[1] In one form, _Nisoides_, which on that account has been
generically separated, they are said to be perfectly straight.
HAWKE, EDWARD HAWKE, BARON (1705-1781), British admiral, was the only
son of Edward Hawke, a barrister. On his mother's side he was the nephew
of Colonel Martin Bladen (1680-1746), a politician of some note, and was
connected with the family of Fairfax. Edward Hawke entered the navy on
the 20th of February 1720 and served the time required to qualify him to
hold a lieutenant's commission on the North American and West Indian
stations. Though he passed his examination on the 2nd of June 1725, he
was not appointed to a ship to act in that rank till 1729, when he was
named third lieutenant of the "Portland" in the Channel. The continuance
of peace allowed him no opportunities of distinction, but he was
fortunate in obtaining promotion as commander of the "Wolf" sloop in
1733, and as post captain of the "Flamborough" (20) in 1734. When war
began with Spain in 1739, he served as captain of the "Portland" (50) in
the West Indies. His ship was old and rotten. She nearly drowned her
captain and crew, and was broken up after she was paid off in 1742. In
the following year Hawke was appointed to the "Berwick" (70), a fine new
vessel, and was attached to the Mediterranean fleet then under the
command of Thomas Mathews. The "Berwick" was manned badly, and suffered
severely from sickness, but in the ill-managed battle of Toulon on the
11th of January 1744 Hawke gained great distinction by the spirit with
which he fought his ship. The only prize taken by the British fleet, the
Spanish "Poder" (74), surrendered to him, and though she was not kept by
the admiral, Hawke was not in any degree to blame for the loss of the
only trophy of the fight. His gallantry attracted the attention of the
king. There is a story that he was dismissed from the service for having
left the line to engage the "Poder," and was restored by the king's
order. The legend grew not unnaturally out of the confusing series of
courts martial which arose out of the battle, but it has no foundation.
There is better reason to believe that when at a later period the
Admiralty intended to pass over Hawke's name in a promotion of admirals,
the king, George II., did insist that he should not be put on the
retired list.
He had no further chance of making his energy and ability known out of
the ranks of his own profession, where they were fully realized, till
1747. In July of that year he attained flag rank, and was named second
in command of the Channel fleet. Owing to the ill health of his superior
he was sent in command of the fourteen ships detached to intercept a
French convoy on its way to the West Indies. On the 14th of October 1747
he fell in with it in the Bay of Biscay. The French force, under M.
Desherbiers de l'Etenduere, consisted of nine ships, which were,
however, on the average larger than Hawke's. He attacked at once. The
French admiral sent one of his liners to escort the merchant ships on
their way to the West Indies, and with the other eight fought a very
gallant action with the British squadron. Six of the eight French ships
were taken. The French admiral did for a time succeed in saving the
trading vessels under his charge, but most of them fell into the hands
of the British cruisers in the West Indies. Hawke was made a knight of
the Bath for this timely piece of service, a reward which cannot be said
to have been lavish.
In 1747 Hawke had been elected M.P. for Portsmouth, which he continued
to represent for thirty years, though he can seldom have been in his
place, and it does not appear that he often spoke. A seat in parliament
was always valuable to a naval officer at that time, since it enabled
him to be useful to ministers, and increased his chances of obtaining
employment. Hawke had married a lady of fortune in Yorkshire, Catherine
Brook, in 1737, and was able to meet the expenses entailed by a seat in
parliament, which were considerable at a time when votes were openly
paid for by money down. In the interval between the war of the Austrian
Succession and the Seven Years' War, Hawke was almost always on active
service. From 1748 till 1752 be was in command at home, and he rehoisted
his flag in 1755 as admiral in command of the Western Squadron. Although
war was not declared for some time, England and France were on very
hostile terms, and conflicts between the officers of the two powers in
America had already taken place. Neither government was scrupulous in
abstaining from the use of force while peace was still nominally
unbroken. Hawke was sent to sea to intercept a French squadron which had
been cruising near Gibraltar, but a restriction was put on the limits
within which he might cruise, and he failed to meet the French. The
fleet was much weakened by ill-health. In June 1756 the news of John
Byng's retreat from Minorca reached England and aroused the utmost
indignation. Hawke was at once sent out to relieve him in the
Mediterranean command, and to send him home for trial. He sailed in the
"Antelope," carrying, as the wits of the day put it, "a cargo of
courage" to supply deficiencies in that respect among the officers then
in the Mediterranean. Minorca had fallen, from want of resources rather
than the attacks of the French, before he could do anything for the
assistance of the garrison of Fort St Philip. In winter he was recalled
to England, and he reached home on the 14th of January 1757. On the 24th
of February following he was promoted full admiral.
It is said, but on no very good authority, that he was not on good terms
with Pitt (afterwards earl of Chatham), and it is certain that when
Pitt's great ministry was formed in June 1757, he was not included in
the Board of Admiralty. Yet as he was continued in command of important
forces in the Channel, it is obvious that his great capacity was fully
recognized. In the late summer of 1757 he was entrusted with the naval
side of an expedition to the coast of France. These operations, which
were scoffingly described at the time as breaking windows with guineas,
were a favourite device of Pitt's for weakening the French and raising
the confidence of the country. The expedition of 1757 was directed
against Rochefort, and it effected nothing. Hawke, who probably expected
very little good from it, did his own work as admiral punctually, but he
cannot be said to have shown zeal, or any wish to inspirit the military
officers into making greater efforts than they were disposed naturally
to make. The expedition returned to Spithead by the 6th of October. No
part of the disappointment of the public, which was acute, was visited
on Hawke. During the end of 1757 and the beginning of 1758 be continued
cruising in the Channel in search of the French naval forces, without
any striking success. In May of that year he was ordered to detach a
squadron under the command of Howe to carry out further combined
operations. Hawke considered himself as treated with a want of due
respect, and was at the time in bad humour with the Admiralty. He
somewhat pettishly threw up his command, but was induced to resume it by
the board, which knew his value, and was not wanting in flattery. He
retired in June for a time on the ground of health, but happily for his
own glory and the service of the country he was able to hoist his flag
in May 1759, the "wonderful year" of Garrick's song.
France was then elaborating a scheme of invasion which bears much
resemblance to the plan afterwards formed by Napoleon. An army of
invasion was collected at the Morbihan in Brittany, and the intention
was to transport it under the protection of a powerful fleet which was
to be made up by uniting the squadron at Brest with the ships at Toulon.
The plan, like Napoleon's, had slight chance of success, since the naval
part of the invading force must necessarily be brought together from
distant points at the risk of interruption by the British squadrons. The
naval forces of England were amply sufficient to provide whatever was
needed to upset the plans of the French government. But the country was
not so confident in the capacity of the navy to serve as a defence as it
was taught to be in later generations. It had been seized by a most
shameful panic at the beginning of the war in face of a mere threat of
invasion. Therefore the anxiety of Pitt to baffle the schemes of the
French decisively was great, and the country looked on at the
development of the naval campaign with nervous attention. The proposed
combination of the French fleet was defeated by the annihilation of the
Toulon squadron on the coast of Portugal by Boscawen in May, but the
Brest fleet was still untouched and the troops were still at Morbihan.
It was the duty of Hawke to prevent attack from this quarter. The manner
in which he discharged his task marks an epoch in the history of the
navy. Until his time, or very nearly so, it was still believed that
there was rashness in keeping the great ships out after September. Hawke
maintained his blockade of Brest till far into November. Long cruises
had always entailed much bad health on the crews, but by the care he
took to obtain fresh food, and the energy he showed in pressing the
Admiralty for stores, he was able to keep his men healthy. Early in
November a series of severe gales forced him off the French coast, and
he was compelled to anchor in Torbay. His absence was brief, but it
allowed the French admiral, M. de Conflans (1690?-1777), time to put to
sea, and to steer for the Morbihan. Hawke, who had left Torbay on the
13th of November, learnt of the departure of the French at sea on the
17th from a look-out ship, and as the French admiral could have done
nothing but steer for the Morbihan, he followed him thither. The news
that M. de Conflans had got to sea spread a panic through the country,
and for some days Hawke was the object of abuse of the most irrational
kind. There was in fact no danger, for behind Hawke's fleet there were
ample reserves in the straits of Dover, and in the North Sea. Following
his enemy as fast as the bad weather, a mixture of calms and head winds
would allow, the admiral sighted the French about 40 m. to the west of
Belleisle on the morning of the 20th of November. The British fleet was
of twenty-one sail, the French of twenty. There was also a small
squadron of British ships engaged in watching the Morbihan as an inshore
squadron, which was in danger of being cut off. M. de Conflans had a
sufficient force to fight in the open sea without rashness, but after
making a motion to give battle, he changed his mind and gave the signal
to his fleet to steer for the anchorage at Quiberon. He did not believe
that the British admiral would dare to follow him, for the coast is one
of the most dangerous in the world, and the wind was blowing hard from
the west and rising to a storm. Hawke, however, pursued without
hesitation, though it was well on in the afternoon before he caught up
the rear of the French fleet, and dark by the time the two fleets were
in the bay. The action, which was more a test of seamanship than of
gunnery, or capacity to manoeuvre in order, ended in the destruction of
the French. Five ships only were taken or destroyed, but others ran
ashore, and the French navy as a whole lost all confidence. Two British
vessels were lost, but the price was little to pay for such a victory.
No more fighting remained to be done. The fleet in Quiberon Bay suffered
from want of food, and its distress is recorded in the lines:--
"Ere Hawke did bang
Mounseer Conflang
You sent us beef and beer;
Now Mounseer's beat
We've nought to eat,
Since you have nought to fear."
Hawke returned to England in January 1760 and had no further service at
sea. He was not made a peer till the 20th of May 1776, and then only as
Baron Hawke of Towton. From 1776 to 1771 he was first lord of the
Admiralty. His administration was much criticized, perhaps more from
party spirit than because of its real defects. Whatever his relations
with Lord Chatham may have been he was no favourite with Chatham's
partizans. It is very credible that, having spent all his life at sea,
his faculty did not show in the uncongenial life of the shore. As an
admiral at sea and on his own element Hawke has had no superior. It is
true that he was not put to the test of having to meet opponents of
equal strength and efficiency, but then neither has any other British
admiral since the Dutch wars of the 17th century. On his death on the
17th of October 1781 his title passed to his son, Martin Bladen
(1744-1805), and it is still held by his descendants, the 7th Baron (b.
