_From Cabul to Jallalabad and Peshawur_.
_October 7th_.--Proceeded to Bhootkhak, nine and a half miles from
Cabul, and seven from our camp: the direction lay easterly. A canal and
a river were both crossed by bridges, the latter of stone, but much
needing repairs: the country generally marshy: the marshes were crossed
by a causeway of stones, rough and broken here and there. The road is
one apparent continued slope to this, but the Barometer gives no
indication of any difference of level. The march proving uninteresting,
and the country an uniform brown and barren tract.
_8th_.--Proceeded to Koord Cabul valley, the distance of which from the
place we left being eleven miles: first having rounded a spur extending
from the south boundary of Cabul valley, we then entered a narrow ravine,
chiefly occupied by a small stream, which we crossed several times. The
mountains being chiefly of limestone, then becoming slaty, very
precipitous, rugged, and barren; on emerging from this very tedious
ravine, we entered on some sward with plenty of Tamarisk, and Salix
vimenea. Koord Cabul valley is a frightfully barren, and very stony
place; the chief vegetation of the valley, as also of the ravine, being
Artemisiae, in which there is abundance of Carduacea subspicata from
Baber's tomb.
The road throughout is indifferent, but only so from the stones, the
largest of which would require removal, and there are not more than two
or three difficult rocks in the way, these however might be avoided by
keeping in the bed of the stream. There are two ruined stone walls
thrown across the ravine, the remains merely of the very few villages of
Koord Cabul. A high truncated mountain stands to the south, on which
some patches of snow are visible.
The mountain forming the east wall of the ravine is the subconical one,
seen to such advantage from Arghundee, it is of limestone, quite
precipitous, with a few large bushes of, I do not know what; none of them
being within reach,--Ilex, and _Cupressus_.
_9th_.--To Tazeen, the road for seven miles extends over somewhat
undulated ground, generally good; but here and there stony, with a
gradual but almost imperceptible ascent, until the top of the pass is
reached; from this, the view of Tazeen valley, and the summit of the
Sofaid-Koh is good.
Thence the road extends over ascents and descents, three of which have
considerable, and stony inclinations, then it enters the ravine drained
by a small stream, and continues down it until we enter Tazeen valley.
Two streams are passed in the ascent; the first, near the former halting
place, flowing, where it is crossed, between slaty cliffs of no height;
the second one, small, frozen, and not sufficient to supply a large
party: there is however a spring a short way below the summit, although
very small. Temperature 58 degrees. The rocks forming the narrow ravine
are very rough and slaty: limestones presenting the usual characters.
This march has been said to present a very bad road, but it is not the
case, at least in comparison with many of the Affghan roads, distance
twelve and a half miles, the time it takes for camels to perform the
journey is six hours. The road, where not stony, is very well beaten.
No change is observed in the features of the country until the opposite
side of Tazeen valley is seen, and the summit of the Sofaid-Koh: here,
wonderful to relate! are abundance of firs extending down and along the
ridge to some distance, but not forming forests.
Otherwise the vegetation consists of Senecionoides, _Astragali_, _Rosa_,
Statice 2-3, Artemisiae, and Plectranthus, which last is very common in
the ravine leading to Tazeen valley, which is drained by a small stream.
Here also Carduacea, and Onosmoid angustifolia occur!
In this ravine, Xanthoxylon of Kojhuk, a willow, Rosa, and a distinct
Ilex, occur, forming chiefly a shrubby vegetation. Ilex is also, so far
as can be judged from appearance, the bushy thing seen on the limestone
hill at our last halt, also Cupressus, a fine specimen of which I found
on limestone at about the height of the top of the pass, (22.76 Bar.)
Ther. 60 degrees, with a very small Spiraea.
The large-winged vultures of Arghundee are common here. Some ruined
villages were passed, a mosque stood near one of these, two and a half
miles from last halt, little cultivation in the Tazeen valley, and in the
centre of this, two villages with orchards are visible.
[Pass between Koord Cabul and Tazeen: m411.jpg]
_9th_.--Tried to get to the firs, but failed.
The lower hills, and indeed the range between the valley and the fir
range, are conglomerate, easily disintegrated, then limestone, which
often occurs quite vertical. Some of the hills are red, others brown, in
one instance the coloured substance is interposed between strata of
limestone, which last have alone withstood the effects of climate, this
range is as high as the Koord Cabul pass.
Ilex very common, and much used for charcoal, the trunk being eight to
ten inches in diameter; almost all are pollarded. Pomacea common at 500
feet above this, Plectranthus, Senecionoides.
Artemisiae, Astragali, Statices, Rosa, bastard indigo, Cerasus. The
orchards are now assuming their autumnal tint, Salvia pinnata, Canus
aliusque, _Ruwash_. Chough, ravens, nuthatch, and chakor here occur.
Heavy snow is observed on the eastern portions of Hindoo-koosh, which are
quite barren. The best way to the fir tract I find on enquiry will be to
follow the bed of the stream up to it. Fields are being now ploughed and
sown. Thermopsides very common here in old cultivation: it affords
decent fodder for camels.
_10th_.--To Barikab, distance ten and a half miles; the road extending
down the Tazeen ravine, over a tract with a considerable descent for
about nine miles; on passing a long dark looking rock and its spur, the
road then leaves the bed, and ascends over low undulations of easily
detachable conglomerate, and sand; then a short but rather steep ascent
occurs for 200 feet, passing over an easily friable sandstone, either
existing as grains slightly adherent, or caked; thence the descent passes
over the preceding sort of conglomerate, to an abominably barren ravine,
drained by a very small stream.
The road only once leaves the bed of this ravine, but soon rejoins it
before finally turning off.
