fancied
relationship between the language of the Mexicans and those of more
northern nations, but Mr Buschmann believes that, descending from the
north, the peoples mentioned, whose lands are drained by the Columbia,
are the first in which the Aztec, in dim shadows, makes its
appearance. These similarities, he discovered not alone by direct
comparisons with the Aztec, but also by detecting resemblances between
these Columbian dialects and those of certain nations which he calls
his Sonora group and its affiliations, all of which contain elements
of the Aztec tongue. Yet Mr Buschmann does not therefrom claim any
relationship between the Aztecs and Columbians, but only notices these
few slight assimilations.[III'-51]
Herewith is a comparative table, containing a few similar words:
COMPARATIVE TABLE, SHOWING SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE COLUMBIAN AND
MEXICAN TONGUES.
ENGLISH. WAIILATPU. MOLLALE. WATLALA. CHINOOK. CALA- AZTEC. SONORA
POOYA. FAMILY.
Yes i ia a ah he, aw e, ha
Tooth tenif tanti tlantli
Red tkhlpal tkhlpolpol tlapalli
Wind ikkhala itskhakh ikhala ehecatl heicala
Black tkhlol tkhlalukh tlilli
Water wematkhl webatkhl atl
I naika nëe ne
Chief iatoiang iakant iout,
iauta
The Chinook jargon is employed by the white people in their
intercourse with the natives, as well as by the natives among
themselves. It is spoken throughout Oregon, Washington Territory, on
Vancouver Island, and extends inland into Idaho and some parts of
Montana. It is more than probable that, like other languages _de
convenance_, it formed itself gradually, first among the natives
themselves, and that in the course of time, in order to facilitate
their intercourse with the aborigines, trappers and traders adopted
and improved it, until it was finally brought into its present state.
Indeed, so great was the diversity of languages in this vicinity, and
so intricate were they, that without something of this kind there
could have been but little intercourse between the people.
A somewhat similar mixture I have already mentioned as existing in
Alaska. Father Paul Le Jeune gives a short account of a jargon in use
between the French and the Indians, in the north-eastern part of
America, as early as the year 1633.[III'-52] In Europe a similar
mixture, or patois, prevails to this day, the lingua franca, used by
the many nationalities that congregate upon the shores of the
Mediterranean. In China, and in the East Indies, the so-called pigeon
English occupies the same place; and in various parts of Central and
Southern America, neutral languages may be found. To show how
languages spring up and grow, Vancouver, when visiting the coast in
1792, found in various places along the shores of Oregon, Washington,
and Vancouver Island, nations that now and then understood words and
sentences of the Nootka and other tongues, some of which had been
adopted into their own language.
When Lewis and Clarke, in 1806, reached the coast, the jargon seems to
have already assumed a fixed shape, as may be seen from the sentences
quoted by the explorers. But not until the arrival of the expedition
sent out by John Jacob Astor does it appear that either English or
French words, of which it contains a large percentage, were
incorporated. Very few, if any, of the words of which the jargon is
composed, retain their original shape. The harsh, guttural, and
unpronounceable native cackling was softened or omitted, thus forming
a speech suited to all. In the same manner, some of the English
sounds, like _f_ and _r_, unpronounceable by the native, were dropped,
or transferred into _p_ and _l_, while all grammatical forms were
reduced to the fewest and plainest rules possible.[III'-53] But even in
this jargon, there are what may be called dialectic differences; for
instance, many words used at the Dalles, are quite unintelligible at
the mouth of the Columbia and at Puget Sound. It has often been
asserted that the jargon was invented or originated by the Hudson's
Bay Company, but although the fur company undoubtedly greatly aided
its development, and assisted in perfecting it, it is well known,
first, that this jargon existed before the advent of Europeans, and
secondly, that languages are not made in this way.
[Sidenote: ANALYSIS OF THE CHINOOK JARGON.]
Mr Gibbs states the number of words to be nearly five hundred, and
after a careful analysis of the language, has arrived at the following
conclusion as to the number contributed by the several nationalities:
Chinook and Clatsop 200 words
Chinook, having analogies with other languages 21 "
Interjections common to several 8 "
Nootka, including dialects 24 "
Chehalis, 32, and Nisqually, 7 39 "
Kliketat and Yakima 2 "
Cree 2 "
Chippeway (Ojibway) 1 "
Wasco (probably) 4 "
Calapooya (probably) 4 "
By direct onomatopoeia 6 "
Derivation unknown, or undetermined 18 "
French, 90, Canadian, 4 94 "
English 67 "[III'-54]
As before mentioned, foreign words adopted into the jargon vocabulary
are changed to suit the taste of the speaker, as in the word
Français, being unable to pronounce the _f_, _r_, and _n_, for
Frenchman they say _pasaiuks_, and for French, _pasai_. The few words
formed by onomatopoeia, are after this fashion;--_tumtum_, heart, an
imitation of its beating; _tintin_, bell; _tiktik_, watch; _liplip_,
to boil, from the sound of boiling water, and so on.
Neither article nor inflections are employed. _Okok_, this, at times
takes the place of the English the. As a rule, plurals are not
distinguished, but sometimes the word _haiu_, many, is used. Adjectives
precede nouns, as in English--_lasuai hakatshum_, silk handkerchief;
_masatsi tilikum_, bad people. The comparative is expressed, for
example, in the sentence, I am stronger than thou, by _wek maika
skukum kakwa naika_, thou not strong as I. Superlative--_haias oluman
okok kanem_, very old that canoe. There are only two conjunctions,
_pi_, derived from the French _puis_, which denotes and or then; and
_pos_, from _suppose_, meaning if, in case that, provided that. The
particle _na_ is at times used as an interrogative.[III'-55]
The Lord's Prayer in the Chinook jargon is as follows:
Nesika papa klaksta mitlite kopa saghalie, kloshe
Our Father who stayeth in the above, good
kopa nesika tumtum mika nem; kloshe mika tyee
in our hearts (be) thy name; good thou chief
kopa konoway tilikum; kloshe mika tumtum kopa
among all people; good thy will upon
illahie, kahkwe kopa saghalie. Potlatch konaway sun
earth, as in the above. Give every day
nesika muckamuck. Spose nesika mamook masahchie,
our food. If we do ill,
wake mika hyas solleks, pe spose klaksta masahchie
(be) not thou very angry, and if any one evil
kopa nesika, wake nesika solleks kopa klaska. Mahsh
towards us, not we angry towards them. Send away
siah kopa nesaika konaway masahchie. Kloshe kahkwa.
far from us. all evil.[III'-56]
FOOTNOTES:
[III'-1] 'Die Kaigan-Sprache wird auf der Insel Kaigan und den
Charlotten Inseln ... gesprochen.' _Veniaminoff_, in _Erman_,
_Archiv_, tom. vii., No. 1., p. 128.
[III'-2] 'En parlant du langage de _Tchinkîtâiné_, j'ai rapporté
d'avance les termes numériques employés aux îles de _Queen-Charlotte_,
tels que le capitaine _Chanal_ a pu les recueillir _á Cloak-Bay_; il
observe que quelques-uns de ces termes sont communs aux autres parties
de ces îsles qu'il a visitées, ainsi que quelques autres termes qu'il
a pu saisir, et par lesquels les Naturels expriment les objets
suivanes.... Cette similitude des termes numériques et d'autres
termes, employés également par les diverses Tribus, séparées les unes
des autres, qui occupent la partie de côtes des îles de
_Queen-Charlotte_ que le Capitaine _Chanal_ a visitée, me semble
démontrer, contre l'opinion hasardée du Rédacteur du Journal de
_Dixon_, que ces Tribus communiquent habituellement entre elles: cette
identité du langage pourroit encore prouver que les Peuplades qui
habitent ces îles ont une origine commune.' _Marchand_, _Voyage_, tom.
ii., p. 216.
[III'-3] 'There are at least two or three different languages spoken
on the coast, and yet probably they are all pretty generally
understood; though if we may credit the old Chief at Queen Charlotte's
Islands, his people were totally ignorant of that spoken by the
inhabitants to the Eastward.' _Dixon's Voy._, p. 240.
[III'-4] _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. ii., pp. 218,
220.
[III'-5] _Radloff_, _Sprache der Kaiganen_, in _Mél. Russes._ tom.
iii., liv. v., p. 575; _Green_, in _Amer. Antiq. Soc., Transact._,
vol. iii., p. 302.
[III'-6] _Dixon's Voy._, p. 240.
[III'-7] 'Es fehlen dem Kaigáni (Haidah) jene harten aspirirten
Consonanten, die dem Thlinkít so geläufig sind, es ist vocalreicher
und weicher. Dagegen theilt es mit dem Thlinkít den Mangel der
Labialen, des dentalen _r_, wie auch der Verbindung des _l_ mit Dentalen,
Gutturalen und Sibilanten, während jenem dagegen das reine _l_ des
Kaigani ganz fremd ist.' _Radloff_, _Sprache der Kaiganen_, in _Mél.
Russes_, tom. iii., liv. v., pp. 575-6.
[III'-8] _Id._, pp. 569-607.
[III'-9] _Green_, in _Amer. Antiq. Soc., Transact._, vol. ii., p. 302.
'Náss ... in custom and language, resemble the Sabassa.' _Dunn's
Oregon_, p. 279. _Buschmann_, _Spr. N. Mex. u. der Westseite des b.
Nordamer._, p. 398, et seq.
[III'-10] _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. ix., p. 234.
[III'-11] _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 358.
[III'-12] _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. ix., p. 221.
[III'-13] _Id._, p. 230, et seq.
[III'-14] _Grant's Vanc. Isl._, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol.
xxvii., pp. 295-6.