1860) being best known as a great Yorkshire cricketer.
There is a portrait of Hawke in the Painted Hall at Greenwich. His
_Life_ by Montagu Burrows (1883) has superseded all other authorities;
it is supplemented in a few early particulars by Sir J. K. Laughton's
article in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ (1891).
HAWKER, ROBERT STEPHEN (1803-1874), English antiquary and poet, was born
at Stoke Damerel, Devonshire, on the 3rd of December 1803. His father,
Jacob Stephen Hawker, was at that time a doctor, but afterwards curate
and vicar of Stratton, Cornwall. Robert was sent to Liskeard grammar
school, and when he was about sixteen was apprenticed to a solicitor. He
was soon removed to Cheltenham grammar school, and in April 1823
matriculated at Pembroke College, Oxford. In the same year he married
Charlotte I'Ans, a lady much older than himself. On returning to Oxford
he migrated to Magdalen Hall, where he graduated in 1828, having already
won the Newdigate prize for poetry in 1827. He became vicar of
Morwenstow, a village on the north Cornish coast, in 1834. Hawker
described the bulk of his parishioners as a "mixed multitude of
smugglers, wreckers and dissenters of various hues." He was himself a
high churchman, and carried things with a high hand in his parish, but
was much beloved by his people. He was a man of great originality, and
numerous stories were told of his striking sayings and eccentric
conduct. He was the original of Mortimer Collins's Canon Tremaine in
_Sweet and Twenty_. His first wife died in 1863, and in 1864 he married
Pauline Kuczynski, daughter of a Polish exile. He died in Plymouth on
the 15th of August 1875. Before his death he was formally received into
the Roman Catholic Church, a proceeding which aroused a bitter newspaper
controversy. The best of his poems is _The Quest of the Sangraal: Chant
the First_ (Exeter, 1864). Among his _Cornish Ballads_ (1869) the most
famous is on "Trelawny," the refrain of which, "And shall Trelawny die,"
&c., he declared to be an old Cornish saying.
See _The Vicar of Morwenstow_ (1875; later and corrected editions,
1876 and 1886), by the Rev. S. Baring-Gould, which was severely
criticized by Hawker's friend, W. Maskell, in the _Athenaeum_ (March
26, 1876); _Memorials of the late Robert Stephen Hawker_ (1876), by
the late Dr F. G. Lee. These were superseded in 1905 by _The Life and
Letters of R. S. Hawker_, by his son-in-law, C. E. Byles, which
contains a bibliography of his works, now very valuable to collectors.
See also Boase and Courtney, _Bibliotheca Cornubiensis_. His _Poetical
Works_ (1879) and his _Prose Works_ (1893) were edited by J. G.
Godwin. Another edition of his _Poetical Works_ (1899) has a preface
and bibliography by Alfred Wallis, and a complete edition of his poems
by C. E. Byles, with the title _Cornish Ballads and other Poems_,
appeared in 1904.
HAWKERS and PEDLARS, the designation of itinerant dealers who convey
their goods from place to place to sell. The word "hawker" seems to have
come into English from the Ger. _Hoker_ or Dutch _heuker_ in the early
16th century. In an act of 1533 (25 Henry VIII. c. 9, S 6) we find
"Sundry evill disposed persons which commonly beane called haukers ...
buying and selling of Brasse and Pewter." The earlier word for such an
itinerant dealer is "huckster," which is found in 1200. "For that they
have turned God's house intill hucksteress bothe" (_Ormulum_, 15,817).
The base of the two words is the same, and is probably to be referred to
German _hocken_, to squat, crouch; cf. "hucklebone," the hip-bone; and
the hawkers or hucksters were so called either because they stooped
under their packs, or squatted at booths in markets, &c. Another
derivation finds the origin in the Dutch _hock_, a hole, corner. It may
be noticed that the termination of "huckster" is feminine; though there
are examples of its application to women it was always applied
indiscriminately to either sex.
"Pedlar" occurs much earlier than the verbal form "to peddle," which is
therefore a derivative from the substantive. The origin is to be found
in the still older word "pedder," one who carries about goods for sale
in a "ped," a basket or hamper. This is now only used dialectically and
in Scotland. In the _Ancren Riwle_ (c. 1225), _peoddare_ is found with
the meaning of "pedlar," though the _Promptorium parvulorum_ (c. 1440)
defines it as _calathasius_, i.e. a maker of panniers or baskets.
The French term for a hawker or pedlar of books, _colporteur_ (_col_,
neck, _porter_, to carry), has been adopted by the Bible Society and
other English religious bodies as a name for itinerant vendors and
distributors of Bibles and other religious literature.
The occupation of hawkers and pedlars has been regulated in the United
Kingdom, and the two classes have also been technically distinguished.
The Pedlars Act 1871 defines a pedlar as "any hawker, pedlar, petty
chapman, tinker, caster of metals, mender of chairs, or other person
who, _without_ any horse or other beast bearing or drawing burden,
travels and trades on foot and goes from town to town or to other
men's houses, carrying to sell or exposing for sale any goods, wares
or merchandise ... or selling or offering for sale his skill in
handicraft." Any person who acts as a pedlar must have a certificate,
which is to be obtained from the chief officer of police of the police
district in which the person applying for the certificate has resided
during one month previous to his application. He must satisfy the
officer that he is above seventeen years of age, is of good character,
and in good faith intends to carry on the trade of a pedlar. The fee
for a pedlar's certificate is five shillings, and the certificate
remains in force for a year from the date of issue. The act requires a
register of certificates to be kept in each district, and imposes a
penalty for the assigning, borrowing or forging of any certificate. It
does not exempt any one from vagrant law, and requires the pedlar to
show his certificate on demand to certain persons. It empowers the
police to inspect a pedlar's pack, and provides for the arrest of an
uncertificated pedlar or one refusing to show his certificate. A
pedlar's certificate is not required by commercial travellers, sellers
of vegetables, fish, fruit or victuals, or sellers in fairs. The
Hawkers Act 1888 defines a hawker as "any one who travels _with_ a
horse or other beast of burden, selling goods," &c. An excise licence
(expiring on the 31st of March in each year) must be taken out by
every hawker in the United Kingdom. The duty imposed upon such licence
is L2. A hawker's licence is not granted, otherwise than by way of
licence, except on production of a certificate signed by a clergyman
and two householders of the parish or place wherein the applicant
resides, or by a justice of the county or place, or a superintendent
or inspector of police for the district, attesting that the person is
of good character and a proper person to be licenced as a hawker.
There are certain exemptions from taking out a licence--commercial
travellers, sellers of fish, coal, &c., sellers in fairs, and the real
worker or maker of any goods. The act also lays down certain
provisions to be observed by hawkers and others, and imposes penalties
for infringements. In the United States hawkers and pedlars must take
out licences under State laws and Federal laws.
HAWKESWORTH, JOHN (c. 1715-1773), English miscellaneous writer, was born
in London about 1715. He is said to have been clerk to an attorney, and
was certainly self-educated. In 1744 he succeeded Samuel Johnson as
compiler of the parliamentary debates for the _Gentleman's Magazine_,
and from 1746 to 1749 he contributed poems signed Greville, or H.
Greville, to that journal. In company with Johnson and others he started
a periodical called _The Adventurer_, which ran to 140 numbers, of which
70 were from the pen of Hawkesworth himself. On account of what was
regarded as its powerful defence of morality and religion, Hawkesworth
was rewarded by the archbishop of Canterbury with the degree of LL.D. In
1754-1755 he published an edition (12 vols.) of Swift's works, with a
life prefixed which Johnson praised in his _Lives of the Poets_. A
larger edition (27 vols.) appeared in 1766-1779. He adapted Dryden's
_Amphitryon_ for the Drury Lane stage in 1756, and Southerne's
_Oronooko_ in 1759. He wrote the libretto of an oratorio _Zimri_ in
1760, and the next year _Edgar and Emmeline: a Fairy Tale_, was produced
at Drury Lane. His _Almoran and Hamet_ (2 vols., 1761) was first of all
drafted as a play, and a tragedy founded on it by S. J. Pratt, _The Fair
Circassian_ (1781), met with some success. He was commissioned by the
admiralty to edit Captain Cook's papers relative to his first voyage.
For this work, _An Account of the Voyages undertaken ... for making
discoveries in the Southern Hemisphere and performed by Commodore
Byrone, Captain Wallis, Captain Carteret and Captain Cook (from 1764 to
1771) drawn up from the Journals ..._ (3 vols., 1773), Hawkesworth is
said to have received from the publishers the sum of L6000. His
descriptions of the manners and customs of the South Seas were, however,
regarded by many critics as inexact and hurtful to the interests of
morality, and the severity of their strictures is said to have hastened
his death, which took place on the 16th of November 1773. He was buried
at Bromley, Kent, where he and his wife had kept a school. Hawkesworth
was a close imitator of Johnson both in style and thought, and was at
one time on very friendly terms with him. It is said that he presumed on
his success, and lost Johnson's friendship as early as 1756.
HAWKHURST, a town in the southern parliamentary division of Kent,
England, 47 m. S.E. of London, on a branch of the South-Eastern &
Chatham railway. Pop. (1901), 3136. It lies mainly on a ridge above the
valley of the Kent Ditch, a tributary of the Rother. The neighbouring
country is hilly, rich and well wooded, and the pleasant and healthy
situation has led to the considerable extension of the old village as a
residential locality. The Kent Sanatorium and one of the Barnardo homes
are established here. The church of St Lawrence, founded from Battle
Abbey in Sussex, is Decorated and Perpendicular and its east window, of
the earlier period, is specially beautiful.
