_From Peshawur to Pushut_.
_January 8th_.--At Ichardeh. Between Busoollah and Lalpoor are three
curious low ridges, none above sixty feet high, and all of small extent;
they are covered with fractured masses of rock of the same size as those
strewn so liberally about the shingly slopes; but they are much cleaner
or fresher looking, and appear to me less worn. Whence do they derive
their singular situation? They occur in such numbers, that one would at
first think they originated from a mass of ruins, but the ridges present
scarcely any surface for buildings to stand upon, certainly not to such
extent as would account for the abundance of these fragments.
About Huzarnow and on both sides, low ridges of sand occur. In this sand
graves are usually dug, and in some places to an extent indicating
dreadful devastations from disease, each grave is headed by a stone, and
about every ramification of the irregular size of the burial ground,
there is a building of the usual mud structure, designed for a mosque,
but not domed as is customary in Mussulman cemeteries, but ornamented
with flagstaffs bearing white bits of cloth. These low sand ridges are
often very much undulated; they consist of a very fine powder, and at
Huzarnow are evidently of the same nature as the cultivated soil: they
are neither in attachment as it were to the neighbouring hills, nor
distinct from them, but always have some communication with the shingly
slopes, to which they are evidently inferior.
So that the base of Khorassan may be taken to be the tillable portions,
over which occur, to a vast extent, the shingly very barren slopes, which
every section shows to be nothing but a mass of debris, resting on the
mountain rocks.
_9th_.--Ali-Baghan. To this the road is good, along the right bank of
the river, wherever it does not wind along over the spurs forming a
considerable part of the march. To the first point where this occurs, it
extends over the same sort of plain as that about Ichardeh; keeping
rather close to the bank of the river, it is good, also through the
valley of Gundikuss, and from near the _Choky_, to Ali-Baghan.
The first rocky ridge is about three-quarters of a mile in length, and is
not very difficult; at the end near Gundikuss, is a curious ruin built
into the stream, where the latter runs with violence on the rocky bank:
it consists of a broadish pathway, with a wall on the river side, breast
high; the masonry is good and solid, of the usual Bactrian materials, but
well cemented; it has mostly been ruined by the river, only one end being
perfect. Although the materials are _Bactrian_, the contour is
Mussulman, and I was told by some people that it was a Mussulman
erection: originally it perhaps extended all along this part, as slight
traces here and there are discernible; for what use the original
structure was intended I know not, as there are no remains visible of a
fort.
The inlet of Gundikuss is well cultivated, the village itself a large
straggling one, built close under a ridge.
From this to the _Choky_ the path is rocky, and in many places very bad,
consisting of a series of ascents and descents, and winding round spurs;
in the worst place, the path almost overhangs the river 200 feet above
its bed, and it is very hard and very rocky. The distance between ten or
eleven miles, the road is impracticable for guns, etc. nor could our
camels with loads well get over it.
_10th_.--To Camp at the Bussout river, nothing remarkable occurred;
immense quantities of Serratuloides on the sandy raviny parts of the
road. Crossed the river on the usual _mussuck_ rafts, the animals forded
it, at the quiet head of a rapid, water breast deep: this river is
smaller than that from Kooner.
_11th_.--To Bussout, five miles. A village passed about one and quarter
mile up Kooner ghat, here a mile broad. No change in the features of the
country, which throughout is well cultivated; here and there abundance of
sedges, in the low ground; plenty of watercuts, but none of any great
size: road worse at the entrance of the ghat rounding the east boundary,
but guns might avoid this ground by keeping towards centre of the ghat.
12th.--To Sha-i-wa, distance 8 miles. The road after turning the angle
of Bussout ghat, passed entirely through cultivation, villages, trees and
inhabitants more numerous than in any other place, cuts numerous, but the
road altogether from this cause and the cultivated fields very bad. Rubus
found along cuts at Chunar-Bukkeen. _Toot_, _Phaenix_. Vines numerous,
of large size, running up mulberry trees; forests seen on Kooner
mountain? _Umlook_ and _Julghogal_, very common grain, very dear. The
women are generally clothed in dark blue _Noorgul_. The road now extends
up a gorge to our front, named Durrah.
Gooraiek fort on the opposite side.