[III'-15] _Sproat's Scenes_, p. 311.
[III'-16] _Grant's Vanc. Isl._, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol.
xxvii., p. 295.
[III'-17] 'The inhabitants of Nootka Sound and the Tlaoquatch, who
occupy the south-western points of the island, speak the same
language.' _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 224;
_Jewitt's Nar._, pp. 74-77; _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol.
vi., p. 220; _Meares' Voy._, pp. 229-32; _Douglas' Report_, in _Lond.
Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxiv., p. 246. At Point Discovery, Vancouver
met people some of whom 'understood a few words of the Nootka
language.' _Voyage_, vol. i., p. 228. 'The distinct languages spoken
by the Indians are few in number, but the dialects employed by the
various tribes are so many, that, although the inhabitants of any
particular district have no great difficulty in communicating with
each other, ...' _Mayne's B. C._, p. 244; _Sproat's Scenes_, p. 311.
The Rev. Mr Good divides and locates the languages of Vancouver Island
and the opposite shore on the mainland as follows. The first language,
he says, runs along the coast from Nitinaht to Nootka Sound; the
second prevails from Sooke to Nanaimo, and across the Sound up to Bird
Inlet on the main land, thence following up the Fraser River as far as
Yale; this he names the Cowichin. On the island north of Cowichin he
locates the Comux and adjoining it the Ucleta; finally starting at
Fort Rupert and following the north coast of the island and also on
the opposite shore of the main land is the Quackoll.
[III'-18] _Jewitt's Nar._, p. 75.
[III'-19] _Sproat's Scenes_, p. 132.
[III'-20] 'El idioma de estos naturales es tal vez el mas áspero y
duro de los conocidos. Abundan mucho en él las consonantes, y las
terminaciones en tl y tz, constando el intermedio y el principio de
los vocablos de aspiraciones muy fuertes.' _Sutil y Mexicana_,
_Viage_, p. 147. 'Their language is very guttural, and if it were
possible to reduce it to our orthography, it would very much abound
with consonants.' _Sparks' Life of Ledyard_, p. 72; _Cook's Voy. to
Pac._, vol. ii., pp. 334-6.
[III'-21] _Sproat's Scenes_, p. 124, et seq.
[III'-22] For a copy of which I am indebted to the late proprietor of
the _Overland Monthly_ of San Francisco.
[III'-23] 'En examinant avec soin des vocabulaires formés à Noutka et
à Monterey, j'ai été frappé de l'homotonie et des désinences
mexicaines de plusieurs mots, comme, par exemple, dans la langue des
Noutkiens.... Cependant, en général, les langues de la
Nouvelle-Californie et de l'île de Quadra, diffèrent essentiellement
de l'aztèque.' _Humboldt_, _Essai Pol._, tom. i., p. 321.
'Sprachähnlichkeiten ... hat man, wie auch nachher bey der Betrachtung
der Mexikanischen Sprache aus einander gesetzt werden soll, an dieser
Nordwest-Küste am Nutka-Sunde und bey den Völkern in der Nähe der
Russischen Colonien gefunden.' _Vater_, _Mithridates_, tom. iii., pt
iii., p. 76. 'In the neighborhood of Nootka, tribes still exist whose
dialects, both in the termination and general sound of the words, bear
considerable resemblance to the Mexican.' _Prescott's Mex._, vol.
iii., p. 399.
[III'-24] 'So gewinnt die Nutka-Sprache, durch eine reiche Zahl von
Wörtern und durch grosse Züge ihres Lautwesens, einzig vor allen
anderen fremden ... in einem bedeutenden Theile eine täuschende
Ähnlichkeit mit der aztekischen oder mexicanischen; und so wird die
ihr schon früher gewidmete Aufmerksamkeit vollständig gerechtfertigt.
Ihrer mexicanischen Erscheinung fehlt aber, wie ich von meiner Seite
hier ausspreche, jede Wirklichkeit.' _Buschmann_, _Spr. N. Mex. u. der
Westküste des b. Nordamer._, p. 371.
[III'-25] They spoke the same language as the Nootkas. _Vancouver's
Voy._, vol. i., p. 218.
[III'-26] 'The affinities of the Clallam and Lummi are too obvious to
require demonstration.' _Gibbs' Clallam and Lummi Vocab._, p. vii.
'The Tsihaili-Selish languages reach the sea in the part opposite
Vancouver's Island. Perhaps they touch it to the north also.'
_Latham's Comp. Phil._, vol. viii., p. 401; _Gairdner_, in _Lond.
Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 255.
[III'-27] 'Les Indiens de la côte ou de la Nouvelle Calédonie, les
Tokalis, les Chargeurs (Carriers), les Schouchouaps, les Atnas
appartiennent tous à la nation des Chipeouaïans.' _Mofras_, _Explor._,
tom. ii., p. 337. 'The Atnah language has no affinity to any with
which I am acquainted.' _Mackenzie's Voyages_, p. 258.
[III'-28] _Mengarini_, _Selish Gram._
[III'-29] 'Nationes que radicaliter linguam Selicam loquuntur sunt
saltem decem: Calispelm, (vulgo) _Pends d'oreilles du Lac Inférieur_.
Slkatkomlchi, _Pends d'oreilles du Lac Superieur_. Selish, _Têtes
Plattes_. Sngomènei, Snpoilschi, Szk'eszilni, _Spokanes_. S´chizni,
_Coeurs d'alène_. Sgoièlpi, _Chaudières_. Okinakein, Stlakam,
_Okanagan_.' _Mengarini_, _Selish Gram._, p. 120. 'Their language is
the same as the Spokeins' and Flatheads'.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p.
307. 'The Spokanes speak the same dialect as the Flatheads and Pend
d'Oreilles.' _Chapman_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1866, p. 201; _De Smet_,
_Voy._, p. 237. 'The Flatheads are divided into numerous tribes, each
having its own peculiar locality, and differing more or less from the
others in language, customs, and manners.' 'The Spokan Indians are a
small tribe, differing very little from the Indians at Colville either
in their appearance, habits, or language.' _Kane's Wand._, pp. 173,
307. 'The Pend' d'Oreilles are generally called the Flatheads, the two
clans, in fact, being united.... Still, the two races are entirely
distinct, their languages being fundamentally different. The variety
of tongues on the west side of the (Rocky) mountains is almost
infinite, so that scarcely any two tribes understand each other
perfectly. They have all, however, the common character of being very
guttural; and, in fact, the sentences often appear to be mere jumbles
of grunts and croaks, such as no alphabet could express in writing.'
_Simpson's Overland Jour._, vol. i., p. 146.
[III'-30] _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., pp. 535-7.
[III'-31] _Swan's N. W. Coast_, p. 315.
[III'-32] _Gibbs' Clallam and Lummi Vocab._, p. 7.
[III'-33] 'In the northern districts of the great chain of Rocky
Mountains which were visited by Sir Alexander Mackenzie, there are
several nations of unknown language and origin. The Atnah nation is
one of them. Their dialect appears, from the short vocabulary given by
that traveller, to be one of those languages which, in the frequent
recurrence of peculiar consonants, bears a certain resemblance to the
Mexican.' _Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man_, vol. ii., p. 550; _Swan's N. W.
Coast_, pp. 315-6.
[III'-34] 'Der Prinz bezeugt (Bd. ii., 511) dass der behauptete Mangel
an Gurgellauten ein Irrthum ist; er bemerkt: dass die Sprache durch
den ihr eignen "Zungenschnalz" für das Aussprechen schwierig werde,
und dass sie eine Menge von Gutturaltönen habe. Man spreche die Wörter
leise und undeutlich aus; dabei gebe es darin viele schnalzende Töne,
indem man mit der Zungenspitze anstösst; auch gebe es darin viele
dumpfe Kehllaute.' _Prinz Max zu Wied_, in _Buschmann_, _Spuren der
Aztek. Spr._, p. 661. 'Their language bears no affinity whatever to
that of any of the western nations. It is infinitely softer and more
free from those unpronounceable gutturals so common among the lower
tribes.' _Cox's Adven._, p. 233; _Blakiston's Rept._, in _Palliser's
Explor._, p. 73; _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 307.
[III'-35] _De Smet's Oregon Miss._, p. 409.
[III'-36] Tribes speaking the Kliketat language: Whulwhypum,
Tait-inapum, Yakima, Walla Wallapum, Kyoose, Umatilla, Peloose,
Wyampam; the Yakimas and Kliketats or Whulwhypum ... speaking the
Walla-Walla language, otherwise known as the Kliketat. _Lord's Nat._,
vol. ii., pp. 244, 232. 'The Kyeuse resemble the Walla-Wallas very
much.... Their language and customs are almost identical.' _Kane's
Wand._, p. 280. The Pend d'Oreilles 'speak the same language' (Nez
Percé.) _Hutchins_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1863, p. 456. The Palouse
Indians 'speak the same language.' _Cain_, in _Id._, 1860, p. 210.
'The Wallah-Wallahs, whose language belongs to the same family.' 'The
Wallah-Wallahs and Nez Perces speak dialects of a common language, and
the Cayuses have abandoned their own for that of the latter.' _Gibbs_,
in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., pp. 416, 425; _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U.
S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., pp. 213, 542. 'The nation among which we now
are call themselves Sokulks; and with them are united a few of another
nation, who reside on a western branch, emptying itself into the
Columbia a few miles above the mouth of the latter river, and whose
name is Chimnapum. The language of both these nations differs but
little from each other, or from that of the Chopunnish who inhabit the
Kooskooskee and Lewis's river.' _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p. 12.
'The language of the Walla-Wallas differs from the Nez Percés'.
_Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 137.
[III'-37] _Pandosy's Yakama Lang._, p. 9.