The mountains present the same features; where no outcrop of strata
occurs, they are rounded, brown, and very barren, with here and there an
Ilex; towards the end of the raviny part in one or two places, more wood
than usual occurs, forming scattered thickets. Fraxinus, the older
branches of which have much smaller leaves, Thymelia of Chiltera, Cerasus
canus, and alius, Senecionoides, Compositae, Artemisiae, Polygonum
frutescens, which last is not uncommon throughout. Equisetoides becomes
common towards the black rock.
Where the road turns off from the ravine, a _Khubar_ or tope occurs,
shaded with two or three large Xanthoxyleae now in fruit, called
_Khinjuk_.
Snow visible from Barikab to the north, but generally in ravines. The
country continues abominably barren, we passed the entrance of the
Lutabund pass, near the black rock, but without seeing it: no difficulty
occurs on the road, except from the jolting of stones. There is however
no forage to be had at the halt, and but little fodder. A sprinkling of
holly-looking bushes are seen extending over the lower ranges of Hindoo-
koosh.
_11th_.--Jugdulluck, ten and a half miles from our last encampment; on
leaving Barikab we commenced ascending, winding over undulating ground
for a short distance, until we reached the main ascent, which is short,
but moderately steep: thence we descended steeply for perhaps 500 feet,
hitherto the road extended over sand hills, with quantities of stones. On
reaching the foot of the steep descent, we then descended gradually over
a long stony inclined plane, then entered undulating ground, descending
from which the road took us over a small stream, which we followed up,
soon entering a gorge, up which we continued till we reached Jugdulluck.
This gorge is the finest and boldest we have seen, the rocks forming
precipitous cliffs 2,400 feet high, which often hem in the road, and
confine it to a breadth of a few feet, sufficient merely for a gun to
pass.
On emerging from this we reached the tope of Jugdulluck, now a grove of
mulberry trees, surrounded by the remains of a wall.
The country, until we entered the gorge, presented the same features as
before, being frightfully barren. Passed a spring of water at the foot
of the main descent where there is level ground sufficient for a small
party, afterwards we passed a smaller spring containing less water, but
situated in much better ground than Barikab.
The vegetation of undulated ground continues unchanged, very poor and
stunted; in ravines below the main descent, Stipa is very common; in
others, a large Andropogon occurs near the mouth of the gorge along the
bed of the river, also _Jhow_ in patches, and one patch of Donax.
The vegetation of the gorge is more varied; two small trees occur, one
the _Khinjuk_, and it is the commonest, the other a Terebinthacea;
Thymelaea of Chiltera is common, Ephedra, Ilex occurs but is less common
than on hills.
Along the water to which it gives exit, and which is abundant, the usual
Cyperaceae, Junceae, Gnaphalium, Potentilla, and Epilobium occur as at
Cabul; the place is chiefly remarkable for two or three Saccharoid
grasses, Stipa common, Polypogon, Donax, Dracocephala of Quettah and the
Bolan pass, Spiraea, Typha, young Tamarisks.
Chakor, large vulture, ravens; a woodcock rose from a dripping rock,
covered with a tropical Andropogon in dense patches. Adiantum, Rubus,
Erythrea, Labiatae two, common; Salix.
The gorge appears to be a distinct formation of sandstone, slate, and
limestone: on the way to it, we continued over the sand and conglomerate
hill, which again recur at Jugdulluck, with plenty of Holly.
The Sofaid-Koh is visible from the main ridge: it is a ridge running
perhaps SW. to NE., tolerably covered with snow, as barren as any others:
a few fir trees are found in the direction of Tazeen: are these confined
to the sandstone formation? little grass, a few rice fields, bad forage.
[Pass and gorge, Barikab to Jugdulluck: m414.jpg]
_12th_.--Halted at Jugdulluck. Small partridges are common: observed a
curious Certhioid creeper, whose flight is like that of the Hoopoe; it is
scandent over rocks.
_13th_.--To Soorkhab, twelve and a half miles over a similar country:
region of Hollys continues; we first passed up a ravine, then over
undulating ground, until the summit of the pass is reached. From this a
fine view of Sofaid-Koh is obtained, the lower ranges in some places
being black with firs; thence a continued descent, varied here and there
by small ascents over undulating ground, we at length came to a ravine
filled with bulrushes: we followed this, leaving it near the halting
place, and winding over rocky ground and a bad road, we descended to the
bed of the river. The road good, though stony here and there, but
nowhere so, to such an extent, as the previous marches.
Hills precisely similar to those already passed, either sandy, easily
friable, or conglomerate, held together by sandy cement. Vegetation
continues the same; _Baloot_, or oak, is said to be abundant though I did
not see it; Daphne, and Xanthoxylon, compose the chief shrubby
vegetation; Saccharum here and there. Small partridge very common. The
greatest ascent is 5,600 feet. No grass for forage; several very small
streamlets were passed en route, so that a small party might halt
anywhere.
[Ascent and descent Jugdulluck to Soorkhab: m415.jpg]
The beautiful Himalaya looking range Sofaid-Koh, runs east and west; it
is very high, in the back ranges with very heavy snow on both ridges, and
peaks. The view from the pass shows a rapid fall in the country to the
eastward, which still continues hilly, and very very bare. Large coarse
grapes are had here, also pomegranates: some _seedless_ rice cultivation
occurs since we descended to Jugdulluck.
_14th_.--We proceeded nine and a quarter miles, throughout until reaching
a grove near Gundamuck: the road lay over undulating ground, is more
sandy than stony, and in two or three places it is raviny, and requires
to be made. Then the road emerges into a fine sort of valley, dipping
down to a small stream with many sedges. In the bed of the stream,
willows occur, and mulberries about it: we then ascended and halted just
beyond the ascent. Water and _dhoob_ grass are both plentiful, as well
as supplies of grain, pomegranates, and grapes, as yesterday; _Bajree_.
A fine view is obtained of Sofaid-Koh, which forms the southern boundary
of the valley; many villages, with cultivation in a very sandy soil.