_13th_.--Halted. River much clearer than that of Jallalabad; its bed
affords abundance of large grass.
_14th_.--Rejoined camp, keeping on the north bank of river. The road
passed over tillable recesses among the hills forming the north boundary
of Kooner valley, and over the spurs dividing these, of which the first
is short but bad, the last is a mile long, road infamous, narrow, rocky,
and in some places overhanging the river. I was attacked about a mile
and a half from camp, my servant Abdool Boyak, the bravest and most
trustworthy Asiatic I ever saw, wounded, losing the two first fingers of
his right hand; this was opposite the old Fort, Noorgul, which is a
dilapidated _kafir_ ruin on a low island in the centre of the valley and
river, a strong position. {435} Other ruins occur on the road, one near
Sek-Syud, the spur being covered with its remains.
After leaving Deh-Syud, the valley becomes contracted; the river
occupying almost all its level portion, being much spread out, and with
numerous grassy islands; the cultivation occurring in the recesses
between the banks of the rivers and the glacis slopes.
_15th_.--To Kooner, the road passes to Noorgul, an old _kafir_ fort, done
up and occupied by Kooneriles, to its south-west, three-quarters of a
mile a hostile fort is situated. The ferry is about two miles from
Noorgul, and is with difficulty fordable: the streams, three in number,
the last almost brim full, and very rapid; thence to Kooner is over a
cultivated country.
Noorgul is on a commanding position, the ground rising gradually on all
sides to it; the valley here is very narrow. Observed Cnicus, Fumaria,
Lotus, Anagallis caerulea, and Veronica agrestis, springing up: trees
continue the same to about Kooner: some fine plane trees observed.
All the mountains are wooded at a certain height, and in greater
quantities, very different however from Himalayan forests, being dotted
in parts, rather than uniformly clothed with forest, Andropogon one of
the ordinary spring forms: the _churs_ or islands in the river are also
covered with Andropogoneous vegetation.
_16th_.--To Pushut, or rather to within one mile of it, rain throughout
the day accompanied by an unpleasant wind down the valley. Road except
for the first mile, during which it passed through cultivation,
troublesome, otherwise with the exception of two ravines, at one of which
the horses were taken out of the guns, very good: valley narrow, say
three miles, the boundary ridges to the north presenting as it were,
truncate faces to the valley, all the mountains at certain heights are
well wooded.
_17th_.--Rain continued since, almost without intermission, very dirty
weather, but no wind.
Snow on the hills around, almost within 1,500 to 2,000 feet of this, the
mountains to the south are well wooded, the woods occurring here and
there in forests; snow is said to fall here occasionally.
_18th_.--The attack took place this morning, and failed on account of the
weather, which was sufficient to damp any thing, and which prevented the
powder bags from exploding, as well as a second cask of cartridges. The
men were withdrawn about twelve, rain pouring down, ammunition of the
guns being expended, and that for musquetry quite useless; a few more
rounds would have demolished the entrance gateway and brought it down
bodily; loss severe, twenty five men killed, thirty-two wounded, several
dangerously. The fort was well defended, and evidently by a mere handful
of people.
_19th_.--Last night the fort was evacuated as well as that on the
opposite side, and the Syud has made off into the hills. It cleared up
in the morning but is now as threatening as ever, the ditch of the fort
is twelve or fifteen feet deep, but like all Affghan ditches it is
narrow. The parapets were very slight, so that a more powerful battery
would have kept down their fire completely; no injury had occurred to the
inner gate except its being off one of its hinges, or rather out of one
of its sockets. The entrance _was thus round the gate_, not
through the gateway: it was protected by a thick screen of brushwood and
mud, all of the shots from the second position had lodged in the wall
close to the side of the gate; every thing was carried off, except a
little grain, and some gunpowder.
_20th_.--Continued rain.
_21st_.--Snow within 500 feet.
_22nd_.--Moved camp.
_23rd_.--Continued rain and sleet, almost passing into snow.
[Section of Kooner valley: m436.jpg]
_Desideratum_.--Required to ascertain positively whether the shingle and
boulders are in all cases not derived from the boundary mountains: that
they are not in many cases is clear, witness the declivities of slate
rocks, totally incapable of assuming the form of boulders. The
proportions of the cultivated to the uncultivatable land is previously
given rather in favour of the tillable portion, this is always a light,
almost impalpable powder, consistent when wetted: generally the soil owes
any fertile qualities it has here, to the presence of water; thus the
Dusht-i-Bedowlut produces nothing beyond its indigenous plants from
having no water.