[III'-38] _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 542, et
seq.
[III'-39] _Pandosy's Yakama Lang._
[III'-40] _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. i., p. 313, et seq.
[III'-41] _Rafinesque_, _Atlantic Jour._, p. 133, quoted in
_Buschmann_, _Spuren der Aztek. Spr._, p. 615. 'Ich habe diese Wörter
Rafinesque's zu einem Theil ganz verschieden von den _Sahaptan_
gefunden.' _Ib._
[III'-42] _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 561.
[III'-43] 'The Skyuse have two distinct languages: the one used in
ordinary intercourse, the other on extraordinary occasions; as in war
counsels, &c.' _Farnham's Travels_, p. 153. 'The Cayuses have
abandoned their own for that of the Nez Percés.' _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R.
R. Rept._, vol. i., pp. 416, 425. 'Their language bears some affinity
to the Sahaptin or Nez-Percé language.' _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 199;
_Coke's Rocky Mts._, p 295; _Kane's Wand._, p. 279. 'Their original
language, now almost extinct ... having affinity to that of the
Carriers, of North Caledonia, and the Umpqua Indians of Southern
Oregon.' _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 249-50.
[III'-44] 'The language of the bands farther up the river departed
more and more widely from the Chinook proper, so that the lower ones
could not have understood the others without an interpreter.' _Gibbs'
Chinook Vocab._, p. 4. 'The vocabulary given by Dr. Scouler as
"Chenook" is almost altogether Chihalis. His "Cathlascon" ... is
Chinook.' _Id._, p. 5. 'Des _Tchinooks_, d'où est sortie la
langue-mère de ces sauvages.' _Saint-Amant_, _Voyages_, p. 381.
'Cathlamahs speak the same language as the Chinnooks and Clatsops.'
_Lewis and Clarke's Travels_, p. 424. Chinooks 'in language ...
resemble the Clatsops, Cathlamahs, and indeed all the people near the
mouth of the Columbia.' _Id._, p. 426. 'The Chinooks, Clatsops,
Wahkiacums and Cathlamahs ... resembled each other in person, dress,
language.' _Irving's Astoria_, pp. 85, 336. Chinooks, Clatsops,
Cathlamux, Wakicums, Wacalamus, Cattleputles, Clatscanias, Killimux,
Moltnomas, Chickelis, ... resemble one another in language. _Ross'
Adven._, pp. 87-88. 'The _Chinook_ language is spoken by all the
nations from the mouth of the Columbia to the falls.' _Franchère's
Nar._, p. 262.
[III'-45] 'The language spoken by these people is guttural, very
difficult for a foreigner to learn, and equally hard to pronounce.'
_Ross' Adven._, p. 101. 'Decidedly the most unpronounceable compound
of gutturals ever formed for the communication of human thoughts, or
the expression of human wants.' _Cox's Adven._, vol. ii., p. 133. 'I
would willingly give a specimen of the barbarous language of this
people, were it possible to represent by any combination of our
alphabet the horrible, harsh, spluttering sounds which proceed from
their throats apparently unguided either by the tongue or lip.'
_Kane's Wand._, p. 182. 'It is hard and difficult to pronounce, for
strangers; being full of gutturals, like the Gaelic. The combinations
_thl_, or _tl_, and _lt_, are as frequent in the Chinook as in the
Mexican.' _Franchère's Nar._, p. 262. 'After the soft languages and
rapid enunciation of the islanders, the Chinooks presented a singular
contrast in the slow, deliberate manner in which they seemed to choke
out their words; giving utterance to sounds, some of which could
scarcely be represented by combinations of known letters.'
_Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., p. 23. 'It abounds
with gutturals and "clucking" sounds, almost as difficult to analyse
as to utter.' _Gibbs' Chinook Vocab._, p. 5.
[III'-46] 'The ancient Chenook is such a guttural, difficult tongue,
that many of the young Chenook Indians can not speak it, but have been
taught by their parents the Chehalis language and the Jargon.' _Swan's
N. W. Coast_, p. 306; _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi.,
p. 562. 'The very difficult pronunciation and excessively complicated
form of the Chinook has effectually prevented its acquisition, even by
missionaries and fur traders.' _Gibbs' Chinook Vocab._, p. 5.
[III'-47] _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol., vi., p. 562, et
seq.
[III'-48] _Kane's Wand._, p. 183.
[III'-49] _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 566, et
seq.
[III'-50] 'Yamkallie, Kallapuiah. Oregon Indians of the plains of the
Wallamette, speaking a language related to that of the Cathlascons and
Haeeltzuk.' _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 202. 'Gross die Verwandtschaft
der Kalapuya und des Yamkallie; aber an verschiedenen Wörtern fehlt es
nicht.' _Buschmann_, _Spuren der Aztek. Spr._, p. 628.
[III'-51] 'Höchst merkwürdig sind einzelne unläugbare aztekische und
zweitens einzelne sonorische Wörter, welche ich in diesen Sprachen
aufgefunden habe.' _Buschmann_, _Spuren der Aztek. Spr._, p. 629.
[III'-52] 'This system of jargons began very early, and has,
doubtless, led to many errors. As early as 1633, the Jesuit Father
Paul Le Jeune wrote: "I have remarked, in the study of their language,
that there is a certain jargon between the French and Indians, which
is neither French nor Indian; and yet, when the French use it, they
think they are speaking Indian, and the Indians using it, think they
speak good French."' _Hist. Mag._, vol. v., p. 345.
[III'-53] _Gibbs' Chinook Dic._, p. 6; _San Francisco Evening Bulletin_,
June 15, 1866. 'Chinook is a jargon which was invented by the Hudson's
Bay Company for the purpose of facilitating communication with the
different Indian tribes. These were so numerous, and their languages
so various, that the traders found it impossible to learn them all,
and adopted the device of a judicious mixture of English, French,
Russian, and several Indian tongues, which has a very limited
vocabulary; but which, by the help of signs, is readily understood by
all the natives, and serves as a common language.' _Milton and
Cheadle's N. W. Passage_, p. 344. 'The jargon so much in use all over
the North Pacific Coast, among both whites and Indians, as a verbal
medium of communicating with each other, was originally invented by
the Hudson's Bay Company, in order to facilitate the progress of their
commerce with Indians.' _Stuart's Dictionary of Chinook Jargon_, p.
161. 'Chinook is a jargon, consisting of not more than three or four
hundred words, drawn from the French, English, Spanish, Indian, and
the fancy of the inventor. It was contrived by the Hudson's Bay
Company for the convenience of trade.' _Brunot_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1871, p. 124. Sproat disputes the invention of the jargon, and says:
'Such an achievement as the invention of a language, is beyond the
capabilities of even a chief factor.' _Scenes_, p. 139. 'I think that,
among the Coast Indians in particular, the Indian part of the language
has been in use for years.' _Swan's N. W. Coast_, p. 307. _Hale's
Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 635, et seq.
[III'-54] _Gibbs' Chinook Dic._, pp. vii.-viii. 'All the words thus
brought together and combined in this singularly constructed speech
are about two hundred and fifty in number.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U.
S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 636. 'Words undoubtedly of Japanese origin
are still used in the jargon spoken on the coast called Chinook.'
_Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., p. 217.
[III'-55] _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 636, et
seq.
[III'-56] _Gibbs' Chinook Dic._, p. 44.
CHAPTER IV.
CALIFORNIAN LANGUAGES.
MULTIPLICITY OF TONGUES -- YAKON, KLAMATH, AND PALAIK
COMPARISONS -- PITT RIVER AND WINTOON VOCABULARIES -- WEEYOT,
WISHOSK, WEITSPEK, AND EHNEK COMPARISONS -- LANGUAGES OF
HUMBOLDT BAY -- POTTER VALLEY, RUSSIAN AND EEL RIVER LANGUAGES
-- POMO LANGUAGES -- GALLINOMERO GRAMMAR -- TRANS-PACIFIC
COMPARISONS -- CHOCUYEM LORD'S PRAYER -- LANGUAGES OF THE
SACRAMENTO, SAN JOAQUIN, NAPA AND SONOMA VALLEYS -- THE OLHONE
AND OTHER LANGUAGES OF SAN FRANCISCO BAY -- RUNSIEN AND ESLENE
OF MONTEREY -- SANTA CLARA LORD'S PRAYER -- MUTSUN GRAMMAR --
LANGUAGES OF THE MISSIONS SANTA CRUZ, SAN ANTONIO DE PADUA,
SOLEDAD, AND SAN MIGUEL -- TATCHÉ GRAMMAR -- THE DIALECTS OF
SANTA CRUZ AND OTHER ISLANDS.
Notwithstanding the great diversity of tongues encountered in the
regions of the north, the confusion increases ten-fold on entering
California. Probably nowhere in America is there a greater
multiformity of languages and dialects than here. Until quite
recently, no attempt has been made to bring order out of this
linguistic chaos, owing mainly to a lack of grammars and vocabularies.
Within the last few years this want has, in a measure, been supplied,
and I hope to be able to present some broader classifications than
have hitherto been attempted. Through the researches of Mr Powers, who
has kindly placed his materials at my disposal, and the valuable
information communicated by Judge Roseborough, the dialects of
northern California have been reduced to some sort of system, yet
there remains the fact that, in central and southern California,
hundreds of dialects have been permitted to die out, without leaving
us so much as their name.[IV'-1]
In attempting the classification of Californian tongues, no little
difficulty arises from the ambiguity of tribal names. So far as
appearances go, some peoples have no distinctive name; others are
known by the name of their chief alone, or their ranchería; the
affiliation of chief, ranchería, and tribe being identical or
distinct, as the case may be. Some writers have a common name for all
tribes speaking the same, or dialects of the same, language; others
name a people from each dialect. Last of all, there are nations and
tribes that call themselves by one name, while their neighbors call
them by another, so that the classifier, ethnologic or philologic, is
apt to enumerate one people under two names, while omitting many.[IV'-2]
We have seen in the Columbian languages, as we approach the south,
that they become softer and less guttural; this is yet more observable
among Californians, whose speech, for the most part, is harmonious,
pronounceable, and rich in vowels; and this feature becomes more and
more marked as we proceed from northern to southern California. On
this point, Mr Powers writes: "Not only are the California languages
distinguished for that affluence of vowel sounds, which is more or
less characteristic of all tongues spoken in warm climates; but most
of them are also remarkable for their special striving after harmony.