Small partridge very abundant. A fox observed. The ravines wherever
there is water, crowded with Typha, and Saccharum; oaks are seen in
abundance on the mountain to the south; left the Soorkhab river after
fording it near yesterday's camp; the bridge is quite useless for cattle,
as the ground is rocky and broken on this side, no pains having been
taken to carry the work to the road; cypresses, planes and mulberry trees
in the gardens: Cannabis, also one patch of cotton cultivation was
passed.
No descent, but rather small ascent on the whole, say 200 feet, the
ascent from the principal nullah crossed being equal, though much shorter
than the descent to it.
[Soorkhab to Gundamuck: m416.jpg]
_15th_.--We halted: many rivulets descend near us from the Sofaid-Koh;
and the water in these is beautifully clear; many villages and mills with
several beautiful spots occur, well shaded with trees, poplars,
mulberries, and figs. The objects of cultivation are millet,
Indian-corn, rice, and wheat; this last just sprung up: many _bedanah_
pomegranates, but none I think of superior quality.
All the low hills here, and indeed between us and the boundary ranges of
the valley, are of sandstone, generally very slightly held together, here
and there more firm, and distinctly stratified towards the upper surface.
The surface consists of conglomerate, formed of boulders imbedded in the
same kind of sandstone as that below; often very friable, occasionally it
is as hard as flint. In the sandstone below, a few stones occur here and
there; but I saw no fossils. The upper surface of these hills is
remarkably stony, all the stones being more or less rounded.
Several new plants were found in these ravines, a Lythrum, a very
aromatic species of Compositae, Samolus in some of the swamps with Typha,
which swarms in every ravine and ravinelet, Rubus, Clematis, Bergia,
Ammannia, Lythraria, Chara, Xanthium.
The plants of tropical forms are, Celosia of Digera! Polanisia,
Andropogons, two or three.
The tropical cultivation consists of cotton, the usual annual sort;
Indian-corn, Pennisetum, and rice.
The fish are, four kinds of Cyprinidae, including one Oreinus, and one
loach.
_16th_.--Proceeded to Futtehabad, eleven and a half miles. The road
leaves the valley after crossing a stream with a ruined bridge, like that
at Soorkhab, but of two arches, and ascending a little way, then winding
along over undulating very stony ground; this continues until we descend
steeply and along the Neemla valley, a mere ravine, historically
interesting, as the field on which Shah Soojah lost his kingdom in 1809,
and for a fine tope of trees: then crossing a streamlet, we ascend a
little way over sandstone, then another stream, which we follow for 500
yards, and ascending a little, we proceed thence to camp, along a slight
slope of very stony, generally _very level_ ground, where we halted on
a rivulet with a wide grassy bed, Lythrum growing around.
[Gundamuck to Futtehabad: m417.jpg]
No change appears in the vegetation: the surface very barren in stony
parts, chiefly Artemisia, Saccharum, Andropogon albus, in ravines,
Capparis common, also AErua and Lycionoides.
The northern boundary of the valley is comparatively low, and from Sofaid-
Koh to this is an uniform slope, broken by ravines; here and there by
small hills; ravines occasionally dilating into small valleys, the only
parts in which cultivation is to be seen. This is so far different from
the usual formation where the valleys occupy the level tract between the
slopes from either boundary range. Neemla is a very confined space for
any thing like the battle said to have taken place here, the rising
grounds inclosing the small space being too much broken for cavalry.
The rocks consist of conglomerate at top, below sandstone, layers of both
alternating near the surface: a break occurs (nearly opposite) in the
hills, this break is minutely undulated. {417} Rock pigeons were seen on
the march by Thomson, and small partridges. I find that though to our
senses there was comparatively but little descent, that the barometer and
thermometer indicate one of 1,500 feet. The Neemla river must be the
boundary between the hot and cold countries alluded to by Burnes.
In spite of this descent, and our small altitude, about 3,000 feet, but
little change if any occurs in the vegetation, and none in the general
features of the country; the Apocynea of Dadur and Bolai (Nerioides) has
re-appeared.
At this season (October), throughout the way we came from Cabul, there is
a curious white efflorescence covering the Shootur Kari, I do not know
what it is, but it is not Conferva. A good deal of forest is seen on
some of the ranges to the north of this, bearing from camp about NNE.,
certainly not firs, perhaps oaks.
_19th_.--Yesterday we went to the Soorkhab, which runs east and west
along the northern boundary of the valley; half the distance down the bed
of this stream the ground is strewed with boulders, thence to the hills,
and excepting the bed of the Soorkhab, is one sheet of cultivation,
consisting of large quantities of cotton and sugar-cane, this latter of
small size, and not very juicy, castor-oil plant, Corchorus (_Pat_),
_Sun_, Tel., radish, and among the other plants cultivated, the Mudar is
common: Nerioides of Dadur; Epilobium sp. is the chief Boreal form. This
is one of the richest districts I have seen.
Trees--Bukkhien, {418} _Furas_, Ficus, Cupressus, with much rice
cultivation.
The vines are trained on mulberries, as Burnes says, or the Lilyoak.
Pomegranates are also to be mentioned among the fruits of this place.
The Soorkhab river is not seen after leaving the place of the same name;
after it crosses the road, it runs due north through the mountains, in a
narrow, almost inaccessible bed; its waters are of a reddish colour.
The villages here are larger, and not so fortified as those about Cabul.
Balabagh stands on a high bank of conglomerate, overhanging the Soorkhab,
and is in danger of being cut away by the river. The peasantry are
civil, and unarmed. Ravens, quails, _minas_, sparrows, and a beautiful
swallow were seen about the Soorkhab river; the latter, with metallic
blue on the back of the head, crown of head tawny, tail short, two
exterior feathers elongated into beautiful almost setaceous bodies,
exceeding the length of the bird. This swallow, or one with a similar
tail, was seen by Sanders on the Helmund, at Girishk.