The transition from the extremely bare mountains of the Hindoo-koosh as
seen on the road to Bamean, to the well wooded ones of the Himalaya,
takes place at Jugdulluck, the hills, round which, produce plenty of
Baloot: in this direction, the forests become much thicker as we proceed
to the eastward. There is a mountain near Jallalabad, which at once
arrests the attention from its being wooded. Nothing like it occurring
between this and Cabul, on any part of the chain of mountains distinctly
referrable to the Himalayas. Wooded as this is, it is nothing to the
woods on the mountains about Pushut, the size of these has been well
demonstrated by the late snows: some bare places occur, which
appearances, Abdool says are from cultivation of Kohistanes. Baloot
abounds, Dodonea also is now coming into flower! a curious fact pointing
out its northern qualifications, although in form it is very like a
Mergui Dodonea.
_24th_.--A clear day after a night of heavy rain, still no appearance of
settled weather; walked in the afternoon towards the Dhurrah at the south
side of the valley. The bouldery slope presented an abrupt bank of a
considerable angle, and its limits were most marked from that of the
tillable soil; as we approached the foot of the ghat, the fragments
became larger, they are angular, and have been little if at all worn;
thence I walked eastwards to a small isolated ridge of limestone, perhaps
a mile from the foot of the boundary chain, and returned to camp. In
this direction, which is that of the torrents, occasionally rushing out
of the Dhurrah, the transition between the mountain slope, and the
tillable soil, was gradual, the action of water carrying farther down
small fragments, and turning some of the fields into a sandy shingly
soil: the depth of the beds of these torrents here, is perhaps four feet,
the section being a mass of very unequal fragments.
I am not certain whether these fragments are derived from the mountains
or not, they seem to be too varied, and too widely spread for that,
although the course of the occasional torrents must vary very much.
Another puzzling thing is, that in the section afforded by the ditch of
the fort, and which is seventeen feet deep, the shingle underlies the
tillable soil.
The vegetation of the slopes here partakes of the nature of the Khyber
pass, the prevailing feature consists in coarse tufts of Andropogonous
grasses, Lycioides occurs, also Periplocea, also Cryptandoid, Euonymus,
these are on the cliffy ridge of limestone alluded to, 2 sp. of
Astragalus, Solanum jacquini? Schaenanthus, Sedoides pictum very common,
a small fern, apparently a Cryptogramma, Grimonia, Tortula, a Bryum,
three or four lichens, one Marchantiacea found under boulders or in
crevices of rocks, one Salsola, Fagonia, Dianthoid, Statice common,
Onosma, Artemisia one or two, a large Cnicoid.
The only new feature is a shrubby dwarf fragrant Composita, foliis albis
subobovatis, dentatis grossiusculi margine revolutis.
_24th_.--A break after a very wet night, cloudy throughout the day.
_25th_.--A fine day, particularly towards evening, beautifully clear.
_26th_.--No rain, but very cloudy, cold north-east wind.
_27th_.--Rain very threatening, a disgusting country in which it is
impossible to take exercise without a strong guard: no means of access to
the beautiful forests visible in several directions, and the natives are
so intractable that it is impossible to induce them to bring in specimens
of their various trees, the only things about which I am anxious.
In the meantime I have begun to use the theodolite, and getting
approximations to the height of those peaks remarkable for their features
of vegetation.
It is curious that no pines are visible on any range south of the Kooner
river, until we reach those heights on the opposite side of a very
conspicuous ravine, up which the Bajore road runs. To the north, on all
the ranges of sufficient height, fine forests are visible, especially of
firs, other large-crowned trees exist, forming the bulk of the forests,
below the limit of the pines, but never grouped as those are, but
occurring isolatedly, these I call generally, _Baloot_ woods, i.e.
Quercus _Baloot_.
The only means I have of gaining any idea of the composition of these
forests, are derived from the twigs and branches, which are used by the
natives as pads for the loads of _wood_ which they bring into for sale,
and which almost consequently are from the lowermost limits of woody
vegetation. To go among the woods unguarded, is impossible, and
secondly, the weather is very bad.