HAWKINS, CAESAR HENRY (1798-1884), British surgeon, son of the Rev. E.
Hawkins and grandson of the Sir Caesar Hawkins (1711-1786), who was
serjeant-surgeon to Kings George II. and George III., was born at
Bisley, Gloucestershire, on the 19th of September 1798, was educated at
Christ's Hospital, and entered St George's Hospital, London, in 1818. He
was surgeon to the hospital from 1829 to 1861, and in 1862 was made
serjeant-surgeon to Queen Victoria. He was president of the College of
Surgeons in 1852, and again in 1861; and he delivered the Hunterian
oration in 1849. His success in complex surgical cases gave him a great
reputation. For long he was noted as the only surgeon who had succeeded
in the operation of ovariotomy in a London hospital. This occurred in
1846, when anaesthetics were unknown. He did much to popularize
colotomy. A successful operator, he nevertheless was attached to
conservative surgery, and was always more anxious to teach his pupils
how to save a limb than how to remove it. He reprinted his contributions
to the medical journals in two volumes, 1874, the more valuable papers
being on _Tumours_, _Excision of the Ovarium_, _Hydrophobia and
Snake-bites_, _Stricture of the Colon_, and _The Relative Claims of Sir
Charles Bell and Magendie to the Discovery of the Functions of the
Spinal Nerves_. He died on the 20th of July 1884. His brother, Edward
Hawkins (1789-1882), was the well-known provost of Oriel, Oxford, who
played so great a part in the Tractarian movement.
HAWKINS, or HAWKYNS, SIR JOHN (1532-1595), British admiral, was born at
Plymouth in 1532, and belonged to a family of Devonshire shipowners and
skippers--occupations then more closely connected than is now usual. His
father, William Hawkins (d. 1553), was a prosperous freeman of Plymouth,
who thrice represented that town in parliament, and is described by
Hakluyt as one of the principal sea-captains in the west parts of
England; his elder brother, also called William (d. 1589), was closely
associated with him in his Spanish expeditions, and took an active part
in fitting out ships to meet the Armada; and his nephew, the eldest son
of the last named and of the same name, sailed with Sir Francis Drake to
the South Sea in 1577, and served as lieutenant under Edward Fenton
(q.v.) in the expedition which started for the East Indies and China in
1582. His son, Sir Richard Hawkins, is separately noticed.
Sir John Hawkins was bred to the sea in the ships of his family. When
the great epoch of Elizabethan maritime adventure began, he took an
active part by sailing to the Guinea coast, where he robbed the
Portuguese slavers, and then smuggled the negroes he had captured into
the Spanish possessions in the New World. After a first successful
voyage in 1562-1563, two vessels which he had rashly sent to Seville
were confiscated by the Spanish government. With the help of friends,
and the open approval of the queen, who hired one of her vessels to him,
he sailed again in 1564, and repeated his voyage with success, trading
with the Creoles by force when the officials of the king endeavoured to
prevent him. These two voyages brought him reputation, and he was
granted a coat of arms with a demi-Moor, or negro, chained, as his
crest. The rivalry with Spain was now becoming very acute, and when
Hawkins sailed for the third time in 1567, he went in fact, though not
technically, on a national venture. Again he kidnapped negroes, and
forced his goods on the Spanish colonies. Encouraged by his discovery
that these settlements were small and unfortified, he on this occasion
ventured to enter Vera Cruz, the port of Mexico, after capturing some
Spaniards at sea to be held as hostages. He alleged that he had been
driven in by bad weather. The falsity of the story was glaring, but the
Spanish officers on the spot were too weak to offer resistance. Hawkins
was allowed to enter the harbour, and to refit at the small rocky island
of San Juan de Ulloa by which it is formed. Unfortunately for him, and
for a French corsair whom he had in his company, a strong Spanish force
arrived, bringing the new viceroy. The Spaniards, who were no more
scrupulous of the truth than himself, pretended to accept the
arrangement made before their arrival, and then when they thought he was
off his guard attacked him on the 24th of September. Only two vessels
escaped, his own, the "Minion," and the "Judith," a small vessel
belonging to his cousin Francis Drake. The voyage home was miserable,
and the sufferings of all were great.
For some years Hawkins did not return to the sea, though he continued to
be interested in privateering voyages as a capitalist. In the course of
1572 he recovered part of his loss by pretending to betray the queen for
a bribe to Spain. He acted with the knowledge of Lord Burleigh. In 1573
he became treasurer of the navy in succession to his father-in-law
Benjamin Gonson. The office of comptroller was conferred on him soon
after, and for the rest of his life he remained the principal
administrative officer of the navy. Burleigh noted that he was suspected
of fraud in his office, but the queen's ships were kept by him in good
condition. In 1588 he served as rear-admiral against the Spanish Armada
and was knighted. In 1590 he was sent to the coast of Portugal to
intercept the Spanish treasure fleet, but did not meet it. In giving an
account of his failure to the queen he quoted the text "Paul doth plant,
Apollo doth water, but God giveth the increase," which exhibition of
piety is said to have provoked the queen into exclaiming, "God's death!
This fool went out a soldier, and has come home a divine." In 1595 he
accompanied Drake on another treasure-hunting voyage to the West Indies,
which was even less successful, and he died at sea off Porto Rico on the
12th of November 1595.
Hawkins was twice married, first to Katharine Gonson and then to
Margaret Vaughan. He was counted a puritan when puritanism meant little
beyond hatred of Spain and popery, and when these principles were an
ever-ready excuse for voyages in search of slaves and plunder. In the
course of one of his voyages, when he was becalmed and his negroes were
dying, he consoled himself by the reflection that God would not suffer
His elect to perish. Contemporary evidence can be produced to show that
he was greedy, unscrupulous and rude. But if he had been a more delicate
man he would not have risked the gallows by making piratical attacks on
the Portuguese and by appearing in the West Indies as an armed smuggler;
and in that case he would not have played an important part in history
by setting the example of breaking down the pretension of the Spaniards
to exclude all comers from the New World. His morality was that of the
average stirring man of his time, whether in England or elsewhere.
See R. A. J. Walling, _A Sea-dog of Devon_ (1907); and Southey in his
_British Admirals_, vol. iii. The original accounts of his voyages
compiled by Hakluyt have been reprinted by the Hakluyt Society, with a
preface by Sir C. R. Markham.
HAWKINS, SIR JOHN (1719-1789), English writer on music, was born on the
30th of March 1719, in London, the son of an architect who destined him
for his own profession. Ultimately, however, Hawkins took to the law,
devoting his leisure hours to his favourite study of music. A wealthy
marriage in 1753 enabled him to indulge his passion for acquiring rare
works of music, and he bought, for example, the collection formed by Dr
Pepusch, and subsequently presented by Hawkins to the British Museum. It
was on such materials that Hawkins founded his celebrated work on the
_General History of the Science and Practice of Music_, in 5 vols.
(republished in 2 vols., 1876). It was brought out in 1776, the same
year which witnessed the appearance of the first volume of Burney's work
on the same subject. The relative merits of the two works were eagerly
discussed by contemporary critics. Burney no doubt is infinitely
superior as a literary man, and his work accordingly comes much nearer
the idea of a systematic treatise on the subject than Hawkins's, which
is essentially a collection of rare and valuable pieces of music with a
more or less continuous commentary. But by rescuing these from oblivion
Hawkins has given a permanent value to his work. Of Hawkins's literary
efforts apart from music it will be sufficient to mention his occasional
contributions to the _Gentleman's Magazine_, his edition (1760) of the
_Complete Angler_ (1787) and his biography of Dr Johnson, with whom he
was intimately acquainted. He was one of the original members of the Ivy
Lane Club, and ultimately became one of Dr Johnson's executors. If there
were any doubt as to his intimacy with Johnson, it would be settled by
the slighting way in which Boswell refers to him. Speaking of the Ivy
Lane Club, he mentions amongst the members "Mr John Hawkins, an
attorney," and adds the following footnote, which at the same time may
serve as a summary of the remaining facts of Hawkins's life: "He was for
several years chairman of the Middlesex justices, and upon presenting an
address to the king accepted the usual offer of knighthood (1772). He is
the author of a _History of Music_ in five volumes in quarto. By
assiduous attendance upon Johnson in his last illness he obtained the
office of one of his executors--in consequence of which the booksellers
of London employed him to publish an edition of Dr Johnson's works and
to write his life." Sir John Hawkins died on the 21st of May 1789, and
was buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey.
HAWKINS, or HAWKYNS, SIR RICHARD (c. 1562-1622), British seaman, was the
only son of Admiral Sir John Hawkins (q.v.) by his first marriage. He
was from his earliest days familiar with ships and the sea, and in 1582
he accompanied his uncle, William Hawkins, to the West Indies. In 1585
he was captain of a galliot in Drake's expedition to the Spanish main,
in 1588 he commanded a queen's ship against the Armada, and in 1590
served with his father's expedition to the coast of Portugal. In 1593 he
purchased the "Dainty," a ship originally built for his father and used
by him in his expeditions, and sailed for the West Indies, the Spanish
main and the South Seas. It seems clear that his project was to prey on
the oversea possessions of the king of Spain. Hawkins, however, in an
account of the voyage written thirty years afterwards, maintained, and
by that time perhaps had really persuaded himself, that his expedition
was undertaken purely for the purpose of geographical discovery. After
visiting the coast of Brazil, the "Dainty" passed through the Straits of
Magellan, and in due course reached Valparaiso. Having plundered the
town, Hawkins pushed north, and in June 1594, a year after leaving
Plymouth, arrived in the bay of San Mateo. Here the "Dainty" was
attacked by two Spanish ships. Hawkins was hopelessly outmatched, but
defended himself with great courage. At last, when he himself had been
severely wounded, many of his men killed, and the "Dainty" was nearly
sinking, he surrendered on the promise of a safe-conduct out of the
country for himself and his crew. Through no fault of the Spanish
commander this promise was not kept. In 1597 Hawkins was sent to Spain,
and imprisoned first at Seville and subsequently at Madrid. He was
released in 1602, and, returning to England, was knighted in 1603. In
1604 he became member of parliament for Plymouth and vice-admiral of
Devon, a post which, as the coast was swarming with pirates, was no
sinecure. In 1620-1621 he was vice-admiral, under Sir Robert Mansell, of
the fleet sent into the Mediterranean to reduce the Algerian corsairs.