_20th_.--We proceeded to Sultanpore, eight and a half miles, passed
Futtehabad, thence a gradual descent over a very stony slope to the
halting place, where the valley becomes narrow, and water plentiful in a
small stream. Willows, mulberries, ashes. Two large pollards at
Futtehabad.
The vegetation consists of Gramineae in patches, AErua Nerioides, and
Mudar.
Sultanpore, is a village of some size, situated about a mile north from
the road, and contains many Hindoos. All villages here crowded with
highish two or three-storied houses, something like Shikarpore: they are
surrounded with gardens and mud walls, apricots, mulberries, greengages,
pomegranates in profusion; the cultivation very rich as yesterday, and
there is an air of repose about the villages unusual in this country.
Tobacco. The rice-pounder or _dekhee_ I observe is here lifted by
treading on it with the foot, as in Hindoostan. The country hereabout,
has the advantage of being well watered. _Isain_, Dolichos sp. occurs.
Trees as before: the plane flourishes, fine ones were seen growing around
a Hindoo Zearut, where there is a double spring of water with a copious
ebullition of gas. The temperature of this is said to be hot in winter.
Salsola common, _Joussa_, a curious Ericoid plant was observed, Typha
angustifolia, latifolia ceased since we left Gundamuck; Isachne,
Pulicaria, Epilobium, Sagittaria, Cyperaceae, Marsilea! Polygonum,
Ranunculus sceleratus, Lythrum, Lemna, Alisma, Menthoid, a Cuscuta common
on cotton plants, as at Futtehabad, several tropical grasses, Aristida,
Poa, and Andropogon appear.
Descent though almost unappreciable, yet amounts to 1,000 feet. Bulbul
and Parus common, as well as doves and ravens; quails are scarce.
_21st_.--To Jallalabad, eight and a half miles, the road keeping along
the southern edge of the valley, occasionally extending over small
undulations sometimes stony, more often sandy.
Typha latifolia occurs in profusion along parts of Futtehabad nullah,
general features the same otherwise, AErua and Nerioid are common on
stony parts, and fewer coarse grasses.
Cypresses in gardens, also _khujoors_. Starlings.
The entrance to Jallalabad, or rather to its suburbs, presents the usual
desolate, disorderly appearance, of such places in this country; the
ruined walls to the city; the sandy barren soil, and the odious looking
low hills between it and the Sofaid-Koh, present as sad and melancholy a
picture as could well be met with. The same desolate, disorderly, dirty
appearance is to be met with in most Asiatic capitals, particularly those
that have been subjected to independent misrule: while the more distant
surrounding villages look cheerful, and as clean as can be expected: the
appearances immediately around the chief towns are always bad. To what
is this owing? is it to their being more completely under the thumb of a
rapacious governor? to the insecurity of property, or to defect in the
laws? or to all these causes together?
At Cabul it was just the same, particularly on the Peshawur side, where
stagnant pools, half destroyed mosques, and mutilated trees present a
total contrast to the smiling valley of Kilah-i-Kajee.
At Shikarpore the same.
The most common fruit tree in the gardens here is a sweet lime: grapes
are brought in from the villages of Sofaid-Koh, they are the same sort as
those at Gundamuck: Narcissus, Rosa, Cerasi sp., Mirabilis, stock,
Cupressus, mulberry also in gardens, _Bheir_ of waste places, Salsola,
Artemisiae, two or three: Kochia villosa, Peganum, AErua, Croton of
Candahar, Ricinus, _Joussa_ of wet places, Lippia, Typha latifolia,
angustif., Azolla, Riccia, Cyperaceae, several Lythrarieae, Potamogeton,
three species. The fish here will not take a fly, and the bottoms are
too foul and stony for worm-fishing, the largest sort of fish is somewhat
like a Barbel. Jackdaws and Corvus, alter atratus, dorso ventre griseo:
very few quails. _Furas_ common.
_27th_.--To Ali-Baghan, distance six and a half miles, road winding,
generally good: after it crossed the dry bed of the nullah, it then
becomes rather undulated extending over raviny ground; it then crosses
the broad bed of the stream, in which there are swarms of bulrushes, then
the same sort of sandy ground leads to camp, which is near the village
Ali-Baghan.
The river here is much increased, much more deep; banks alluvial, steep;
soil deep. Chenopodium sp., very common, but too much eaten up to be
recognized, also Salsolae sp.
Nothing new observed. We passed the break above-mentioned in the
northern hills, whence issues the Coomur Nuddee. Serratuloides very
common in sandy undulations. Porcupines and foxes. Beds of grass in
islands of the river Barikab.
_28th_.--We proceeded to Bankok, twelve and a half miles from the
encamping ground, having turned nearly due south, in order to avoid the
slope, which is seen in this direction from Jallalabad; then a valley,
with low hills on either side, is passed; then the road ascends over
undulating ground, until 500 feet is gained; then a long and gradual
descent is traversed over a very stony plateau.
No water nor cultivation on the road, nothing can exceed its barrenness.
AErua Nerioides, Lycioides, Andropogon albus, are the principal plants on
the plateau; Kochia common, and a few straggling _Bheirs_, small rock
pigeons. Geology unchanged, sandstone and conglomerate, with enormous
boulders.
We passed the gorge through which the Cabul river runs. The road, by
this is said to be only six miles, but is only passable by pedestrians
and horsemen.
One village of some size is situated in the south towards Sofaid-Koh;
from the plateau as well as from our camp, a curious and characteristic
scene is visible to the north, showing a barren lofty range with peculiar
undulations at the base, as well as the isolated hills jutting up above
its surface: the trees and villages being confined to the course of the
river which may be thus traced by its fertility. In this last direction
there is a good deal of _Abadi_, but nothing comparable to that about
Jallalabad.
At camp Serratuloid australasicus, very common, as indeed it was
yesterday; _foliis verticalibus_ in consequence of both surfaces being
stomatose, the base of the leaf is so twisted as to present each surface
equally to the light. It is curious that all such leaves have the veins
prominent on both surfaces, showing a relation between the veins and the
stomata, the more stomata the larger veins.