There are a few languages found in the northern mountains which are
harsh and sesquipedalian, and some on the coast that are guttural
beyond the compass of our American organs of speech; but with these
few exceptions, the numerous languages of the state are beautiful
above all their neighbors for their simplicity, the brevity of their
words, their melody, and their harmonious sequences."[IV'-3]
[Sidenote: RULES OF EUPHONY IN CALIFORNIA.]
Throughout California, much attention is paid to the euphony of words;
and if, in the inevitable manufacturing process, a syllable does not
sound well, or does not exactly harmonize according to the native ear,
it is ruthlessly sacrificed. In many languages these elisions are made
in accordance with fixed rules, while others, again, obey no other
mandate but harmony.
Concerning the languages of northern California, Judge Roseborough
writes: "In an ethnological view, the language of these various tribes
is a subject of great interest. They seem to be governed by the
geographical nature of the country, which has had much influence in
directing the migrations and settlement of the various tribes in this
state, where they have been found by the whites; and there have been
in remote times at least three currents, or lines of migration,
namely--first, one along the coast southward, dispersing more or less
towards the interior as the nature of the country and hostile tribes
permitted. In so broken and rough a country the migrations must have
been slow, and the eddies numerous, leaving many fragments of
aboriginal tribes here and there with language and customs wholly
dissimilar. Second, that along the Willamette Valley, over the passes
of the Calapooya, across the open lands of the Umpqua, southward
through Rogue River Valley into Shasta and Scott valleys. As an
evidence of this trace I may mention that all the tribes on this line,
from the Calapooya mountains southward to the head of Shasta and Scott
valleys, speak the same language, and were confederate in their wars
with the tribes on Pitt River, who seem to have arrested their
progress southward. In this connection I may mention two facts worthy
of remark, namely, first, in this cataclysm of tribes, there have been
some singular displacements; for instance, the similarity of language
and customs of the Cumbatwas and other cognate tribes on Pitt River
denotes a common origin with a small tribe found on Smith River, on
the north-west coast: and secondly, the traditions of the Shastas
settled in Shasta and Scott valleys, the advance of this line of
migrations, show that a former tribe had been found in possession of
those valleys and mountains, and had been driven out. The remains of
their ancient villages, and the arrangements still visible in their
excavations confirm the fact, and also the further fact that the
expelled tribes were the same, or cognate to those which the whites
found in occupation of the Sacramento Valley. For instance, in all of
these ancient villages, there was one house of very large dimensions,
used for feasts, ceremonious dances, etc., just as we found on the
settlement of California, in the valley of Sacramento. The existing
tribes in those mountains have no such domicil and no public houses.
They say, when asked, that the villages were built and inhabited by a
tribe that lived there before they came, and that those ancient
dwellers worshiped the great snowy Mount Shasta, and always built
their villages in places from which they could behold that mountain.
Thirdly, another wave of migration evidently came southward along the
Des Chutes River, upon the great plateau of the lakes, which
conclusion is borne out by a similarity of languages and customs, as
well as by traditions."[IV'-4]
In support of this theory, Judge Roseborough states that the languages
spoken on Smith River, and extending thence forty miles along the
coast, are radically and wholly different from those of the
neighboring tribes. The former are harsh, guttural, irregular, and
apparently monosyllabic, while on the other hand, the neighboring
tribes inhabiting the coast southward to Humboldt Bay, and along the
Klamath as far up as the mouth of the Trinity, speak a language very
regular in its structure; copious in its capacity for expressing ideas
and shades of thought, and not unpleasing to the ear, being free from
harsh and guttural sounds. Of all the languages spoken in this part,
that which prevails along the Klamath River, as far up as Happy Camp,
and along the Salmon to its sources, is by far the most regular and
musical. In fact, for its regular and musical accents it occupies
among the Indian tongues of the continent the same preëminence that
the Spanish does among the Caucasian languages. For instance, their
proper nouns for persons and places are very euphoneous, as,
_euphippa_, _escassasoo_, names of persons, and _tahasoofca_,
_cheenich_, _panumna_, _chimicanee_, _tooyook_, _savorum_, names of
noted localities along the river.
As an example of the copiousness and richness of the coast languages
above Humboldt Bay, Judge Roseborough cites the following, for one,
two, three, four, they say, _kor_, _nihhi_, _naxil_, _chohnah_; so for
to-morrow they say, _kohchamol_; for the day after to-morrow,
_nahamohl_; three days hence, _naxamohl_; four days hence,
_chohnahamol_. Nor do they stop here; _mare_, being five, and
_marunimícha_, fifteen; the fifteenth day from the present is,
_marunimîcháhamohl_.
Mr George Bancroft in his Indianology erroneously asserts that the
sound of our letter _r_ does not occur in any of the aboriginal
languages of America. A similar assertion has been made with regard to
Asiatic tongues, that there is not a people from the peninsula of
Hindostan to Kamchatka who make use of this sound. Although this idea
is now exploded, evidence goes to show the rarity of the use of the
letter _r_ in these regions; yet, Judge Roseborough assures me that in
these northern Californian dialects the sound of this letter is not
only frequent, but is uttered with its most rolling, whirring
emphasis; that such words as _arrarra_, Indian; _carrook_, or
_cahroc_, up; _eurook_, or _euroc_, down; _seearrook_, across and up;
_micarra_, the name of a village; _tahasoofcarrah_, that is to say the
village of upper Tahasoofca, are brought forth with an intensity that
a Frenchman could not exceed.
* * * * *
On both sides of the Oregon and Californian boundary line is spoken
the Klamath language; adjoining it on the north is the Yakon, and on
the south the Shasta and the Palaik. A dialect of the Klamath is also
spoken by the Modocs. Herewith I give a short comparative table, and
although no relationship between them is claimed, yet many of the
words which I have selected are not without a similarity.[IV'-5]
YAKON. KLAMATH. SHASTA. PALAIK.
Man kalt hisuatsos awatikoa yaliu
Woman tkhlaks snawats taritsi omtewitsen
Mouth qai sum au, or aof, ap
Leg sia tsoks halaway, or hatis, atetewa
Water kilo ampo atsa as
Blood pouts poits ime ahati
Earth onitstoh kaela tarak kela
Stone kelih kotai itsa olisti
Wood kukh anko awa hau
Beaver kaatsilawa pum tawai pum
Dog tskekh watsak hapso watsaqa
Bird kokoaia lalak tararakh lauitsa
Salmon tsutais tsialus kitari tsialas
Great haihaiat moönis kempe wawa
[Sidenote: THE WINTOON, EUROC, AND CAHROC.]
Along Pitt River and its tributaries are the Pitt River Indians and
the Wintoons, of which languages short vocabularies are given.
PITT RIVER.
Man t'elyou Hair teee
Woman emmetowchan Eyes ossa
House teoomchee Nose yame
Tree (pine) oswoo Mouth yanena
Water oss Teeth etesä
Stone alliste Legs säyä
Sun tsool Fire mallis
Moon tchool Big walswa
Crow owwicha Little chowkootcha
Dog chahoom Dead deoome
Deer doshshe Mountain akoo
Bear loehta Fish oll[IV'-6]
WINTOON.
Yes ummina Warm pela
Woman darcus Eyes toomb
House boss Nose sono
I, or me net Mouth all
Water mem Teeth see
Rain luhay Talk teene
Sun sash To kill kloma
Moon chamitta Large bohama
Night kenavina, or peno To fight cluckapooda
Dog suco Dead menil
Deer nope North wy
Bear chilch, or weemer South nora[IV'-7]
On the lower Klamath, the Euroc language prevails. As compared with
the dialects of southern California, it is guttural; there being
apparently in some of its words, or rather grunts, a total absence of
vowels--_mrprh_, nose; _chlh_, earth; _ynx_, child. Among other
sounds peculiar to it, there is that of the _ll_, so frequent in the
Welsh language. Mr Powers says that, "in conversation they terminate
many words with an aspiration which is imperfectly indicated by the
letter _h_, a sort of catching of the sound, immediately followed by
the letting out of the residue of breath, with a quick little grunt.
This makes their speech harsh and halting; the voice often comes to a
dead stop in the middle of a sentence." He further adds that "the
language seems to have had a monosyllabic origin, and, in fact, they
pronounce many dissyllables as if they were two monosyllables."
Along the upper Klamath, the Cahroc language is spoken, which is
entirely distinct from that of the Eurocs. It is sonorous, and its
intonation has even been compared with that of the Spanish, being not
at all guttural like the Euroc. The _r_, when it occurs in such words
as _chareya_, and _cahroc_, is strangely rolled. The language is
copious; the people speaking it having a name for everything, and on
seeing any article new to them, if a proper designation is not
immediately at hand, they forthwith proceed to manufacture one.