He died in London on the 17th of April 1622.
See his _Observations in his Voiage into the South Sea_ (1622),
republished by the Hakluyt Society.
HAWKS, FRANCIS LISTER (1798-1866), American clergyman, was born at
Newbern, North Carolina, on the 10th of June 1798, and graduated at the
university of his native state in 1815. After practising law with some
distinction he entered the Episcopalian ministry in 1827 and proved a
brilliant and impressive preacher, holding livings in New Haven,
Philadelphia, New York and New Orleans, and declining several
bishoprics. On his appointment as historiographer of his church in 1835,
he went to England, and collected the abundant materials afterwards
utilized in his _Contributions to the Ecclesiastical History of U.S.A._
(New York, 1836-1839). These two volumes dealt with Maryland and
Virginia, while two later ones (1863-1864) were devoted to Connecticut.
He was the first president of the university of Louisiana (now merged in
Tulane). He died in New York on the 26th of September 1866.
HAWKSHAW, SIR JOHN (1811-1891), English engineer, was born in Yorkshire
in 1811, and was educated at Leeds grammar school. Before he was
twenty-one he had been engaged for six or seven years in railway
engineering and the construction of roads in his native county, and in
the year of his majority he obtained an appointment as engineer to the
Bolivar Mining Association in Venezuela. But the climate there was more
than his health could stand, and in 1834 he was obliged to return to
England. He soon obtained employment under Jesse Hartley at the
Liverpool docks, and subsequently was made engineer in charge of the
railway and navigation works of the Manchester, Bury and Bolton Canal
Company. In 1845 he became chief engineer to the Manchester & Leeds
railway, and in 1847 to its successor, the Lancashire & Yorkshire
railway, for which he constructed a large number of branch lines. In
1850 he removed to London and began to practise as a consulting
engineer, at first alone, but subsequently in partnership with Harrison
Hayter. In that capacity his work was of an extremely varied nature,
embracing almost every branch of engineering. He retained his connexion
with the Lancashire & Yorkshire Company until his retirement from
professional work in 1888, and was consulted on all the important
engineering points that affected it in that long period. In London he
was responsible for the Charing Cross and Cannon Street railways,
together with the two bridges which carried them over the Thames; he was
engineer of the East London railway, which passes under the Thames
through Sir M. I. Brunel's well-known tunnel; and jointly with Sir J.
Wolfe Barry he constructed the section of the Underground railway which
completed the "inner circle" between the Aldgate and Mansion House
stations. In addition, many railway works claimed his attention in all
parts of the world--Germany, Russia, India, Mauritius, &c. One
noteworthy point in his railway practice was his advocacy, in opposition
to Robert Stephenson, of steeper gradients than had previously been
thought desirable or possible, and so far back as 1838 he expressed
decided disapproval of the maintenance of the broad gauge on the Great
Western, because of the troubles he foresaw it would lead to in
connexion with future railway extension, and because he objected in
general to breaks of gauge in the lines of a country. The construction
of canals was another branch of engineering in which he was actively
engaged. In 1862 he became engineer of the Amsterdam ship-canal, and in
the succeeding year he may fairly be said to have been the saviour of
the Suez Canal. About that time the scheme was in very bad odour, and
the khedive determined to get the opinion of an English engineer as to
its practicability, having made up his mind to stop the works if that
opinion was unfavourable. Hawkshaw was chosen to make the inquiry, and
it was because his report was entirely favourable that M. de Lesseps was
able to say at the opening ceremony that to him he owed the canal. As a
member of the International Congress which considered the construction
of an interoceanic canal across central America, he thought best of the
Nicaraguan route, and privately he regarded the Panama scheme as
impracticable at a reasonable cost, although publicly he expressed no
opinion on the matter and left the Congress without voting. Sir John
Hawkshaw also had a wide experience in constructing harbours (e.g.
Holyhead) and docks (e.g. Penarth, the Albert Dock at Hull, and the
south dock of the East and West India Docks in London), in
river-engineering, in drainage and sewerage, in water-supply, &c. He
was engineer, with Sir James Brunlees, of the original Channel Tunnel
Company from 1872, but many years previously he had investigated for
himself the question of a tunnel under the Strait of Dover from an
engineering point of view, and had come to a belief in its feasibility,
so far as that could be determined from borings and surveys.
Subsequently, however, he became convinced that the tunnel would not be
to the advantage of Great Britain, and thereafter would have nothing to
do with the project. He was also engineer of the Severn Tunnel, which,
from its magnitude and the difficulties encountered in its construction,
must rank as one of the most notable engineering undertakings of the
19th century. He died in London on the 2nd of June 1891.
HAWKSLEY, THOMAS (1807-1893), English engineer, was born on the 12th of
July 1807, at Arnold, near Nottingham. He was at Nottingham grammar
school till the age of fifteen, but was indebted to his private studies
for his knowledge of mathematics, chemistry and geology. In 1822 he was
articled to an architect in Nottingham, subsequently becoming a partner
in the firm, which also undertook engineering work; and in 1852 he
removed to London, where he continued in active practice till he was
well past eighty. His work was chiefly concerned with water and gas
supply and with main-drainage. Of waterworks he used to say that he had
constructed 150, and a long list might be drawn up of important towns
that owe their water to his skill, including Liverpool, Sheffield,
Leicester, Leeds, Derby, Darlington, Oxford, Cambridge and Northampton
in England, and Stockholm, Altona and Bridgetown (Barbados) in other
countries. To his native town of Nottingham he was water engineer for
fifty years, and the system he designed for it was noteworthy from the
fact that the principle of constant supply was adopted for the first
time. The gas-works at Nottingham, and at many other towns for which he
provided water supplies were also constructed by him. He designed
main-drainage systems for Birmingham, Worcester and Windsor among other
places, and in 1857 he was called in, together with G. P. Bidder and Sir
J. Bazalgette, to report on the best solution of the vexed question of a
main-drainage scheme for London. In 1872 he was president of the
Institution of Civil Engineers--an office in which his son Charles
followed him in 1901. He died in London on the 23rd of September 1893.
HAWKSMOOR, NICHOLAS (1661-1736), English architect, of Nottinghamshire
birth, became a pupil of Sir Christopher Wren at the age of eighteen,
and his name is intimately associated with those of Wren and Sir J.
Vanbrugh in the English architecture of his time. Through Wren's
influence he obtained various official posts, as deputy-surveyor at
Chelsea hospital, clerk of the works and deputy-surveyor at Greenwich
hospital, clerk of the works at Whitehall, St James's and Westminster,
and he succeeded Wren as surveyor-general of Westminster Abbey. He took
part in much of the work done by Wren and Vanbrugh, and it is difficult
often to assign among them the credit for the designs of various
features. Hawksmoor appears, however, to have been responsible for the
early Gothic designs of the two towers of All Souls' (Oxford) north
quadrangle, and the library and other features at Queen's College
(Oxford). At the close of Queen Anne's reign he had a principal part in
the scheme for building fifty new churches in London, and himself
designed five or six of them, including St Mary Woolnoth (1716-1719) and
St George's, Bloomsbury (1720-1730). A number of his drawings have been
preserved. He died in London on the 25th of March 1736.
HAWKWOOD, SIR JOHN (d. 1394), an English adventurer who attained great
wealth and renown as a condottiere in the Italian wars of the 14th
century. His name is variously spelt as Haccoude, Aucud, Aguto, &c., by
contemporaries. It is said that he was the son of a tanner of Hedingham
Sibil in Essex, and was apprenticed in London, whence he went, in the
English army, to France under Edward III. and the Black Prince. It is
said also that he obtained the favour of the Black Prince, and received
knighthood from King Edward III., but though it is certain that he was
of knightly rank, there is no evidence as to the time or place at which
he won it. On the peace of Bretigny in 1360, he collected a band of
men-at-arms, and moved southward to Italy, where we find the White
Company, as his men were called, assisting the marquis of Monferrato
against Milan in 1362-63, and the Pisans against Florence in 1364. After
several campaigns in various parts of central Italy, Hawkwood in 1368
entered the service of Bernabo Visconti. In 1369 he fought for Perugia
against the pope, and in 1370 for the Visconti against Pisa, Florence
and other enemies. In 1372 he defeated the marquis of Monferrato, but
soon afterwards, resenting the interference of a council of war with his
plans, Hawkwood resigned his command, and the White Company passed into
the papal service, in which he fought against the Visconti in 1373-1375.
In 1375 the Florentines entered into an agreement with him, by which
they were to pay him and his companion 130,000 gold florins in three
months on condition that he undertook no engagement against them; and in
the same year the priors of the arts and the gonfalonier decided to give
him a pension of 1200 florins per annum for as long as he should remain
in Italy. In 1377, under the orders of the cardinal Robert of Geneva,
legate of Bologna, he massacred the inhabitants of Cesena, but in May of
the same year, disliking the executioner's work put upon him by the
legate, he joined the anti-papal league, and married, at Milan, Donnina,
an illegitimate daughter of Bernabo Visconti. In 1378 and 1379 Hawkwood
was constantly in the field; he quarrelled with Bernabo in 1378, and
entered the service of Florence, receiving, as in 1375, 130,000 gold
florins. He rendered good service to the republic up to 1382, when for a
time he was one of the English ambassadors at the papal court. He
engaged in a brief campaign in Naples in 1383, fought for the marquis of
Padua against Verona in 1386, and in 1388 made an unsuccessful effort
against Gian Galeazzo Visconti, who had murdered Bernabo. In 1390 the
Florentines took up the war against Gian Galeazzo in earnest, and
appointed Hawkwood commander-in-chief. His campaign against the Milanese
army in the Veronese and the Bergamask was reckoned a triumph of
generalship, and in 1392 Florence exacted a satisfactory peace from Gian
Galeazzo. His latter years were spent in a villa in the neighbourhood of
Florence. On his death in 1394 the republic gave him a public funeral of
great magnificence, and decreed the erection of a marble monument in the
cathedral. This, however, was never executed; but Paolo Uccelli painted
his portrait in terre-verte on the inner facade of the building, where
it still remains, though damaged by removal from the plaster to canvas.