_29th_.--To Bassoollah, eight and a half miles, the road for guns is good
throughout; better perhaps than any yet met with, from the soil being
sandy. We came by a straighter road, and a very bad one, instead of
diverging to the south, and rounding a range of hills, we entered these,
and passing through a gorge coming upon marshy ground, running for some
distance along the Cabul river, to which we were here quite close. Passed
several villages about the mouth of the gorge, which is a short one.
The general features of the country continue the same; we crossed a
nullah near the camp, and another near the gorge, six miles from camp,
towards this last, grass covers the plains, though of a coarse kind; AErua
Nerioides most common on the barren ground.
We observed on the way a new Pterocles, and passed an old tope situated
on a low ridge.
The gorge is rather pretty; the Cabul river runs close, along the foot of
a range, forming the northern boundary of the place, where Bassoollah is
situated, this is also a pretty place, with much good grassy ground for
encamping on.
The country under Sofaid-Koh presents a long strip of cultivation, with
many villages: hills barrener than ever, chiefly limestone. Very little
snow here observed as on the eastern face of the high peaks of Sofaid-
Koh, compared with the quantity visible on the face towards Jallalabad.
About half-past two, a slight shock of an earthquake was felt, presenting
a rumbling noise, very audible, proceeding from east to west.
Between the village and the river, an extensive strip of level land
occurs, with sandy soil well adapted to rice, of which quantities are
grown. The crops are now ready for the sickle, and some partly cut: much
of this land is occupied by a marsh choked with bulrushes of both sorts,
Typha latifolia being the most common; Cyperaceae abound, Marsilea in
profusion, Azolla, Mentha, Epilobii sp. as before, Lemna, Valisneria
_verticillata_? Sium., Sagittaria, Pulicaria, Chara, Lippia, Monniera,
_Jhow_.
The river runs close under the hills, which are very barren, its course
is rapid, cataracts also are of frequent occurrence transmitting a great
body of water; no fish are visible. Some cotton and maize and _Toot_
cultivation. _Furas_ the only trees.
The mountains slope off from Sofaid-Koh in distinct groups, and are seen
to advantage, broken in some places into undulations: about the centre of
the slope an irregular strip of village forts and cultivation is
extended. The course of the Cabul river in many places is curious;
flowing between singularly round ranges. Snipe common; quail rare.
Erythraea common on moist sward.
_30th_.--Proceeded to Lalpore, the country undulating, the road skirting
the stony portions of the plain is bad to Hizarnow, three miles from
thence it is very stony, thence continuing on the skirts of the hills,
which are principally slate, and passing through a small ravine, it then
extends over sandy or stony ground, until the Chota Khyber is reached:
this is a narrow, but short, and not very steep pass; slate rocks compose
the upper parts, and are entirely disintegrated, thence they descend at
once into the plain opposite Lalpore; the distance of the march is eleven
miles, the road generally decent.
Much rice cultivation occurs, and much land, it must be confessed, also
occupied by marshy ground, Typha, etc. The same plants continue; Butomus
trigonifolius not uncommon.
On the slate rocks of Buttencote Kochia recurs, Heliotropium luteum,
Nerioides, and Lycioides of Shikarpore are found.
Near Hizarnow, Serissa, Acaciae sp., which is the black wood of Madras;
Sissoo, and _Bheirs_. Hizarnow is a large place, curiously occupying
receding slopes of the base of a low range of hills, but it must be
dreadfully hot. We passed several _Kaburistans_ with pollarded, stunted,
excavated _Furas_ trees. One mile before Hizarnow, a curious hill of
slate occurred, covered with boulders.
The road is very winding in consequence of its following the bases of the
hills forming the southern boundary of the valley. The Cabul river is
visible almost throughout the whole march.
All houses in the villages are now roofed in this part of the country
with straw. Starlings observed in swarms.
_31st_.--Halted at Lalpore, this is a very busy large place: the houses
are one-storied, and flat-roofed. The only peculiarity being occasional
square towers. The river is here quite open for commerce downwards, and
is well adapted to small canoes: the stream is rapid and crossed by a
ferry.
On rocks under which the river flows near this, a species of Fissidens
occurs, where the rocky surface has passed into sand. Glycyrrhiza,
Rubus, Artemisia, Asparagus, Pommereulla, Andropogon albus, Arundo,
Cyrthandracea, an Hyoscyamus of the Bolan Pass, Beebee Nanee,
Heliotropium flavum.
It would be curious to enquire why the powers of variation change so
completely in the different families? Thus for instance in Orchideae, no
character can be taken from the vegetation with some limitations, and
none from the fruit or seeds; two products in most orders very fruitful
in discriminating marks. This leads one to the idea that in
monocotyledonous plants, the fruit is very generally of limited powers of
variation; witness Orchideae, Gramineae, Smilacineae, etc. this idea
deserves to be followed out as much as possible. The river at the ferry
is 100 yards wide, and twelve feet in the deepest part, the current five
miles an hour, but confined to one and a half towards its centre.
_November 1st_.--Marched ten miles: the road from the camp extended up
an acclivity, the ground becoming more broken than usual to the mouth of
the ghat, which is four miles distant; thence up to the ghat which
resembles much the Bolan Pass, it extends up an inclined plane over a
shingly road. The ghat is rather wide throughout, and all the features
are the same as the Bolan Pass, slate rocks most common. We passed on
the way a large and a deep but dry well, ascribed to the _kafirs_; and
near it the ruins of a fort built half-way up a small mountain, the top
of which is level with the ghat.
Vegetation to the ghat unchanged. In the ghat Capparis as before,
Lycioides, Chamaerops, Andropog. albus, Schaenanthus, _Bheir_, Nerioides,
Pommereullioid, Andropogonea, appear at once, AErua, Asparagus.
At 300 feet up, Mimosae sp., foliis tomentosis, occurring here and there.