Another guttural language is the Pataway, spoken on Trinity River. Its
pronunciation is like the Euroc, and it has the same curious, abrupt
stopping of the voice at the end of syllables terminating with a
vowel, as Mr Powers describes it. Related to it is the Veeard of lower
Humboldt Bay. The numerals in the latter language are: _koh-tseh_,
one; _dee-teh_, two; _dee-keh_, three; _deeh-oh_, four; _weh-sah_,
five; _chilókeh_, six; _awtloh_, seven; _owit_, eight; _serókeh_,
nine; _lokél_ ten.[IV'-8]
The language known as the Weitspek, spoken at the junction of the
Trinity and Klamath rivers, is probably the same which Mr Powers has
named the Pataway. It is also said to have the frequently occurring
rolling _r_. The _f_, as in the Oregon languages, is wanting. Dialects
of the Weitspek are the Weeyot and Wishosk, on Eel and Mad rivers.
This language is understood from the coast range down to the coast
between Cape Mendocino and Mad River.[IV'-9] The Ehnek, or Pehtsik,
language is spoken on Salmon River; thence in the region of the
Klamath, are the Watsahewah, Howteteoh, and Nabiltse languages.[IV'-10]
COMPARISONS.
WEEYOT. WISHOSK. WEITSPEK. EHNEK.
Man ko éh ko-éh pagehk ah wunsh
Arrow sáhpe tsahpé nah qut kha-wish
Water merah tche mer ah ché pa ha iss shah
Earth let kuk let kuk chahk steep
Dog wyets wy'ts chishé chish ee
Fire mass mess mets ah
Sun taum tahm wá noush leh kosh rah
One koh tse kohtsa spinekoh issah
Two er ee ta ritta nun ehr ach bok
Three er ee ka rihk nak sa kui rahk
Four re aw wa ri yah toh hun ne peehs
Five wessa wéhsah mahr o tum ti rah o
The Chillulah, Wheelcutta, and Kailta were spoken on Redwood Creek,
but before the extinction of these people, their languages were merged
into that of the Hoopahs by whom they were subjugated. The language of
the Chimalquays of New River has also been absorbed by the Hoopah. Of
the Chimalquays Powers hyperbolically remarks "their language was like
the mountain city of California, beautiful in its simplicity, but
frail."[IV'-11]
[Sidenote: THE POMO FAMILY AND ITS DIALECTS.]
At Humboldt Bay a language called Patawat is mentioned, and in Round
Valley the Yuka. The numerals in the latter tongue are--_pongwe_, one;
_opeh_, two; _malmeh_, three; and _omehet_, four. In Potter Valley is
the Tahtoo language which Mr Powers thinks may belong to the Pomo or
the Yuka.[IV'-12] In the Eel River and Russian River valleys as far as
the mouth of Russian River and in Potter Valley, the different tribes
known by the names of Ukiahs or Yokias, Sanèls, Gallinomeros,
Masallamagoons, Gualalas, and Matoles, speak various dialects of the
Pomo language, which obtains in Potter Valley and the dialects of
which become more and more estranged according to the distance from
the aboriginal centre. The Pomo men are good linguists; they readily
acquire all the different dialects of their language, which in places
differ to such an extent, that unless they are previously learned they
cannot be understood. Pomo women are not allowed to learn any dialect
but their own.
The following comparative table of numerals will illustrate the
relationship of these tribes, among which I include the Kulanapo
spoken near Clear Lake, and of which Mr Gibbs has also noticed an
affinity to the Russian River and Eel River languages; also, the
language spoken by the natives of the Yonios Ranchería in Marin
County.[IV'-13]
POMO. UKIAH. SANÉL. GALINO- KULANAPO. YUNIO.
MERO.
One cha taro tate cha k'hah lih kalli
Two co can co aco kots hotz
Three sibbo sibbo sibboo mesibbo homeka humka
Four tack duhan ducho meta dol caddol
Five shal native mato tooshuh leh ma lema
Six padeh tsadeh tsadeh lancha tsa di sav
Seven copah hoyneit cóëmar latco ku la hots kolaus
Eight cowal cogodol cogodol cométa ko ka dohl kadol
Nine shalshal némgoshum númoshum chaco hah da rol shum gin
Ten sala némpotec návacotec chasúto hah da rul tek hidelema
[Sidenote: GALLINOMERO GRAMMAR.]
On the Gallinomero dialect I make a few grammatical remarks. In
conversation the Gallinomeros are rather slovenly and make use of
frequent contractions and abbreviations like the English can't and
shan't, which makes it difficult for a stranger to understand them.
Another difficulty for the student is the convertibility of a number
of letters, such as _t_ into _ch_, _sh_ into _ch_, _i_ into _ah_, etc.
Nouns have neither number, case, nor gender; the first being only
occasionally indicated by a separate word--_cha ataboónya_, one man;
_aco ataboónja_, two men. The genitive is formed by placing the words
in juxtaposition--_atópte meätega_, the chief's brother; the governed
word being always prepositive. None of the remaining cases are
distinguished; for example--_chadúna bidácha_, I see the river;
_bidácha hoalye_, I go to the river, or, into the river; _bidácha
huodúna_, I come out of the river; _didácha toholeéna_, I go away from
the river; the accusative may be recognized as being placed
immediately after the verb, but there are many exceptions to this
rule. Sometimes the accusative is also marked by the ending _ga_ or
_gen_--_chechoanoótugen_, I strike the boy; but this is seldom used.
Verbs are always regular. There are present, imperfect, and future
tenses, and three forms of the imperative, all distinctly marked by
tense endings.
PRESENT INDICATIVE. IMPERFECT. FIRST FUTURE.
Do, tseena tseeteéna tseecúwa
Go, hoalye hoaleteéna hoalecúwa
Break, matsána matsanteéna matsancúwa
Kill, matemána matemanteéna matemancúwa
See, chadúna chaduteéna chaducúwa
Fight, mehailme mehailmooteéna mehailmoocúwa
In some instances these endings are changed for the sake of euphony,
certain letters being elided. The endings may really be called
auxiliary verbs, attached to the principal verb. Thus the imperfect
reads, literally, 'would be I go do,' the ending _teena_, being
nothing but the word _tseena_, with the _s_ omitted. In like manner
the future is formed, as in _tudáwa_, to want, which is changed into
_cúwa_.
There is nothing to denote number in the verb, as can be seen in the
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE.
I am, ahwa | We are, áyawa
Thou art, ámawa | You are, ámawa
He is, hámowa | They are, hámowa
Of the imperative, the following may serve as an example: _hoáleluh_,
let me go; _hoalin_, go thou; _hoálegun_, let him go. The verb
_chadúna_, to see, may signify either I see, or seeing, or to see, or
it may be construed as a substantive--sight; or as an adjective in
agglutination, as _chadunatoboónya_, a watchful man. _Chanhódin_ is an
auxiliary verb and is always prepositive. The pronouns are, _ah_,
_ahto_, or _ahmet_, I; _ama_, thou; and _wemo_, _waymo_, _hamo_, or
_ámata_, he. The first person of the pronoun is always omitted, except
with the verb to be, and the second and third persons frequently.
Pronominal adjectives are quite irregular, as _owkey_, from _ah_;
_maykey_, from _ama_; _wébakey_, from _wemo_; and they are also used
irregularly with nouns. Thus in _medde_, father; _ahmen_, or
_owkáhmen_, or _áhmedde_, being equivalent to I father, my father.
Here, also, euphony steps in and makes words sometimes wholly
unrecognizable, as _ahtótána_, equivalent to _méhand_, and still more
different, as _mamówky_, this is for me. Your father is _máykemay_;
his father, _wébamen_. Thus it will be seen that _medde_ is changed,
or abbreviated, into _men_, and _may_. Sometimes the personal pronoun
is agglutinated to the verb, and sometimes it is not;--_chechoánomdo_
(_chechoána meto_), I strike you; _meto tudáwa_, I love you. As in
many other Pacific States languages, we have here a reverential
syllable, which in this language is always prefixed, whereas in
others, for instance the Aztec, it is an affix. Speaking of persons
related, or of things belonging, to the chief, the reverential _me_ or
_jin_, is always prefixed;--_owkeybaì_, my wife; _maykeybaì_, your
wife; _atópte meëtchen_, the chief's wife; _shinna_, head; _metoshin_,
your head; _webashin_, his head; _atópte jinshinna_, the chief's head.
All adjectives are really substantives, and are used for both
purposes. Thus, _ootu_, boy, also signifies little, or young.
Adjectives are generally placed after nouns--_majey codey_, good day;
but there are also many exceptions to this rule. Comparatives are
expressed by the particle _pala_, more;--_paleyabáta waymo ahmet_, he
is greater than I, _pala_ becoming _paléya_, in composition. This is
only used by the more intelligent class. A Gallinomero of the lower
order would say, _bata waymo ahmet_, great he I. The principal
characteristics of the language are euphony and brevity, to which all
things else are subservient, but nevertheless, as I have shown
already, agglutination is carried to the farthest extent.[IV'-14]
As will be seen by the following comparative table, the Pomo language,
or rather one of its dialects, the Kulanapo, shows some affinity to
the Malay family of languages. Of one hundred and seventy words which
I have compared, I find fifteen per cent. showing Malay similarities,
and more could perhaps have been found if the several vocabularies had
been made upon some one system. As it is, I have been obliged to use a
Malay, a Tonga, and other Polynesian vocabularies, taken by different
persons, at different times. Without attempting to establish any
relationship between the Polynesians and Californians, I present these
similarities merely as a fact; these analogies I find existing nowhere
else in California, and between them and no other Trans-Pacific
peoples.[IV'-15]
[Sidenote: TRANS-PACIFIC COMPARISONS.]
DIALECT OF THE
KULANAPO. MALAY. MALAY.