Richard II. of England, probably at the instigation of Hawkwood's sons,
who returned to their native country, requested the Florentines to let
him remove the good knight's bones, and the Florentine government
signified its consent.
Of his children by Donnina Visconti, who appears to have been his second
wife, the eldest daughter married Count Brezaglia of Porciglia, podesta
of Ferrara, who succeeded him as Florentine commander-in-chief, and
another a German condottiere named Conrad Prospergh. His son, John,
returned to England and settled at Hedingham Sibil, where, it is
supposed, Sir John Hawkwood was buried. The children of the first
marriage were two sons and three daughters, and of the latter the
youngest married John Shelley, an ancestor of the poet.
AUTHORITIES.--Muratori, _Rerum Italicarum scriptores_, and supplement
by Tartinius and Manni; _Archivio storico italiano_; Temple-Leader and
Marcotti, _Giovanni Acuto_ (Florence, 1889; Eng. transl., Leader
Scott, London, 1889); Nichol, _Bibliotheca topographica Britannica_,
vol. vi.; J. G. Alger in _Register and Magazine of Biography_, v. 1.;
and article in _Dict. Nat. Biog._
HAWLEY, HENRY (c. 1679-1759), British lieut.-general, entered the army,
it is said, in 1694. He saw service in the War of Spanish Succession as
a captain of Erle's (the 19th) foot. After Almanza he returned to
England, and a few years later had become lieut.-colonel of the 19th.
With this regiment he served at Sheriffmuir in 1715, where he was
wounded. After this for some years he served in the United Kingdom,
obtaining promotion in the usual course, and in 1739 he arrived at the
grade of major general. Four years later he accompanied George II. and
Stair to Germany, and, as a general officer of cavalry under Sir John
Cope, was present at Dettingen. Becoming lieut.-general somewhat later,
he was second-in-command of the cavalry at Fontenoy, and on the 20th of
December 1745 became commander-in-chief in Scotland. Less than a month
later Hawley suffered a severe defeat at Falkirk at the hands of the
Highland insurgents. This, however, did not cost him his command, for
the duke of Cumberland, who was soon afterwards sent north, was
captain-general. Under Cumberland's orders Hawley led the cavalry in the
campaign of Culloden, and at that battle his dragoons distinguished
themselves by their ruthless butchery of the fugitive rebels. After the
end of the "Forty-Five" he accompanied Cumberland to the Low Countries
and led the allied cavalry at Lauffeld (Val). He ended his career as
governor of Portsmouth and died at that place in 1759. James Wolfe, his
brigade-major, wrote of General Hawley in no flattering terms. "The
troops dread his severity, hate the man and hold his military knowledge
in contempt," he wrote. But, whether it be true or false that he was the
natural son of George II., Hawley was always treated with the greatest
favour by that king and by his son the duke of Cumberland.
HAWLEY, JOSEPH ROSWELL (1826-1905), American political leader, was born
on the 31st of October at Stewartsville, Richmond county, North
Carolina, where his father, a native of Connecticut, was pastor of a
Baptist church. The father returned to Connecticut in 1837 and the son
graduated at Hamilton College (Clinton, N.Y.) in 1847. He was admitted
to the bar in 1850, and practised at Hartford, Conn., for six years. An
ardent opponent of slavery, he became a Free Soiler, was a delegate to
the National Convention which nominated John P. Hale for the presidency
in 1852, and subsequently served as chairman of the State Committee,
having at the same time editorial control of the _Charter Oak_, the
party organ. In 1856 he took a leading part in organizing the Republican
party in Connecticut, and in 1857 became editor of the Hartford _Evening
Press_, a newly established Republican newspaper. He served in the
Federal army throughout the Civil War, rising from the rank of captain
(April 22, 1861) to that of brigadier-general of volunteers (Sept.
1864); took part in the Port Royal Expedition, in the capture of Fort
Pulaski (April 1862), in the siege of Charleston and the capture of Fort
Wagner (Sept. 1863), in the battle of Olustee (Feb. 20, 1864), in the
siege operations about Petersburg, and in General W. T. Sherman's
campaign in the Carolinas; and in September 1865 received the brevet of
major-general of volunteers. From April 1866 to April 1867 he was
governor of Connecticut, and in 1867 he bought the Hartford _Courant_,
with which he combined the _Press_, and which became under his
editorship the most influential newspaper in Connecticut and one of the
leading Republican papers in the country. He was the permanent chairman
of the Republican National Convention in 1868, was a delegate to the
conventions of 1872, 1876 and 1880, was a member of Congress from
December 1872 until March 1875 and again in 1879-1881, and was a United
States senator from 1881 until the 3rd of March 1905, being one of the
Republican leaders both in the House and the Senate. From 1873 to 1876
he was president of the United States Centennial Commission, the great
success of the Centennial Exhibition being largely due to him. He died
at Washington, D.C., on the 17th of March 1905.
HAWORTH, an urban district in the Keighley parliamentary division of the
West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 10 m. N.W. of Bradford, on a branch
of the Midland railway. Pop. (1901), 7492. It is picturesquely situated
on a steep slope, lying high, and surrounded by moorland. The Rev.
Patrick Bronte (d. 1861) was incumbent here for forty-one years, and a
memorial near the west window of St Michael's church bears his name and
the names of his gifted daughters upon it. The grave of Charlotte and
Emily Bronte is also marked by a brass. In 1895 a museum was opened by
the Bronte society. There is a large worsted industry.
HAWSER (in sense and form as if from "hawse," which, from the
16th-century form _halse_, is derived from Teutonic _hals_, neck, of
which there is a Scandinavian use in the sense of the forepart of a
ship; the two words are not etymologically connected; "hawser" is from
an O. Fr. _haucier_, _hausser_, to raise, tow, hoist, from the Late Lat.
_altiare_, to lift, _altus_, high), a small cable or thick rope used at
sea for the purposes of mooring or warping, in the case of large vessels
made of steel. When a cable or tow line is made of three or more small
ropes it is said to be "hawser-laid." The "hawse" of a ship is that part
of the bows where the "hawse-holes" are made. These are two holes cut in
the bows of a vessel for the cables to pass through, having small
cast-iron pipes, called "hawse-pipes," fitted into them to prevent
abrasion. In bad weather at sea these holes are plugged up with
"hawse-plugs" to prevent the water entering. The phrase to enter the
service by the "hawse-holes" is used of those who have risen from before
the mast to commissioned rank in the navy. When the ship is at anchor
the space between her head and the anchor is called "hawse," as in the
phrase "athwart the hawse." The term also applies to the position of the
ship's anchors when moored; when they are laid out in a line at right
angles to the wind it is said to be moored with an "open hawse"; when
both cables are laid out straight to their anchors without crossing, it
is a "clear hawse."
HAWTHORN, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia, 4(1/2) m. by
rail E. of and suburban to Melbourne. Pop. (1901), 21,339. It is the
seat of the important Methodist Ladies' College. The majority of the
inhabitants are professional and business men engaged in Melbourne and
their residences are numerous at Hawthorn.
HAWTHORN (O. Eng. _haga_-, _haeg_-, or _hege-thorn_, i.e.
"hedge-thorn"), the common name for _Crataegus_, in botany, a genus of
shrubs or small trees belonging to the natural order Rosaceae, native of
the north temperate regions, especially America. It is represented in
the British Isles by the hawthorn, white-thorn or may (Ger. _Hagedorn_
and _Christdorn_; Fr. _aubepine_), C. _Oxyacantha_, a small,
round-headed, much-branched tree, 10 to 20 ft. high, the branches often
ending in single sharp spines. The leaves, which are deeply cut, are 1
to 2 in. long and very variable in shape. The flowers are sweet-scented,
in flat-topped clusters, and 1/2 to 3/4 in. in diameter, with five
spreading white petals alternating with five persistent green sepals, a
large number of stamens with pinkish-brown anthers, and one to three
carpels sunk in the cup-shaped floral axis. The fruit, or haw, as in the
apple, consists of the swollen floral axis, which is usually scarlet,
and forms a fleshy envelope surrounding the hard stone.
The common hawthorn is a native of Europe as far north as 60(1/2) deg.
in Sweden, and of North Africa, western Asia and Siberia, and has been
naturalized in North America and Australia. It thrives best in dry
soils, and in height varies from 4 or 5 to 12, 15 or, in exceptional
cases, as much as between 20 and 30 ft. It may be propagated from seed
or from cuttings. The seeds must be from ripe fruit, and if fresh
gathered should be freed from pulp by maceration in water. They
germinate only in the second year after sowing; in the course of their
first year the seedlings attain a height of 6 to 12 in. Hawthorn has
been for many centuries a favourite park and hedge plant in Europe, and
numerous varieties have been developed by cultivation; these differ in
the form of the leaf, the white, pink or red, single or double flowers,
and the yellow, orange or red fruit. In England the hawthorn, owing to
its hardiness and closeness of growth, has been employed for enclosure
of land since the Roman occupation, but for ordinary field hedges it is
believed it was generally in use till about the end of the 17th century.