_Memoranda_.--That it cannot always be deficiency of soil which causes
the extreme barrenness of the usual Khorassan mountains, because on the
Kalo Pass to Bamean, nearly 13,000 feet high, the soil is abundant; but
in this case, height may interfere.
It is obvious between Kooner and Cabul, that the transition from
absolutely treeless mountains to well-wooded ones occurs nearer to Kooner
than Cabul, because the Hindoo-koosh about Cabul, and to the eastward, is
said to be treeless.
How interesting will the examination of these woods be, how different
will be their flora from that of Khorassan proper!
To define the Khorassan Province also, by its being destitute of wood or
trees. Note its passing off from this character between Ghuzni and
Quettah, see Marryott's letter about Kooner, compare with _Mazenderam_
_forests_. Fine plane trees occur here, all the vines are trained on
mulberries. What is Burnes' holly oak, or lily oak?
Rubus occurs, Ranunculus stolonifolia, a cold season plant, Euphorbia
ditto, and the usual Peshawur forms.
_28th_.--Fine weather; clouds however, still flying about.
_29th_.--A fine morning; in the afternoon threatening, night cloudy, all
the clouds come down the ravine! except when the wind occasionally shifts
to west.
_30th_.--Fine weather, although still unsettled. I procured the other
day a few specimens of trees from the hills to the south of this, among
these which amount only to a few, are one Myrtus, an Olenia, both of
which bear me out in assuming that the woody vegetations of these hills
will present a curious transition between the genuine Australio-European
and the Himalayan forms.
_31st_.--Almost every isolated rock in this country is covered with ruins
which vary much in extent, and are often barely perceptible, but careful
looking will detect them in all situations about gorges, and such places.
From the rivers running under rocks, the paths which must be resorted to,
at least at this season, are very difficult. It would be curious to
speculate on the different state of preservation of these ruins, and the
singular people to whom they are due.
The soil of this valley is very deep in places: in one place on the
opposite side of the river, it is twenty-five feet at least, the depth
obviously diminishing towards the bed of the river, or the lowest part of
the valley.
[Section through river valley: m440.jpg]
In this valley, at least about here, curious round thatched huts are
visible about villages, intended for religious females, they are closed
except at a small door.
Cotton much cultivated.
The _Jala_, or float skins used for crossing rivers, are inflated by
_bellows_ of the usual description, this causes delay as some require to
be inflated very often owing to the eagerness of those who want to be
ferried over, and who rush indiscriminately on the _Jala_ which, from the
rafts being few and far apart, occasion delay; such ferries were not
intended for impatient travellers; nothing can show the want of
intelligence of the people more than this abominably slow method of
crossing rivers; here, there is little excuse for it, as wood is
abundant.
The Culminating peak to the west of the north Dhurrah, shows that here,
as elsewhere, snow lies longer on the north than south sides: it also
affords a curious instance of the various disposition of snow: those
angles of its faces presented to the south having none, or little snow;
or does this depend upon the faces having different declivities?
_February 1st_.--First part of last night clear; but the wind shifting
from west to north-east, has again thoroughly clouded the sky, night
beautifully clear, no rain, and no wind during the day.
_2nd_.--A windy but clear night, succeeded by a beautiful morning, wind
as usual, north-east or thereabouts, i.e. down the river.
I have seen it mentioned somewhere, that in arid climates the only
support of vegetable life exists in the dews, which are hence, at least
in the cases alluded to, supposed to be providential adaptations to
supply certain deficiencies. But considering that dews consist of
nothing but a deposition of moisture: it follows that in very arid
climates, as there is no moisture, so there can be no dews. For the
deposition of a dew, the fist essential thing, is moisture, either in the
ground or in the air, this last may have been derived from the ground. If
neither the ground nor the air contain moisture, no dews can exist, this
is the case in Khorassan.
Throughout the whole campaign no dews were noticed, although the nights
were almost uniformly serene and calm, and the time chosen for marching,
would have certainly brought us in contact with them had they been
deposited. Dews therefore do not form in Khorassan, _with these_
_exceptions_, that wherever from the nature, and the level of the soil,
water was found very near the surface, dews were deposited; as on the
_Chummums_ or low marshy pasturages at Candahar, Cabul, etc.