Woman dah do Kayan
Mother nihk indi, ini Sakarran
Husband dah'k laki, lake Malay
Wife bai le bini Malay
Head kai yah kapala Malay
Hair moo sooh fooloo Tonga
Neck mi yah gia Tonga
Foot kah mah kaki Malay
House kah (calli, Aztec) falle Tonga
Sun lah láa Tonga
Fire poh (Copeh) apoé Millanow
Water k'hah vy, cawna Tonga
Mountain dah no darud Suntah
Black keela keelick kele Polynesian
Bed keh dah reh duk dadara Malay
Green doh tor ota Polynesian
Dead mu dal mati Malay
I hah au Polynesian
One k'hah lih tasi Polynesian
" tchah (Yukai) satu Malay
Four dol tau Polynesian
Five leh ma lima Malay
Eat ku hu kai Polynesian
Drink mih mea inoo Tonga
To see el lih (Chocuyem) ilaw Tonga
To go le loom aloo Tonga
Bow pah chee pana Malay
Tongue lehn teep (Chocuyem) lida Malay
Leg co yok (Chocuyem) ku jak Suntah
The similarities existing between the Japanese and Chinese, and the
Californian languages, appearing from a careful comparison of the same
one hundred and seventy words, are insufficient to establish any
relationship; the few resemblances may be regarded as purely
accidental. Of these words I insert the following, which are all
between which I have been able to discover any likeness:
Husband Japanese muko Costaños makho
Teeth Chinese chi Copeh see ih
Knife Japanese deba Costaños tepah
Fire Chinese ho Choweshak ho
Water Japanese sui Costaños see ee
Dog Japanese chin Weitepek and chishe
Ehnek
Deer Japanese sh'ka Copeh siáh
The Choweshak and Batemdakaiee are mentioned as being spoken at the
head of Eel River, and the Chocuyem in Marin County, near the Mission
of San Rafael. On Russian River, there yet remain to be mentioned the
Olamentke, and the Chwachamaju. All these may be properly classed as
dialects nearly related to the Pomo family, and some of them may even
be the same dialects under different names.[IV'-16]
Of the Chocuyem I give the following Lord's Prayer:
Api maco su lilecoe, ma nénas mi aués omai mácono mi taucuchs
oyópa mi tauco chaquenit opú neyatto chaquenit opu liletto. Tu
maco muye genum ji naya macono sucuji sulia mácono masócte,
chague mat opu ma suli mayaco. Macoi yangia ume omutto, ulémi
mácono omu incapo. Nette esa Jesus.[IV'-17]
In Round Valley, northern California, there is the before-mentioned
Yuka language, which is connected with the Wapo, or Ashochemie, spoken
near Calistoga, and in the mountains leading thence to the
Geysers.[IV'-18]
On Yuba and Feather rivers are the Meidoos and Neeshenams of whose
language Powers says that "the Meidoo shades away so gradually into
the Neeshenam that it is extremely difficult to draw a line anywhere.
But it must be drawn somewhere, because a vocabulary taken down on
Feather River will lose three fourths of its words before it reaches
the Cosumnes. Even a vocabulary taken on Bear River will lose half or
more of its words in going to the Cosumnes, which denotes, as is the
fact, that the Neeshenam language varies greatly within itself.
Indeed, it is probably less homogeneous and more thronged with
dialects than any other tongue in California. Let an Indian go even
from Georgetown to American Flat, or from Bear River to Auburn, and,
with the exception of the numerals he will not at first understand
above one word in four, or five, or six. But, with this small stock in
common, and the same laws of grammar to guide them, they pick up each
others dialects with amazing rapidity. It is these wide variations
which have caused some pioneers to believe that there is one tongue
spoken on the plains around Sacramento, and another in the mountains;
whereas they are as nearly identical as the mountain dialects are. So
long as the numerals remain the same, I count it one language; and so
long as this is the case, the Indians generally learn each others
dialects; but when the numerals change utterly, they often find it
easier to speak the English together than to acquire another tongue.
As to the southern boundary of the Neeshenam there is no doubt, for at
the Cosumnes the language changes abruptly and totally."
[Sidenote: LANGUAGES OF THE SACRAMENTO VALLEY.]
Along the banks of the Sacramento, two distinct linguistic systems are
said to prevail. But to what extent all the languages mentioned in
that vicinity are related, or can be classified, it is difficult to
say; for not only is there great confusion in names, but what is more
essential, vocabularies of most of them are wanting. On the eastern
bank of the Sacramento and extending along Feather River, the
Cosumnes, and other tributaries of the Sacramento, the following
languages are mentioned: Ochecamne, Serouskumne, Chupumne, Omochumne,
Siecumne, Walagumne, Cosumne, Sololumne, Turealumne, Saywamine,
Newichumne, Matchemne, Sagayayumne, Muthelemne, Sopotatumne, and
Talatiu. In all these dialects the word for water is _kik_, but in the
dialects spoken on the west bank it is _mómi_. On the western bank are
mentioned the dialects of the Pujuni, Puzlumne, Secumne, Tsamak,
Yasumne, Nemshaw, Kisky, Yalesumne, Huk, and others.[IV'-19] Undoubtedly
all these Sacramento Valley dialects are more or less related, but of
them we have no positive knowledge except that the Secumne and Tsamak
are closely related, while the Puzlumne and Talatiu also show many
words in common, but cannot be said to affiliate.[IV'-20] In the
mountains south of the Yuba, and also on some parts of the Sacramento
the Cushna language obtains. On the latter river Wilkes mentions the
Kinkla, of which he says that in comparison with the language of the
northern nations it may be called soft, "as much so as that of the
Polynesians." Repetitions of syllables appear to be frequent as
_wai-wai_, and _hau-hau-hau_.[IV'-21] In Napa Valley six dialects were
spoken, the Myacoma, Calayomane, Caymus, Napa, Uluka, and Suscol.[IV'-22]
In Solano County the Guiluco language was spoken, of which the
following Lord's Prayer may serve as a specimen:
Allá igamé mutryocusé mi zahuá om mi yahuatail cha usqui etra
shou mur tzecali ziam pac onjinta mul zhaiíge nasoyate chelegua
mul znatzoitze tzecali zicmatan zchiitiilaa chalehua mesqui
pihuatzite yteima omahuá. Emqui Jesus.[IV'-23]
Near the straits of Karquines, and also in the San Joaquin and Tulare
valleys, the Tulare tongue prevailed. In this language, if we may
believe M. Duflot de Mofras, the letters _b_, _d_, _f_, _g_, and _r_
do not exist, the _r_ being changed into _l_, as _maria_, _malia_.
Many guttural sounds like _kh_, _tsh_, _lm_, _tp_, _tsp_, _th_, etc.,
are found, yet softer than the gutturals of the north. Notwithstanding
the above statement M. de Mofras gives as a specimen of the Tulare
language the following Lord's Prayer, in which the _r_ frequently
occurs:
Appa macquen erinigmo tasunimac emracat, jinnin eccey macquen
iunisínmac macquen quitti éné soteyma erinigmo: sumimac macquen
hamjamú jinnan guara ayei: sunun macquen quit ti enesunumac
ayacma: aquectsem unisimtac nininti equetmini: juriná macquen
equetmini em men.
[Sidenote: SPECIMENS OF SOUTHERN LANGUAGES.]
Of the languages spoken at the mission of Santa Inez the following
Lord's Prayer is given by M. de Mofras; and this is very likely in the
true Tulare language in place of the one above.
Dios caquicoco upalequen alapa, quiaenicho opte: paquininigug
quique eccuet upalacs huatahuc itimisshup caneche alapa.
Ulamuhu ilahulalisahue. Picsiyug equepe ginsucutaniyug
uquiyagmagin, canechequique quisagin sucutanagun utiyagmayiyug
peux hoyug quie utic lex ulechop santequiyug ilautechop. Amen
Jesus.[IV'-24]
The Tulare language is probably the same which was known under the
name of Kahweyah in central California and may have some connection
with the Cahuillo in the southern part of the state.[IV'-25]
Languages in the interior, of which but little more than the name and
the region where they were spoken is known, are, on the Tuolumne River
the Hawhaw and another which has no particular name; on the Merced
River the Coconoon with a dialect extending to King River and to
Tulare Lake.[IV'-26] Mr Powers makes of the tribes inhabiting Kern and
Tulare valleys the Yocut nation, _yocut_ signifying an aggregation of
people, while _myee_, or _nono_, means man. "It is a singular fact,"
observes this writer, "that in several of the northern languages
_kiya_ denotes dog, while in the Yocut, _kiya_ is coyote."
From Mr Powers I have also the following vocabularies, which have
never before been published.
CAHROC. MEIDOO. PALEGAWONÀP.
Man awans midoo anghanil
Woman asicitáwa catee coyeem
Sun coosooda pocum tahl
Earth soosaney caweh serwahl
Dog cheshee seyu poongool
Water ahs momeh pahl
Stone ass ohm tuhnt
Fire alih sum quoat
Head huchwa onum koönte
Mouth apman cumbo tawkunte
Hand teeik ma mah
Big nuckishnuck haylin
Little neenums wedaka
To eat ohámt pin
To give tanneëh meëy
To work ickeeàht tawale
MEEWOC. YOCUT. NEESHENAM.