James I. of Scotland, in his _Quair_, ii. 14 (early 15th century),
mentions the "hawthorn hedges knet" of Windsor Castle. The first
hawthorn hedges in Scotland are said to have been planted by soldiers of
Cromwell at Inch Buckling Brae in East Lothian and Finlarig in
Perthshire. Annual pruning, to which the hawthorn is particularly
amenable, is necessary if the hedge is to maintain its compactness and
sturdiness. When the lower part shows a tendency to go bare the strong
stems may be "plashed," i.e. split, bent over and pegged to the ground
so that new growths may start. The wood of the hawthorn is white in
colour, with a yellowish tinge. Fresh cut it weighs 68 lb. 12 oz. per
cubic foot, and dry 57 lb. 3 oz. It can seldom be obtained in large
portions, and has the disadvantage of being apt to warp; its great
hardness, however, renders it valuable for the manufacture of various
articles, such as the cogs of mill-wheels, flails and mallets, and
handles of hammers. Both green and dry it forms excellent fuel. The bark
possesses tanning properties, and in Scotland in past times yielded with
ferrous sulphate a black dye for wool. The leaves are eaten by cattle,
and have been employed as a substitute for tea. Birds and deer feed upon
the haws, which are used in the preparation of a fermented and highly
intoxicating liquor. The hawthorn serves as a stock for grafting other
trees. As an ornamental feature in landscapes, it is worthy of notice;
and the pleasing shelter it affords and the beauty of its blossoms have
frequently been alluded to by poets. The custom of employing the
flowering branches for decorative purposes on the 1st of May is of very
early origin; but since the alteration in the calendar the tree has
rarely been in full bloom in England before the second week of that
month. In the Scottish Highlands the flowers may be seen as late as the
middle of June. The hawthorn has been regarded as the emblem of hope,
and its branches are stated to have been carried by the ancient Greeks
in wedding processions, and to have been used by them to deck the altar
of Hymen. The supposition that the tree was the source of Christ's crown
of thorns gave rise doubtless to the tradition current among the French
peasantry that it utters groans and cries on Good Friday, and probably
also to the old popular superstition in Great Britain and Ireland that
ill-luck attended the uprooting of hawthorns. Branches of the
Glastonbury thorn, _C. Oxyacantha_, var. _praecox_, which flowers both
in December and in spring, were formerly highly valued in England, on
account of the legend that the tree was originally the staff of Joseph
of Arimathea.
The number of species in the genus is from fifty to seventy, according
to the view taken as to whether or not some of the forms, especially of
those occurring in the United States, represent distinct species. _C.
coccinea_, a native of Canada and the eastern United States, with bright
scarlet fruits, was introduced into English gardens towards the end of
the 17th century. _C. Crus-Galli_, with a somewhat similar distribution
and introduced about the same time, is a very decorative species with
showy, bright red fruit, often remaining on the branches till spring,
and leaves assuming a brilliant scarlet and orange in the autumn;
numerous varieties are in cultivation. _C. Pyracantha_, known in gardens
as pyracantha, is evergreen and has white flowers, appearing in May, and
fine scarlet fruits of the size of a pea which remain on the tree nearly
all the winter. It is a native of south Europe and was introduced into
Britain early in the 17th century.
HAWTHORNE, NATHANIEL (1804-1864), American writer, son of Nathaniel
Hathorne (1776-1808), was born at Salem, Massachusetts, on the 4th of
July 1804. The head of the American branch of the family, William
Hathorne of Wilton, Wiltshire, England, emigrated with Winthrop and his
company, and arrived at Salem Bay, Mass., on the 12th of June 1630. He
had grants of land at Dorchester, where he resided for upwards of six
years, when he was persuaded to remove to Salem by the tender of further
grants of land there, it being considered a public benefit that he
should become an inhabitant of that town. He represented his
fellow-townsmen in the legislature, and served them in a military
capacity as a captain in the first regular troop organized in Salem,
which he led to victory through an Indian campaign in Maine. Originally
a determined "Separatist," and opposed to compulsion for conscience, he
signalized himself when a magistrate by the active part which he took in
the Quaker persecutions of the time (1657-1662), going so far on one
occasion as to order the whipping of Anne Coleman and four other Friends
through Salem, Boston and Dedham. He died, an old man, in the odour of
sanctity, and left a good property to his son John, who inherited his
father's capacity and intolerance, and was in turn a legislator, a
magistrate, a soldier and a bitter persecutor of witches. Before the
death of Justice Hathorne in 1717, the destiny of the family suffered a
sea-change, and they began to be noted as mariners. One of these
seafaring Hathornes figured in the Revolution as a privateer, who had
the good fortune to escape from a British prison-ship; and another,
Captain Daniel Hathorne, has left his mark on early American
ballad-lore. He too was a privateer, commander of the brig "Fair
American," which, cruising off the coast of Portugal, fell in with a
British scow laden with troops for General Howe, which scow the bold
Hathorne and his valiant crew at once engaged and fought for over an
hour, until the vanquished enemy was glad to cut the Yankee grapplings
and quickly bear away. The last of the Hathornes with whom we are
concerned was a son of this sturdy old privateer, Nathaniel Hathorne. He
was born in 1776, and about the beginning of the 19th century married
Miss Elizabeth Clarke Manning, a daughter of Richard Manning of Salem,
whose ancestors emigrated to America about fifty years after the arrival
of William Hathorne. Young Nathaniel took his hereditary place before
the mast, passed from the forecastle to the cabin, made voyages to the
East and West Indies, Brazil and Africa, and finally died of fever at
Surinam, in the spring of 1808. He was the father of three children, the
second of whom was the subject of this article. The form of the family
name was changed by the latter to "Hawthorne" in his early manhood.
After the death of her husband Mrs Hawthorne removed to the house of her
father with her little family of children. Of the boyhood of Nathaniel
no particulars have reached us, except that he was fond of taking long
walks alone, and that he used to declare to his mother that he would go
to sea some time and would never return. Among the books that he is
known to have read as a child were Shakespeare, Milton, Pope and
Thomson, _The Castle of Indolence_ being an especial favourite. In the
autumn of 1818 bis mother removed to Raymond, a town in Cumberland
county, Maine, where his uncle, Richard Manning, had built a large and
ambitious dwelling. Here the lad resumed his solitary walks, exchanging
the narrow streets of Salem for the boundless, primeval wilderness, and
its sluggish harbour for the fresh bright waters of Sebago lake. He
roamed the woods by day, with his gun and rod, and in the moonlight
nights of winter skated upon the lake alone till midnight. When he found
himself away from home, and wearied with his exercise, he took refuge in
a log cabin where half a tree would be burning upon the hearth. He had
by this time acquired a taste for writing, that showed itself in a
little blank-book, in which he jotted down his woodland adventures and
feelings, and which was remarkable for minute observation and nice
perception of nature.
After a year's residence at Raymond, Nathaniel returned to Salem in
order to prepare for college. He amused himself by publishing a
manuscript periodical, which he called the _Spectator_, and which
displayed considerable vivacity and talent. He speculated upon the
profession that he would follow, with a sort of prophetic insight into
his future. "I do not want to be a doctor and live by men's diseases,"
he wrote to his mother, "nor a minister to live by their sins, nor a
lawyer and live by their quarrels. So I don't see that there is anything
left for me but to be an author. How would you like some day to see a
whole shelf full of books, written by your son, with 'Hawthorne's Works'
printed on their backs?"
Nathaniel entered Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine, in the autumn of
1821, where he became acquainted with two students who were destined to
distinction--Henry W. Longfellow and Franklin Pierce. He was an
excellent classical scholar, his Latin compositions, even in his
freshman year, being remarkable for their elegance, while his Greek
(which was less) was good. He made graceful translations from the Roman
poets, and wrote several English poems which were creditable to him.
After graduation three years later (1825) he returned to Salem, and to a
life of isolation. He devoted his mornings to study, his afternoons to
writing, and his evenings to long walks along the rocky coast. He was
scarcely known by sight to his townsmen, and he held so little
communication with the members of his own family that his meals were
frequently left at his locked door. He wrote largely, but destroyed
many of his manuscripts, his taste was so difficult to please. He
thought well enough, however, of one of his compositions to print it
anonymously in 1828. A crude melodramatic story, entitled _Fanshawe_, it
was unworthy even of his immature powers, and should never have been
rescued from the oblivion which speedily overtook it. The name of
Nathaniel Hawthorne finally became known to his countrymen as a writer
in _The Token_, a holiday annual which was commenced in 1828 by Mr S. G.
Goodrich (better known as "Peter Parley"), by whom it was conducted for
fourteen years. This forgotten publication numbered among its
contributors most of the prominent American writers of the time, none of
whom appear to have added to their reputation in its pages, except the
least popular of all--Hawthorne, who was for years the obscurest man of
letters in America, though he gradually made admirers in a quiet way.
His first public recognition came from England, where his genius was
discovered in 1835 by Henry F. Chorley, one of the editors of the
_Athenaeum_, in which he copied three of Hawthorne's most characteristic
papers from _The Token_. He had but little encouragement to continue in
literature, for Mr Goodrich was so much more a publisher than an author
that he paid him wretchedly for his contributions, and still more
wretchedly for his work upon an _American Magazine of Useful and
Entertaining Knowledge_, which he persuaded him to edit. This
author-publisher consented, however, at a later period (1837) to bring
out a collection of Hawthorne's writings under the title of _Twice-told
Tales_. A moderate edition was got rid of, but the great body of the
reading public ignored the book altogether. It was generously reviewed
in the _North American Review_ by his college friend Longfellow, who
said it came from the hand of a man of genius, and praised it for the
exceeding beauty of its style, which was as clear as running waters.
The want of pecuniary success which had so far attended his authorship
led Hawthorne to accept a situation which was tendered him by George
Bancroft, the historian, collector of the port of Boston under the
Democratic rule of President Van Buren. He was appointed a weigher in
the custom-house at a salary of about $1200 a year, and entered upon the
duties of his office, which consisted for the most part in measuring
coal, salt and other bulky commodities on foreign vessels. It was
irksome employment, but faithfully performed for two years, when he was
superseded through a change in the national administration. Master of
himself once more, he returned to Salem, where he remained until the
spring of 1841, when he wrote a collection of children's stories
entitled _Grandfather's Chair_, and joined an industrial association at
West Roxbury, Mass. Brook Farm, as it was called, was a social Utopia,
composed of a number of advanced thinkers, whose object was so to
distribute manual labour as to give its members time for intellectual
culture. The scheme worked admirably--on paper; but it was suited
neither to the temperament nor the taste of Hawthorne, and after trying
it patiently for nearly a year he returned to the everyday life of
mankind.