Heliotropium flavum, Plectranthus lavandulosus, Scrophulariae sp.
At 500 feet, Dodonaea: this is very common, and being very green, gives
the ghat a pretty appearance.
At 600 feet, a curious pomaceous looking Rhamnaceous plant is found.
The most common plants are Nerioides, Andropogon albus, _Bheir_,
Chamaerops, Dodonaea.
The bed of the ghat is formed of debris from the boundary hills, this bed
is very thick, and the particles have the appearance of being carried to
their present situation by water.
Our halting place is a confined irregular piece of ground, water
abundant, but no grass, except coarse Andropogon; no fodder, except
_Bheir_ and Mimosa.
I ascended in the evening the ridge to the south, and which is 1,200 feet
above the road, to the ruins that run along the summit. The ridge, like
all others in this neighbourhood, is rugged and much distorted, the top
is limestone, much varied and weathered; then slate masses of greenstone
occur towards the base.
The vegetation is chiefly at the summit. Schaenanthus, Periploca,
Dodonaea, an arbuscula nova, Euonymus, Chenopodiaceae. Below this, (but
the elevation is scarcely sufficient to form any difference,) and along
the water, Euonymus, Adhatoda, Buddlaea cana or Syringia, Rhamnacea,
Periplocea, Linaria, Labiatae, 2-3, Pistacea, Roylea, Acanthoides,
_Urticea_! habitu, U. penduliflorae, Vitex, Convolvulus spinosus of
Bolan, Sempervivum, Stapelioides used as a vegetable, and for fever by
Hindoos, Artemisiae, Solanum sp.
Along water, Adiantum, Mentha, Epilobium, Verbena officinalis, Solanum
nigrum, Jacquinifol. pinnatif. spinosus about cultivation.
On slaty rocks which form the bed of the ravine or ghat, Dodonaea,
Hyoscyamus, and Cyrthandracea are found.
The building consists of a wall near the edge of a ridge, which
terminates some twenty feet from the steep precipice of 300 to 500 feet:
it is 200 to 300 yards in length, and is terminated at either end by two
towers, both of which are ruinous, it is built of slabs and rough blocks
of limestone, between which are layers of slate, much like the Bactrian
pillar, and very superior to modern buildings: what its use was, it would
be difficult to conjecture as it is out of musket shot of the ghat, which
it only commands by being above it. There is no water on the top, nor is
there any well-marked path up to it: curious mortar-like excavations were
observed in a mass of limestone just below, probably for pounding rice.
Up the ravine are remains of terraces formerly used for cultivation, but
now mostly disused. At 700 to 800 feet above the ghat the ravine abounds
with the Ficus of Gundamuck; this and the Adhatoda or _Rooss_ are perhaps
cultivated: the ravine is pretty well entangled with Ficus and brushwood.
It consists of metamorphosed rocks and excavated limestone; some mosses
occur, and Adiantum abounding.
From the ridge, a rather extensive view to the south is obtained,
extending to the Khyber fort, which is of the ordinary square form, and
just below it, a tower and house. To the east, and all around a good
deal of cultivation occurs; also several high ridges, say 7,000 feet; one
terminating 4,000 feet above us, presents a very rugged outline with the
appearance of rather large trees. The road up to the ghat is visible, as
well as the _Choky_ and a fort, with a small sheet of cultivation to the
eastward. Beyond this a ravine, then two other ridges, of which the
nearer one is high. The Cabul river passes to the NNW., and Lalpoor lies
to the north. One peak and a small piece of ridge of Hindoo-koosh, white
with snow, is seen very distinctly though distant, it must therefore be
very lofty; far more so than any part we have seen to the westward.
[Khyber Pass: p425.jpg]
_Description of the annexed map of the Khyber Pass_.
A. Kumdhukta. By this is Abkhanah route.
B. Little Khyber ghat, on Peshawur side.
C. Khyber ghat, entrance on the Jallalabad side.
D. Kurraha route.
E. Direction of Sofaid-Koh in the distance.
F. Flagstaff in the middle of the Pass.
The ground between the dotted lines and river, on the south, is, or has
been cultivated. The ground near the river on the north side is covered
here and there with brown grass. About the Flagstaff, sand and short
dried up grass occur.
The general character of the hills in every direction except the snowy
range, is bluffly rounded, very bare, and brown, with here and there a
shrub.
That which Burnes calls Noorgil, is the range of Kareaz, and is distinct
from Koonur. Kashgur lies beyond the snowy range.
The inhabitants of the mountains, like those of Lalpoor, wear sandals
made of the fibres of Chamaerops, which is common: one plant of Ephedra
used _for snuff_?
_3rd_.--Proceeded to one mile beyond Ali-Musjid. The ascent commences
immediately where the _Choky_ is seen from the camp, by a very good road
cut out of slate rock; the rocks are steep on both sides, and very zig-
zag; a short partial descent in one place occurs to a small pool of
water. From the _Choky_, a descent takes place by a similar road for
perhaps two miles, until the ravine which we left at camp is turned; this
is thence followed, occasionally leaving it where the road is bad and
runs through low rugged hills. The road then after passing some of the
old ruins opens out into a space with cultivation. Close to this is the
highest spot of the pass, surrounded by low hills, none higher than 500
feet. Cultivation occurs especially at Lal-Ghurry Beg, a space of some
size, containing several villages, of the usual Khyberry form, namely,
surrounded by low, quadrangular walls, with a thin square tower and very
broadly projecting eaves. A short distance from its summit, just after
passing the villages, and before entering the ravine which leads us to
our present camp is a Khyberry tower, built on a fine Bactrian tope,
which is nearly half ruined; on the top of this a dome of good
proportions is built on a double-terraced foundation.
This gives a rude idea of what the tope was originally, now half the dome
has fallen down.