Man Meewa nono neeshenam or maidee
Woman Osuh mokella cülleh
Sun Watoo ope ophy
Earth Toleh hoocheh cow
Dog Chookoo chehca sooh
Water Kikuh ilic moh
Stone Sawa sileh oam
Fire Wookeh osit sah
Head Hanna oochuh tsoll
Mouth Awoh samah sim
Hand Tissuh poonose mah
Big Oyaneh koteh nem
Little Toonchickche colich hunum
To eat Sowuh hateh pap
To give wahneh meh
To work tawhaleh towhàn
Information regarding the languages spoken where the city of San
Francisco now stands, and throughout the adjacent country, is meagre,
and of a very indefinite character. On the shores of San Francisco
Bay, there are the languages spoken by the Matalans, Salses, and
Quirotes, which are dialects of one mother language.[IV'-27] This
language has by some been called the Olhone, and although other
dialects are mentioned as belonging to it, it is generally stated that
but one general language was spoken by all of them.[IV'-28] Southward,
near Monterey, there are more positive data. Here we find as the
principal languages, the two spoken by the Runsiens and Eslenes;
besides which, the Ismuracan and Aspianaque are mentioned.[IV'-29]
[Sidenote: DIALECTS OF THE RUNSIEN AND ESLENE.]
But although they are called distinct languages, Taylor affirms that
the Eslenes, Sakhones, Chalones, Katlendarukas, Poytoquis, Mutsunes,
Thamiens, and many others, spoke different dialects of the Runsien
language, and that over a stretch of country one hundred and seventy
miles in length, the natives were all able to converse with greater or
less facility with each other, and that although "their dialects were
infinitesimal and puzzling, their vocal communications were
intelligible enough when brought together at the different missions."
La Pérouse's Achastliens and Ecclemachs are probably nothing more than
other names for some of the above-mentioned dialects.[IV'-30]
Not only do all these before-mentioned languages show a relationship
one with another, but there are faint resemblances detected between
them and the Olhone language of San Francisco Bay. Furthermore, between
the latter and the language spoken at La Soledad Mission, as well as
that of the Olamentkes of Russian River, which I have already classed
with the Pomo family, there are faint traces of relationship.[IV'-31]
MUTSUN. LA SOLEDAD. RUNSIEN. ACHASTLIEN.
One hemethscha himítsa enjalá moukala
Two usthrgin utshe ultis outis
Three capjan hapkha kappei capes
Four uthrit utjit ultizim outiti
Five parnes paruash hali izú is
Father appá nikápa appan
Mother anan nikána aán
Daughter ca niká kaana
Nose us us
Ears ocho otsho
Mouth jai hai
A further confirmation of this relationship is found in the statement
of the first missionary Fathers, who traveled overland from Monterey
to San Francisco, and who, although at that time totally unacquainted
with these languages, recognized resemblances in certain words.[IV'-32]
The dialect spoken at the Mission of Santa Clara has been preserved to
us only in the shape of the Lord's Prayer which follows:
Appa macréne mé saura saraahtiga elecpuhmen imragat, sacan
macréne mensaraah assueiy nouman ourun macari pireca numa ban
saraathtiga poluma macréne souhaii naltis anat macréne neéna,
ia annanit macréne nieena, ia annanit macréne macrec équetr
maccari noumabaú mare annan, nou maroté, jassemper macréne in
eckoué tamouniri innam tattahné icatrarca oniet macréne equets
naccaritkoun oun och á Jésus.[IV'-33]
[Sidenote: MUTSUN GRAMMAR.]
Of the Mutsun dialect I give the following grammatical notes. Words of
this language do not contain the letters _b_, _d_, _k_, _f_, _v_, _x_,
and the rolling _r_.
DECLENSION OF THE WORD APPA, FATHER.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Nom. appa appagma
Gen. appa appagma
Dat. appahuas appagmahuas
Acc. appase apagamase
Voc. appa appagma
Abl. appatsu {or appatca appagmatsu {or appamatca
{or appame {or appagmane
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB ARÁ, TO GIVE.
PRESENT INDICATIVE.
I give, can ará | We give, macse ará
Thou givest, men ará | You give, macam ará
He gives, nunissia ará | They give, nupcan ará
PAST.
I gave (a very short time ago), can itzs arán
I gave (a long while ago), can cus arás
I gave (very long ago), can hocs ará
I gave (from time immemorial), can munna arás
I gave (without mentioning time), can arán
I gave (who knows when), can arás
I gave (sometime ago), can araicun
I gave (already), can aragte
FUTURE.
I shall give (soon), can et (or iete) ará
I shall give (after many days), can iti ará
I shall give (after many years), can múnna ará
I shall have given (perhaps), can piñ arán
IMPERATIVE.
Give me, arat, or aratit
Give thyself, araia
Give him, arai, or arati
Give them, arais
SUBJUNCTIVE.
That I give, cat ará
If I gave, imatcum can ará, or cochop tucne can ará
The language abounds in adverbs, of which I give the following.
This day neppe tengis To-morrow aruta
Now naha Since yete
Immediately iñaha Always imi
Never ecue et Before aru
Never more ecue imi Much tolon
Good miste, utin Very much tompe
Bad equitseste Little cutis
Gently chequen Very little cuti
Certainly amane Yes gehe
No ecue Truly asaha, eres
To-day naha Look giré
Adjectives are declined the same as substantives when they are
declined alone; but they differ in their declension from substantives
when they are declined in connection with them, because then they do
not change their terminations, but remain the same in all the cases.
The rules of syntax are intricate and very difficult.
Father Comelias speaks of a language at the Mission of Santa Cruz,
with numerous dialects, in fact so many, that the language changed
nearly every two leagues, and being at times so divergent, that it was
with difficulty neighboring people could understand one another.[IV'-34]
In the vicinity of the Mission San Antonio de Padua, there is a
language which has been variously named, Tatché, Telamé, and Sextapay.
It appears to be a distinct language, and Taylor affirms that the
people speaking it could not understand those of La Soledad Mission,
thirty miles north.[IV'-35] In this language the letters _b_, _d_, _r_,
do not appear; _na_ expresses the article the, and also this. There
are many different ways of expressing the plural of nouns. Some add
the syllable _il_, _el_, _l_, or _li_, others insert _ti_, or _t_,
while others again add _leg_, _aten_, _ten_, or _teno_, as may be seen
in the following examples.[IV'-36]
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Counsellor tayito tayilito
Flame me^ache^alíya me^ache^aliliya
Work tácâto taquele^ato
My enemy zitcho^fn zitcho^fne^al
Brother citol citolanél
Grass ca*tz ca*tza^onél
Man tama tamaten
Mouse e^azzqui*lmog e^azzqui*lmoco*ten
Oven aloconíya alocotiníya
Prison que^aluezúgne que^aluezúgtine
Fat cu*pinit cupinitleg
Woman lixii litzzin
Bone ejacô ejaclíto
[Sidenote: TATCHE GRAMMAR.]
Cases do not appear to exist, the relations of the nouns being expressed
by particles. Adjectives do not vary to show gender or degree. Personal
pronouns are usually copulative and included in the verb, whether
subjective or objective. Of the use of the possessive pronoun the
following examples will give the clearest idea: Brother, _citolo_; my
brother, _cítol_; thy brother, _e^atsmitol_; brothers, _citolanélo_;
my brothers, _citolanél_; thy brothers, _e^atsmitolanel_; mother,
_epjo_; thy mother, _petsmipeg_; house, _ch^viconou_; my house,
_ch^vícono^v_; thy house, _zimch^vicono_; blood, _akata_; my
blood, _ekata_; thy blood, _cimekata_; father, _ecco_; my father,
_tili_; thy father, _cimic_; our father, _tatilli_; work, _tácâto_; my
work, _tácât_; thy work, _cimtácât_; our work, _zatúcât_; your work,
_zugtácât_; mine, _zeé_; thine, _e^atsme^amée_; this, _na_; that,
_pe^a_.
Verbs have also a plural form. _Ca*lom_, to teach; _ca*^ólilom_,
to teach much, or, to teach many.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
To desire quia^olep quia^olilep
To drink cácheme cáchetem
To run quenole quenoltec
To say maláco maloltaco
To walk qui*tipa^v qui*lipa{_v}
VERB AND PRONOUN.
I teach, 'eca^o*lom | Give me, me^aya^oc
He teaches me, quepa^oalác | Give us, maítiltac
Speak thou to me, pssia^oc | He gives us, pe^aya^oc
Speak you to me, pssitác | He gives us, paitiltac
To give, peyaco, pe^aíco
I love thee, 'epe^apa^omaqueca
Thou lovest thyself, mimo e^atame^apa^omapque*co
The following are prepositions: by, _zo_; in _ne^ape^a_; to _zui_,
_zuiyo_, _zo_; from, _ze^ape^a_; on, _zui_; within,
_zine^apa^v_. A few examples of adverbs are--here, _zopa{_v}_;
there, _ne^apé_; to-day, _taha_; to-morrow, _tixjáy_; yesterday,
_notcieyo_.
LORD'S PRAYER.
Za tili, mo quixco ne^ape^a limaatnil. An zucueteyem
Our father, thou art in heaven. Hallowed
na etsmatz: antsiejtsitia na ejtmilina. An citaha
the thy name: come the thy kingdom. Be done
natsmalog zui lac* quicha ne^ap^ae lima. Ma^itiltac taha
thy will on earth as in heaven. Give us to-day
zizalamaget zizucanatel ziczia. Za manimtiltac na
our food our daily. Forgive us the
zanayl, quicha na kac apaninitílico na zananaol. Zi
Debts, as the we forgive them the our debt.
quetza commanatatelnec za alimeta zo na ziuxnia.
Let not us fall into the temptation.
Za no quissili jom zig zumtaylitee. Amen.[IV'-37]
Us from evil defend.
[Sidenote: SAN MIGUEL AND SANTA CRUZ VOCABULARY.]
Another distinct language is found at and near the Mission of San
Miguel, but of it nothing but a short vocabulary taken by Mr Hale is
known. The language spoken at San Gabriel and at San Fernando Rey,
called Kizh, and the Netela used at San Juan Capistrano, I shall not
describe here, but include them with the Shoshone family, to which
they are related. The Chemehuevi and Cahuillo I also place among the
Shoshone dialects, while the Diegeño and Comeya will be included in
the Yuma family. It therefore only remains for me to speak of the
languages of the islands near the coast of California. Of these, the
principal, or mother language, was spoken on the island of Santa Cruz.