But even these were trifling, the aridity of the air being too great as
compared with the small extent of Chummums, to allow the deposit of any
considerable portion of the moisture it had derived from the ground.
So that aridity, instead of being adapted to dews, is a serious obstacle
to their ever appearing. With the rarity of dew, that of hoarfrost which
is nothing but frozen dew, may be associated; nor does hoarfrost often
occur, because in Khorassan it rains in the winter too freely,
particularly in all such places whose elevation is not sufficient to
cause the formation of snow, and hence where other circumstances are
favourable for hoarfrosts, _they are too much watered_ as it
were, and seldom occur. With extreme aridity, Khorassan unites extreme
electricity, the casual friction of woollen cloths, especially those of
camels' hair being accompanied by discharges sufficiently startling. The
same thing happens when caressing dogs or horses. I could never fill the
barometer without experiencing a shock as the mercury approached the
_bottom end_ of the tube, which (when nervous) used to endanger it.
It is this extreme aridity that gives Khorassan so rich a spring flora,
this season being that of rain, of melting of snow, and the ground being
well moistened.
It is this extreme aridity that necessitates the abundance of bulbous
plants in Khorassan, these deposits of nutrition existing even in several
of its Compositae.
Query--Why are Carduaceae, (Artemisia) so adapted to aridity?
The region of Carduaceae, commences about Ghuzni, and extends to _Maidan_
or Cabul, it is at its maximum about Shaikabad and Huftasya. The
abundance of Carduaceae on the higher grounds, as for instance towards
Bamean, belong rather to a vernal flora.
I hope to be particular in hereafter comparing the floras of all the
deserts? and to notice the absurd remarks of some travellers in
Khoristhan, on the domesticated parasitic nature of the watermelon plant,
on the Hedysarum Alhagi, _Shooturkari_.
_3rd_.--Fine moderate north-east wind, very clear.
_4th_.--Over-clouded.
_5th_.--Rain.
_6th_.--Unsettled.
_7th_.--Rain, thunder, distant lightning occasionally last night.
_8th_.--Fine: ice in the morning, thermometer five feet from the ground
35 degrees at 7 A.M.
_9th_.--Fine diffused clouds last night, succeeded by a strong northeast
wind.
_10th_.--Fine.
_11th_.--Fine in the morning, then threatening.
_12th_.--Quite over-clouded, north-east wind. The inferior level of snow
is now several hundred feet above that which it was at first.
Oxalis corniculata in abundance, what an universal plant this is.
All the natives of these parts wear sandals, those about the Khyber being
made of the leaves of a small Chamaerops, which is common on the rocks of
those mountains.
A proof of the extreme want of useful plants is seen in the fact, that
baskets are scarcely ever seen, all the loads of flour, etc. being
invariably carried in skins.
Leopards' skins for the purpose are obtained from Chugur Serai, Pullung
and also Sofaid-Koh.
_16th_.--The troops marched on their return. A lark very much like the
English species occurs in flocks; it is a stupid bird, although obviously
aware of its resemblance to clods of earth, which it makes use of on
every occasion when a little frightened. The Gypaetos is also found
here; it feeds principally on carrion. I observed Trichrodroma for the
first time here to-day, this bird is by no means a powerful climber;
indeed the individual seen to-day could only cling, he was employed about
sand banks of the irrigating canals, etc. hopping from one likely spot to
another, clinging here and there momentarily, and always aiding himself
in his inclined position by a flutter of his wings; holes seemed always
to attract him. It is by no means a shy bird. I should observe however
that I have seen this species running up and down cliffs, so that perhaps
the rather loose sand would not give firm hold to his claws.
As I mentioned elsewhere, this bird is allied, at least in analogy to
Upupa, it has its precise habit of flight and a good deal of its habits
in looking for food, although the Hoopoe pokes about in the ground, or
rather hammers the ground alone. It is however fond of building in holes
of walls, it breeds at Punukka, in April.
I observed, and shot a weasel, or a _mungoose_ to-day, whilst it was
employed feeding on the cast away skin of a goat or sheep, so that some
of these creatures evidently feed occasionally on carrion, although they
are said to live upon live prey.