[A Khyberry tower: m426.jpg]
The entrance to the ravine gradually becomes narrower, the bed is stony,
very winding, and narrow. Bold precipices of limestone cliffs ascend on
either side of Sir-i-Chushme; then a little below, very copious springs
issue from limestone. The temperature of the principal spring is 75
degrees; it contains abundance of fish--a loach and cyprinoid. Passed
some ruined fortifications on the right, leading down to water, evidently
_kafir_ works; then we enter a narrow but short gorge, occupied by the
stream; a few more turns and you come on Ali-Musjid. No change occurs in
the vegetation, bare rocks at the summit of which the Bar. stood at
26.72. Andropogons and Artemisiae are the chief plants.
In the gorge downwards, Acacia occurs in abundance, with Adhatoda, and
otherwise the shrubs of Lundyakhana occur in abundance, and Adiantum
about the spring.
After passing the fort, the rocks open out into a ravine, with low
undulated hills on every side, covered with the usual vegetation;
Astragalus one species.
At Lal-Ghurry Beg, one Khinjuck tree, Elaeagnus, occurred; and grass in
very small stacks, well pressed and covered with a thatch of bushes and a
layer of dirt.
There is excellent fishing in the stream. Loaches, Perilamps, and
especially an Oreinus? swarming at Sir-i-Chushme, and taking worms very
greedily.
No forests whatever visible in this direction; the arborescent vegetation
being confined to scattered and small trees.
_5th_.--We halted near Jumrood, after a march of ten miles and one
furlong. This place is situated at the mouth of the pass, within sight
of the Seikh camp at Jumrood. Marched down to the ghat, which is
generally speaking narrow and very strong, opening out here and there,
into easier parts extending down the stream all the way; this stream
loses itself suddenly, but after a little distance it is replaced by
another from the right, where ravines enter: here the pass is well
adapted for pillage, elsewhere the sides are so steep, that robbers could
not dispose of their plunder. At the mouth, the pass opens out into a
good breadth, with an even, small, shingly bottom. At Kuddun the Seikh
troops were drawn up to compliment the C. in C., one regiment met us
shortly before to protect the baggage. Maize cultivated. At the mouth,
the Khyber is more difficult than any other pass, except the Bolan:
perhaps it is much narrower than that, except just above Sir-i-Bolan.
No change in vegetation, one or two new plants occurred, viz. a Labiata,
and a treelet, foliis linearibus oppositis, Jasminacea aspectu, Baloot,
Vitex common, Salix, and shrubs as before, Veronica, etc.
The Khyber mountains viewed from the mouth of the pass are brown, and
dotted with peculiar looking trees.
_6th_.--Proceeded six and a half miles to near the ruins of an old tope;
first, down the nullah, then by the fort of Futtygurh, a Hindoostanee mud
fort with high parapets, two lines of works, and a _pucka_ citadel with
embrasures for guns on a commanding mound: thence we passed over a gentle
slope with a good many scattered _Bheirs_, _Kureels_, AErua, Mudar, etc.
to camp, where the ground is very rough and stony, abundant water
obtained from a cut with sheets of maize cultivation. Fossil shells,
Pterocles, found in arenaceous limestone (Durand).
_7th_.--To Peshawur, eight and a half miles, over a sandy plain; road
bad, intersected with cuts and ravines; three canals had to be crossed by
small bridges which occasioned a good deal of delay to the camels. Passed
the Seikh lines, between the fort and north face of town, and encamped on
east face opposite the Governor's house: three gibbets were passed, with
twelve persons hanging from them, some of old date.
In the evening we had a gay party at M. Avitabili's, who is a fine
looking man, with an intelligent Italian countenance.
In a room gaudily decorated and painted, was the following very
appropriate motto--
Donec eris felix multos numerabis amicos.
Tempora si fuerunt nubila, solus eris.
If this was true in Rome, and is true in Europe, to what extent does its
truth not reach in this country. In the evening we were entertained with
dancing and fireworks; excellent dinner and admirable bread.
_14th_.--To-day the atmosphere is hazy, but the snowy range is not topped
with clouds. It is curious enough that the part which is most exposed to
our view, and which bears about north-east, is generally clouded
throughout the hotter parts of the day, while apparently equally high
peaks in other directions remain clear.
It is curious that in Khorassan remarkably few climbing plants occur, and
of these, the chief form is Cuscuta.
Botany here at this season is a non-entity, in the marsh close to the
fort, there occur some few plants, the chief European forms being
Veronica. Ranunculus sceleratus is now coming into flower, Typha
angustifolia abounds, with Arundo, also Sparganium, Sium, Butomus
trigonifolius common; otherwise Cyperaceae, _Epilobium out of_
_season_! Ranunculus aquaticus is most abundant; two species of Chara, or
rather 1 Chara, and 1 Nitella, the last a beautiful species, Marsilea in
profusion, Azolla common, Lemna two or three species, one _new_, a
floating Marchantiacia, Nelumbium occurs, but only as a cultivated plant.
Of two Boreal, or European forms found in sub-tropical countries, that
form is the most northern which flowers, etc. in the coldest season,
hence Veronica and Ranunculus are more northern than _Epilobium_ in this
particular district. The most elevational plant at Cabul is
Cardaminoidea, floribus luteis, this flowers at high altitudes in August
and September, and at Cabul shows no symptom of flowering even in
October; it is there a winter plant? The same is true of Hippuris, which
to flower at Cabul requires a greater degree of cold than is obtainable
during the summer months.
What I have said of Epilobium above, is true of Typha and Arundo, both
now passed flowering, and both found in India, to a considerable extent.
Royle's idea of the comparatively greater extent of distribution of water
plants is not I think correct, in the sense he seems to entertain it; to
be so, the species should be the same, which they are certainly not. It
is only with pre-eminently aquatic forms that the annual temperature can
be more equalised than obtains with strictly terrestrial plants. The
humidity which may appear connected with the rapid evaporation in these
countries, and which obtains? in the vicinity of all bodies of water, may
account for the appearance here of Arundo, etc. All genuine aquatic
types have leaves involute in vernation?