The different tribes inhabiting the various islands all spoke dialects
of one language, which was somewhat guttural. I insert a short
vocabulary of the Santa Cruz Island language with that of the Mission
of San Miguel.
SAN MIGUEL. SANTA CRUZ ISLAND.
Man loaí, or loguai alamuün
Woman tlené hemutch
Father tata ceske
Mother apai osloe
Head tobuko pispulaoah
Hair teasakho toffooll
Ears tentkhito pasthoo
Eyes trugento tisplesoose
Mouth treliko pasaotch
One tohi ismala
Two kogsu ischum
Three tlobahi maseghe
Four kesa scumoo
Five oldrato sietisma
Six paiate sietischum
Seven tepa sietmasshugh
Eight sratel malawah
Nine teditrup spah
Ten trupa kascum[IV'-38]
FOOTNOTES:
[IV'-1] _Roseborough's Letter to the Author_, MS.; _The Shastas and
their Neighbors_, MS. 'The diversity of language is so great in
California, that at almost every 15 or 20 leagues, you find a distinct
dialect.' _Boscana_, in _Robinson's Life in Cal._, p. 240. 'Il n'est
peut-être aucun pays où les différens idiomes soient aussi multipliés
que dans la Californie septentrionale.' _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom.
ii., p. 323. 'One might spend years with diligence in acquiring an
Indian tongue, then journey a three-hours' space, and find himself
adrift again, so multitudinous are the languages and dialects of
California.' _Powers' North. Cal. Ind._, in _Overland Monthly_, vol.
viii., p. 328. 'The diversity is such as to preclude almost entirely
all verbal communication.' _Hutchings' Cal. Mag._, vol. iii., p. 159.
'Languages vary from tribe to tribe.' _Pickering's Races_, in _U. S.
Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., p. 106. 'In California, there appears to be spoken
two or more distinct languages.' _McCulloh's Researches in Amer._, p.
37; _Kotzebue's Voyage_, vol. iii., p. 48; _Id._, _New Voy._, vol.
ii., p. 98; _Taylor_, in _Bancroft's Handbook Almanac_, 1864, p. 29.
[IV'-2] See vol. i., p. 325; _Roseborough's Letter to the Author_, MS.;
_The Shastas and their Neighbors_, MS.; _Hutchings' Cal. Mag._, vol.
iii., p. 159
[IV'-3] _Powers' Pomo_, MS.
[IV'-4] _Roseborough's Letter to the Author_, MS.
[IV'-5] 'The Lutuami, Shasti and Palaik are thrown by Gallatin into
three separate classes. They are without doubt mutually
unintelligible. Nevertheless they cannot be very widely separated.'
_Latham's Comp. Phil._, vol. viii., p. 407. The T-ka, Id-do-a,
Ho-te-day, We-o-how, or Shasta Indians, speak the same language.
_Steele_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1864, p. 120. The Modocs speak the
same language as the Klamaths. _Palmer_, in _Id._, 1854, p. 262;
_Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 218; _Berghaus_,
_Geographisches Jahrbuch_, tom. iii., p. 48; _Taylor_, in _Cal.
Farmer_, June 8, 1860. 'A branch of the latter (Shoshone) is the tribe
of Tlamath Indians.' _Ruxton's Adven. Mex._, p. 244.
[IV'-6] _The Shastas and their Neighbors_, MS.
[IV'-7] _Jackson's Vocab. of the Wintoon Language_, MS.; _Powers'
Vocabularies_, MS.
[IV'-8] _Powers' Pomo_, MS.
[IV'-9] _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 422. 'The
junction of the rivers Klamath, or Trinity, gives us the locality of
the Weitspek. Its dialects, the Weyot and Wishosk, extend far into
Humboldt county, where they are probably the prevailing form of
speech, being used on the Mad River, and the parts about Cape
Mendocino. From the Weitspek they differ much more than they do from
each other.' _Latham's Comp. Phil._, vol. viii., p. 40. 'Weeyot und
Wish-osk, unter einander verwandt.' _Buschmann_, _Spuren der Aztek.
Spr._, p. 575.
[IV'-10] _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., pp. 422-3.
[IV'-11] _Powers' Pomo_, MS.
[IV'-12] _Roseborouqh's Letter to the Author_, MS.; _Powers' Pomo_, MS.
[IV'-13] _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., pp. 421-2;
_Powers' Pomo_, MS.; _Taylor_, in _Cal. Farmer_, March 30, 1860.
[IV'-14] _Powers' Notes on Cal. Languages_, MS.
[IV'-15] _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 428, et seq.;
_Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 342, et seq;
_Keppel's Exped._, vol. i., appendix, p. 14, et Seq.; _Martin's Tonga
Isl._, vol. ii.
[IV'-16] 'Die Indianer in Bodega verstehen nur mit Mühe die Sprache
derjenigen welche in den Ebenen am Slawänka-Flusse leben; die Sprache
der nördlich von Ross lebenden Stämme ist ihnen völlig unverständlich.'
_Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethno._, p. 75. 'Die Bodegischen Indianer verstehen
die nördlichen nicht, sowohl die Sprache als die Art der Aussprache
ist verschieden. Die Entferten und die Steppen-Indianer sprechen eine
Menge Dialecte oder Sprachen, deren Eigenthümlichkeit und Verwandtschaft
noch nicht bekannt sind.' _Kostromitonow_, in _Id._, p. 80; _Gibbs_,
in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 421. 'Kulanapo und Yukai,
verwandt: d. h. in dem beschränkten Grade, dass viele Wörter zwischen
ihnen übereinstimmen, viele andere, z. B. ein guter Theil der
Zahlwörter, verschieden sind.... Choweshak und Batemdakaiee sehr genau
und im vollkommnen Maasse unter einander und wiederum beide ganz genau
mit Yukai, und auch Kulanapo verwandt.... Wichtig ist es aber zu
sagen, dass die Sprache Tchokoyem mit dem Olamentke der Bodega Bai und
mit der Mission S. Raphael nahe gleich ist.' _Buschmann_, _Spuren der
Aztek. Spr._, p. 575. 'The Kanimares speak a different dialect from
the Tamalos. The Sonoma Indians also speak different from Tamalos. The
Sonomos speak a similar dialect as the Suisuns. The San Rafael Indians
speak the same as the Tamalos.' _Taylor_, in _Cal. Farmer_, March
30th, 1860.
[IV'-17] _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 391.
[IV'-18] _Powers' Pomo_, MS.
[IV'-19] _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., pp. 222, 630;
_Wilkes' Nar._, in _Id._, vol. v., p. 201.
[IV'-20] 'Puzhune, Sekamne, Tsamak und Talatui ... Sekumne und Tsamak
sind nahe verwandt, die übrigen zeigen gemeinsames und fremdes.'
_Buschmann_, _Spuren der Aztek. Spr._, p. 571. 'Hale's vocubulary of
the Talatiu belongs to the group for which the name of Moquelumne is
proposed, a Moquelumne Hill and a Moquelumne River being found within
the area over which the languages belonging to it are spoken. Again,
the names of the tribes that speak them end largely in mne, Chupumne,
etc. As far south as Tuolumne County the language belongs to this
division, viz., 1, the Mumaltachi; 2, Mullateco; 3, Apaugasi; 4,
Lapappu; 5, Siyante, or Typoxi band, speak this language.' _Latham's
Comp. Phil._, vol. viii., p. 414.
[IV'-21] _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v., p. 201.
[IV'-22] _Montgomery's Indianology of Napa County_, MS.
[IV'-23] _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 391.
[IV'-24] _Arroyo_, _Gram. de la lengua Tulareña_, MS., quoted in
_Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 388, see also pp. 392-3. 'Malgré le
grand nombre de dialectes des Missions de la Californie, les
Franciscains espagnols s'étaient attachés à apprendre la langue
générale de la grande vallée de los Tulares, dont presque toutes les
tribus sont originaires, et ils ont rédigés le vocabulaire et une
sorte de grammaire de cette langue nommée _el Tulareño_.' _Id._, p.
387.
[IV'-25] _Taylor_, in _Cal. Farmer_, May 25, 1860.
[IV'-26] _Johnston_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 407. 'Die
Sprachen der Coconoons und die vom King's River sind nahe verwandt.'
_Buschmann_, _Spuren der Aztek. Spr._, p. 564.
[IV'-27] 'Dans la baie de San Francisco on distingue les tribus des
Matalans, Salsen et Quirotes, dont les langues dérivent d'une souche
commune.' _Humboldt_, _Essai Pol._, tom. i., pp. 321-2;
_Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt ii., p. 454.
[IV'-28] 'The tribe of Indians which roamed over this great valley,
from San Francisco to near San Juan Bautista Mission ... were the
Olhones. Their language slightly resembled that spoken by the Mutsuns,
at the Mission of San Juan Bautista, although it was by no means the
same.' _Hall's San José_, p. 40. 'In the single Mission Santa Clara
more than twenty languages are spoken.' _Kotzebue's New Voy._, vol.
ii., p. 98; _Kotzebue's Voyage_, vol. iii., p. 51; _Beechey's Voyage_,
vol. ii., p. 78; _Choris_, _Voy. Pitt._, pt iii., pp. 5-6; _Conder's
Mex. Guat._, vol. ii., pp. 94-5.
[IV'-29] 'La misma diferencia que se advierte en los usos y costumbres
de una y otra nacion hay en sus idiomas.' _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_,
p. 172.