One of Hawthorne's earliest admirers was Miss Sophia Peabody, a lady of
Salem, whom he married in the summer of 1842. He made himself a new home
in an old manse, at Concord, Mass., situated on historic ground, in
sight of an old revolutionary battlefield, and devoted himself
diligently to literature. He was known to the few by his _Twice-told
Tales_, and to the many by his papers in the _Democratic Review_. He
published in 1842 a further portion of _Grandfather's Chair_, and also a
second volume of _Twice-told Tales_. He also edited, during 1845, the
_African Journals_ of Horatio Bridge, an officer of the navy, who had
been at college with him; and in the following year he published in two
volumes a collection of his later writings, under the title of _Mosses
from an Old Manse_.
After a residence of nearly four years at Concord, Hawthorne returned to
Salem, having been appointed surveyor of the custom-house of that port
by a new Democratic administration. He filled the duties of this
position until the incoming of the Whig administration again led to his
retirement. He seems to have written little during his official term,
but, as he had leisure enough and to spare, he read much, and pondered
over subjects for future stories. His next work, _The Scarlet Letter_,
which was begun after his removal from the custom-house, was published
in 1850. If there had been any doubt of his genius before, it was
settled for ever by this powerful romance.
Shortly after the publication of _The Scarlet Letter_ Hawthorne removed
from Salem to Lenox, Berkshire, Mass., where he wrote _The House of the
Seven Gables_ (1851) and _The Wonder-Book_ (1851). From Lenox he removed
to West Newton, near Boston, Mass., where he wrote _The Blithedale
Romance_ (1852) and _The Snow Image and other Twice-told Tales_ (1852).
In the spring of 1852 he removed back to Concord, where he purchased an
old house which he called The Wayside, and where he wrote a _Life of
Franklin Pierce_ (1852) and _Tanglewood Tales_ (1853). Mr Pierce was the
Democratic candidate for the presidency, and it was only at his urgent
solicitation that Hawthorne consented to become his biographer. He
declared that he would accept no office in case he were elected, lest it
might compromise him; but his friends gave him such weighty reasons for
reconsidering his decision that he accepted the consulate at Liverpool,
which was understood to be one of the best gifts at the disposal of the
president.
Hawthorne departed for Europe in the summer of 1853, and returned to the
United States in the summer of 1860. Of the seven years which he passed
in Europe five were spent in attending to the duties of his consulate at
Liverpool, and in little journeys to Scotland, the Lakes and elsewhere,
and the remaining two in France and Italy. They were quiet and
uneventful, coloured by observation and reflection, as his note-books
show, but productive of only one elaborate work, _Transformation, or The
Marble Faun_, which he sketched out during his residence in Italy, and
prepared for the press at Leamington, England, whence it was despatched
to America and published in 1860.
Hawthorne took up his abode at The Wayside, not much richer than when he
left it, and sat down at his desk once more with a heavy heart. He was
surrounded by the throes of a great civil war, and the political party
with which he had always acted was under a cloud. His friend
ex-President Pierce was stigmatized as a traitor, and when Hawthorne
dedicated his next book to him--a volume of English impressions entitled
_Our Old Home_ (1863)--it was at the risk of his own popularity. His pen
was soon to be laid aside for ever; for, with the exception of the
unfinished story of _Septimius Felton_, which was published after his
death by his daughter Una (1872), and the fragment of _The Dolliver
Romance_, the beginning of which was published in the _Atlantic Monthly_
in July 1864, he wrote no more. His health gradually declined, his hair
grew white as snow, and the once stalwart figure that in early manhood
flashed along the airy cliffs and glittering sands sauntered idly on the
little hill behind his house. In the beginning of April 1864 he made a
short southern tour with his publisher Mr William D. Ticknor, and was
benefited by the change of scene until he reached Philadelphia, where he
was shocked by the sudden death of Mr Ticknor. He returned to The
Wayside, and after a short season of rest joined his friend ex-President
Pierce. He died at Plymouth, New Hampshire, on the 19th of May 1864, and
five days later was buried at Sleepy Hollow, a beautiful cemetery at
Concord, where he used to walk under the pines when he was living at the
Old Manse, and where his ashes moulder under a simple stone, inscribed
with the single word "Hawthorne."
The writings of Hawthorne are marked by subtle imagination, curious
power of analysis and exquisite purity of diction. He studied
exceptional developments of character, and was fond of exploring secret
crypts of emotion. His shorter stories are remarkable for originality
and suggestiveness, and his larger ones are as absolute creations as
_Hamlet_ or _Undine_. Lacking the accomplishment of verse, he was in the
highest sense a poet. His work is pervaded by a manly personality, and
by an almost feminine delicacy and gentleness. He inherited the gravity
of his Puritan ancestors without their superstition, and learned in his
solitary meditations a knowledge of the night-side of life which would
have filled them with suspicion. A profound anatomist of the heart, he
was singularly free from morbidness, and in his darkest speculations
concerning evil was robustly right-minded. He worshipped conscience with
his intellectual as well as his moral nature; it is supreme in all he
wrote. Besides these mental traits, he possessed the literary quality of
style--a grace, a charm, a perfection of language which no other
American writer ever possessed in the same degree, and which places him
among the great masters of English prose.
His _Complete Writings_ (22 vols., Boston, 1901) were edited, with
introduction, including a bibliography, by H. S. Scudder. The standard
authority for Hawthorne's biography is _Nathaniel Hawthorne and his
Wife_ (2 vols., Boston, 1884), by his son Julian Hawthorne (b. 1846),
himself a novelist and critic of distinction. See also Henry James,
_Hawthorne_ (London, 1879), in the "English Men of Letters" series;
Julian Hawthorne, _Hawthorne and his Circle_ (New York, 1903); a paper
in R. H. Hutton's _Essays Theological and Literary_ (London, 1871);
George B. Smith, _Poets and Novelists_ (London, 1875); Moncure D.
Conway, _Life of Nathaniel Hawthorne_ (London, 1890, in the "Great
Writers" series); Horatio Bridge, _Personal Recollections of Nathaniel
Hawthorne_ (New York, 1893); Rose Hawthorne Lathrop, _Memories of
Hawthorne_ (Boston, 1897); W. C. Lawton, _The New England Poets_ (New
York, 1898); Sir L. Stephen, _Hours in a Library_ (1874); Annie
Fields, _Nathaniel Hawthorne_ (Boston, 1899); G. E. Woodberry, _Life
of Hawthorne_ (1902); and bibliography by N. E. Browne (1905).
(R. H. S.)
HAWTREY, CHARLES HENRY (1858- ), English actor, was born at Eton, where
his father was master of the lower school, and educated at Rugby and
Oxford. He took to the stage in 1881, and in 1883 adapted von Moser's
_Bibliothekar_ as _The Private Secretary_, which had an enormous
success. He then appeared in London in a number of modern plays, in
which he was conspicuous as a comedian. He was unapproachable for parts
in which cool imperturbable lying constituted the leading
characteristic. Among his later successes _A Message from Mars_ was
particularly popular in London and in America.
HAWTREY, EDWARD CRAVEN (1789-1862), English educationalist, was born at
Burnham on the 7th of May 1789, the son of the vicar of the parish. He
was educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, and in 1814 was
appointed assistant master at Eton under Dr Keate. In 1834 he became
headmaster of the college, and his administration was a vigorous one.
New buildings were erected, including the school library and the
sanatorium, the college chapel was restored, the Old Christopher Inn was
closed, and the custom of "Montem," the collection by street begging of
funds for the university expenses of the captain of the school, was
suppressed. He is supposed to have suggested the prince consort's modern
language prizes, while the prize for English essay he founded himself.
In 1852 he became provost of Eton, and in 1854 vicar of Mapledurham. He
died on the 27th of January 1862, and was buried in the Eton College
chapel. On account of his command of languages ancient and modern, he
was known in London as "the English Mezzofanti," and he was a book
collector of the finest taste. Among his own books are some excellent
translations from the English into Italian, German and Greek. He had a
considerable reputation as a writer of English hexameters and as a judge
of Homeric translation.
HAXO, FRANCOIS NICOLAS BENOIT, Baron (1774-1838), French general and
military engineer, was born at Luneville on the 24th of June 1774, and
entered the Engineers in 1793. He remained unknown, doing duty as a
regimental officer for many years, until, as major, he had his first
chance of distinction in the second siege of Saragossa in 1809, after
which Napoleon made him a colonel. Haxo took part in the campaign of
Wagram, and then returned to the Peninsula to direct the siege
operations of Suchet's army in Catalonia and Valencia. In 1810 he was
made general of brigade, in 1811 a baron, and in the same year he was
employed in preparing the occupied fortresses of Germany against a
possible Russian invasion. In 1812 he was chief engineer of Davout's I.
corps, and after the retreat from Moscow he was made general of
division. In 1813 he constructed the works around Hamburg which made
possible the famous defence of that fortress by Davout, and commanded
the Guard Engineers until he fell into the enemy's hands at Kulm. After
the Restoration Louis XVIII. wished to give Haxo a command in the Royal
Guards, but the general remained faithful to Napoleon, and in the
Hundred Days laid out the provisional fortifications of Paris and fought
at Waterloo. It was, however, after the second Restoration that the best
work of his career as a military engineer was done. As inspector-general
he managed, though not without meeting considerable opposition, to
reconstruct in accordance with the requirements of the time, and the
designs which he had evolved to meet them, the old Vauban and
Cormontaigne fortresses which had failed to check the invasions of 1814
and 1815. For his services he was made a peer of France by Louis
Philippe (1832). Soon after this came the French intervention in Belgium
and the famous scientific siege of Antwerp citadel. Under Marshal Gerard
Haxo directed the besiegers and completely outmatched the opposing
engineers, the fortress being reduced to surrender after a siege of a
little more than three weeks (December 23, 1832). He was after this
regarded as the first engineer in Europe, and his latter years were
spent in urging upon the government and the French people the
fortification of Paris and Lyons, a project which was partly realized in
his time and after his death fully carried out. General Haxo died at
Paris on the 25th of June 1838. He wrote _Memoire sur le figure du
terrain dans les cartes topographiques_ (Paris, N.D.), and a memoir of
General Dejean (1824).