The least valuable of all northern forms, are those associated with
cultivation, especially if they be annuals, because in the first place
they may be acclimated species, a circumstance of great importance; and
in the second, because if annual, they are confined to the cold season.
All such forms have probably migrated into these countries, they have
come from the westward: this shows us why at almost equal elevations they
are most common, the nearer we approach to the elevated regions towards
the west, because it is self-evident that the nearer we approach the
regions whence they have migrated, the more abundant and diversified will
the migrating plants be, only particular species having the power of
extending the range of migration.
When all the Indian plants hitherto met with, have been tabulated; when
all their respective heights at which they have been found have been
determined; when their more strictly geographical sites have been fixed;
when we have some data as to the quantity of humidity pervading their
localities; then, and not till then, shall we be able to legislate for
the geography of Indian botany.
The Botanist who travels without the means of determining these points,
destroys half the value of his collections.
_December 16th_.--Yesterday was very raw and cloudy, to-day clear as
usual, towards 1 P.M. a strong north-east wind occurred for a short time
as usual, because once or twice before, it occurred after threatening
weather.
_Rationale_.--It blows from the nearest snow to supply the rarefied air
in the valley heated by the sun, even now tolerably powerful; it blows
for some days so long as a vacuum is formed, and discontinues when clouds
again appear; hardly so, as it before only blew for three or four days,
although several more elapsed before clouds re-appeared: it may however
be dependent on each fresh fall of snow in the hills.
_26th_.--Cloudy morning, forenoon fine, clear and calm.
Mosses are the analogues of Zoophytes; these analogies are to be looked
for in the most striking and most constant parts of the organization of
the divisions of nature.
Marchantiaceae are the representatives of radiate animals, another reason
why Jungermanniaceae are to be separated from them.
Hence, Radiata, = Marchantiaceae.
" Zoophyta, = Musci.
I am quite convinced that the true subordinate groups of Acotyledones are
far from being discovered.
Are the sheaths found on certain radicles strictly confined to
monocotyledonous plants. There is this certain about them, that they
depend on the presence of vascular tissue, from which the radicles or the
divisions of each root originate: see young Hyacinth roots, grown in
water.
Although the sheaths cannot exist without a positive cuticle, their
existence does not depend so much on its presence as on the direction of
the adhesive powers of its component parts: witness certain forms of
Marchantiaceae, and the vaginate forms, as Azolla, Lemna, etc. Also the
sheath may not have adhesive powers at its apex to prevent the escape of
the radical at that point: witness Hyacinth roots? We may imagine a case
in which the primary radicle may be without a sheath, while its divisions
shall have them, this depending on the want of adhesion of the cuticle
over the original one.
The emerged and immersed leaves of plants are well worthy of examination,
since Microphytum proves that stomata do not depend on the presence of a
cuticle as Brongniart supposes: their presence is united with, or allied
to an amount of density in the cellular tissue, sufficient to prevent the
due aeration of the inner cellules, without direct communication with the
atmosphere. Vide Musci!! Hence the inner tubes of the leaves of the
generality of aquatic plants, (exception Eriocaulon fluitans.)
What is the cause of the plurality of radicles in certain species of
Lemna, and their blank in others? It will be necessary on this point to
examine well the sheaths of Azolla, and to look at the Mergui
AEschynanthus.
The formation of Affghanistan is very curious: it consists of a wide
extent of country, variously elevated steppes being separated by ridges
usually very accessible, generally isolated. The mountainous part varies
as to its formation, but there is no variety in the declivities and
acclivities forming the lower elevations, which are composed of
conglomerate; nor is there much in the usually narrow strip at the lowest
portion of each steppe or valley, which is very generally the only
cultivatable portion.
In the Khyber ghat the ridges are either of limestone or slaty rocks,
between which conglomerate occurs of various thicknesses; this being
dependent on the angle of the mountains forming the sides of the ghat: it
is from this conglomerate in such places consisting usually of a loose
texture that the very excellent roads (for mountainous passes) are
naturally made by the draining streams, which are only periodical. The
conglomerate consists of water-worn stones of all sizes, even boulders
are not unfrequent, yet the wearing is such as occurs in courses now
filling the beds of torrents. The conglomerate increases in density and
adhesion towards Lalpoor, and in many places is exceedingly hard.
Whatever the country may have been previously, one might explain its
present appearance by supposing it to have consisted of a tolerably level
extent of conglomerate, with here and there a strip of soil in the lowest
part of each portion, and that the elevation of the mountain ridges was
of subsequent occurrence: this would account for the formation of the
lower slopes, and the frequent isolation of small eminences of the same
character as the neighbouring mountains. It will account for the
appearance of the conglomerate in every ravine until the top of the
culminating point is reached.
As the mountains were elevated, portions of conglomerate would be
detached, and these resting again on all suitable places, would account
for the existence of conglomerate on certain parts which are flatter than
usual.
Whirlwinds are common about Cabul, commencing as soon as the sun has
attained a certain degree of power.
In all cases they assume the shape of a cone, the point of which being a
tangent on the earth's surface: the cone varies in shape, is generally of
a good diameter, occasionally much pulled out, some being 2,300 feet in
height, the currents are most violent at the apex.
They come and go in all directions, even after starting, not always
preserving the original direction. They are less common on days in which
winds prevail from any given direction, and vary much in intensity from a
mere breeze, lightly laden with dust and with no tortuosity, to a violent
cone of wind, capable of throwing down a _soldari_.
Northerly winds are prevalent here from 1 or 2 P.M. until 8 or 9 P.M.,
occasionally they only commence in the evening, when they are obviously
due to the rarefaction of the air of the valleys by the great heat of the
sun, amounting now to 100 degrees at 3 P.M., and the vacuum being
supplied by gusts from the high mountains to the north and north-east.