HAXTHAUSEN, AUGUST FRANZ LUDWIG MARIA, FREIHERR VON (1792-1866), German
political economist, was born near Paderborn in Westphalia on the 3rd of
February 1792. Having studied at the school of mining at Klausthal, and
having served in the Hanoverian army, he entered the university of
Gottingen in 1815. Finishing his course there in 1818 he was engaged in
managing his estates and in studying the land laws. The result of his
studies appeared in 1829 when he published _Uber die Agrarverfassung in
den Furstentumern Paderborn und Corvey_, a work which attracted much
attention and which procured for its author a commission to investigate
and report upon the land laws of the Prussian provinces with a view to a
new code. After nine years of labour he published in 1839 an exhaustive
treatise, _Die landliche Verfassung in der Provinz Preussen_, and in
1843, at the request of the emperor Nicholas, he undertook a similar
work for Russia, the fruits of his investigations in that country being
contained in his _Studien uber die innern Zustande des Volkslebens, und
insbesondere die landlichen Einrichtungen Russlands_ (Hanover,
1847-1852). He received various honours, was a member of the combined
diet in Berlin in 1847 and 1848, and afterwards of the Prussian upper
house. Haxthausen died at Hanover on the 31st of December 1866.
In addition to the works already mentioned he wrote _Die landliche
Verfassung Russlands_ (Leipzig, 1866). His _Studien_ has been
translated into French and into English by R. Farie as _The Russian
Empire_ (1856). Other works of his which have appeared in English are:
_Transcaucasia; Sketches of the Nations and Races between the Black
Sea and the Caspian_ (1854), and _The Tribes of the Caucasus_ (1855).
Haxthausen edited _Das konstitutionelle Prinzip_ (Leipzig, 1864), a
collection of political writings by various authors, which has been
translated into French (1865).
HAY, GEORGE (1729-1811), Scottish Roman Catholic divine, was born at
Edinburgh on the 24th of August 1729. He was accused of sympathizing
with the rebellion of 1745 and served a term of imprisonment 1746-1747.
He then entered the Roman Catholic Church, studied in the Scots College
at Rome, and in 1759 accompanied John Geddes (1735-1799), afterwards
bishop of Morocco, on a Scottish mission. Ten years later he was
appointed bishop of Daulis _in partibus_ and coadjutor to Bishop James
Grant (1706-1778). In 1778 he became vicar apostolic of the lowland
district. During the Protestant riots in Edinburgh in 1779 his furniture
and library were destroyed by fire. From 1788 to 1793 he was in charge
of the Scalan seminary; in 1802 he retired to that of Aquhorties near
Inverury which he had founded in 1799. He died there on the 15th of
October 1811.
His theological works, including _The Sincere Christian, The Devout
Christian, The Pious Christian_ and _The Scripture Doctrine of
Miracles_, were edited by Bishop Strain in 1871-1873.
HAY, GILBERT, or "SIR GILBERT THE HAYE" (fl. 1450), Scottish poet and
translator, was perhaps a kinsman of the house of Errol. If he be the
student named in the registers of the university of St Andrews in
1418-1419, his birth may be fixed about 1403. He was in France in 1432,
perhaps some years earlier, for a "Gilbert de la Haye" is mentioned as
present at Reims, in July 1430, at the coronation of Charles VII. He has
left it on record, in the Prologue to his _Buke of the Law of Armys_,
that he was "chaumerlayn umquhyle to the maist worthy King Charles of
France." In 1456 he was back in Scotland, in the service of the
chancellor, William, earl of Orkney and Caithness, "in his castell of
Rosselyn," south of Edinburgh. The date of his death is unknown.
Hay is named by Dunbar (q.v.) in his _Lament for the Makaris_, and by
Sir David Lyndsay (q.v.) in his _Testament and Complaynt of the
Papyngo_. His only political work is _The Buik of Alexander the
Conquerour_, of which a portion, in copy, remains at Taymouth Castle. He
has left three translations, extant in one volume (in old binding) in
the collection of Abbotsford: (_a_) _The Buke of the Law of Armys_ or
_The Buke of Bataillis_, a translation of Honore Bonet's _Arbre des
batailles_; (_b_) _The Buke of the Order of Knichthood_ from the _Livre
de l'ordre de chevalerie_; and (_c_) _The Buke of the Governaunce of
Princes_, from a French version of the pseudo-Aristotelian _Secreta
secretorum_. The second of these precedes Caxton's independent
translation by at least ten years.
For the _Buik of Alexander_ see Albert Herrmann's _The Taymouth Castle
MS. of Sir Gilbert Hay's Buik, &c._ (Berlin, 1898). The complete
Abbotsford MS. has been reprinted by the Scottish Text Society (ed. J.
H. Stevenson). The first volume, containing _The Buke of the Law of
Armys_, appeared in 1901. _The Order of Knichthood_ was printed by
David Laing for the Abbotsford Club (1847). See also S.T.S. edition
(u.s.) "Introduction" and Gregory Smith's _Specimens of Middle Scots_,
in which annotated extracts are given from the Abbotsford MS., the
oldest known example of literary Scots prose.
HAY, JOHN (1838-1905), American statesman and author, was born at Salem,
Indiana, on the 8th of October 1838. He graduated from Brown University
in 1858, studied law in the office of Abraham Lincoln, was admitted to
the bar in Springfield, Illinois, in 1861, and soon afterwards was
selected by President Lincoln as assistant private secretary, in which
capacity he served till the president's death, being associated with
John George Nicolay (1832-1901). Hay was secretary of the U.S. legation
at Paris in 1865-1867, at Vienna in 1867-1869 and at Madrid in
1869-1870. After his return he was for five years an editorial writer on
the New York _Tribune_; in 1879-1881 he was first assistant secretary of
state to W. M. Evarts; and in 1881 was a delegate to the International
Sanitary Conference, which met in Washington, D.C., and of which he was
chosen president. Upon the inauguration of President McKinley in 1897
Hay was appointed ambassador to Great Britain, from which post he was
transferred in 1898 to that of secretary of state, succeeding W. R. Day,
who was sent to Paris as a member of the Peace Conference. He remained
in this office until his death at Newburg, New Hampshire, on the 1st of
July 1905. He directed the peace negotiations with Spain after the war
of 1898, and not only secured American interests in the imbroglio caused
by the Boxers in China, but grasped the opportunity to insist on "the
administrative entity" of China; influenced the powers to declare
publicly for the "open door" in China; challenged Russia as to her
intentions in Manchuria, securing a promise to evacuate the country on
the 8th of October 1903; and in 1904 again urged "the administrative
entity" of China and took the initiative in inducing Russia and Japan to
"localize and limit" the area of hostilities. It was largely due to his
tact and good management, in concert with Lord Pauncefote, the British
ambassador, that negotiations for abrogating the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty
and for making a new treaty with Great Britain regarding the Isthmian
Canal were successfully concluded at the end of 1901; subsequently he
negotiated treaties with Colombia and with Panama, looking towards the
construction by the United States of a trans-isthmian canal. He also
arranged the settlement of difficulties with Germany over Samoa in
December 1899, and the settlement, by joint commission, of the question
concerning the disputed Alaskan boundary in 1903. John Hay was a man of
quiet and unassuming disposition, whose training in diplomacy gave a
cool and judicious character to his statesmanship. As secretary of state
under Presidents McKinley and Roosevelt his guidance was invaluable
during a rather critical period in foreign affairs, and no man of his
time did more to create confidence in the increased interest taken by
the United States in international matters. He also represented, in
another capacity, the best American traditions--namely in literature. He
published _Pike County Ballads_ (1871)--the most famous being "Little
Breeches"--a volume worthy to rank with Bret Harte, if not with the
Lowell of the _Biglow Papers; Castilian Days_ (1871), recording his
observations in Spain; and a volume of _Poems_ (1890); with John G.
Nicolay he wrote _Abraham Lincoln: A History_ (10 vols., 1890), a
monumental work indispensable to the student of the Civil War period in
America, and published an edition of Lincoln's _Complete Works_ (2
vols., 1894). The authorship of the brilliant novel _The Breadwinners_
(1883) is now certainly attributed to him. Hay was an excellent public
speaker: some of his best addresses are _In Praise of Omar; On the
Unveiling of the Bust of Sir Walter Scott in Westminster Abbey_, May 21,
1897; and a memorial address in honour of President McKinley.
The best of his previously unpublished speeches appeared in _Addresses
of John Hay_ (1906).
HAY, a town of Waradgery county, New South Wales, Australia, on the
Murrumbidgee river, 454 m. by rail W.S.W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901), 3012.
It is the cathedral town of the Anglican diocese of Riverina, the
terminus of the South Western railway, and the principal depot for the
wool produced at the numerous stations on the banks of the Murrumbidgee
and Lachlan rivers.
HAY, a market town and urban district of Breconshire, south Wales, on
the Hereford and Brecon section of the Midland railway, 164(1/2) m. from
London, 20 m. W. of Hereford and 17 m. N.E. of Brecon by rail. Pop.
(1901), 1680. The Golden Valley railway to Pontrilas (18(3/4) m.), now a
branch of the Great Western, also starts from Hay. The town occupies
rising ground on the south (right) bank of the Wye, which here separates
the counties of Brecknock and Radnor but immediately below enters
Herefordshire, from which the town is separated on the E. by the river
Dulas.
Leland and Camden ascribe a Roman origin to the town, and the former
states that quantities of Roman coin (called by the country people
"Jews' money") and some pottery had been found near by, but of this no
other record is known. The Wye valley in this district served as the
gate between the present counties of Brecknock and Hereford, and, though
Welsh continued for two or three centuries after the Norman Conquest to
be the spoken language of the adjoining part of Herefordshire south of
the Wye (known as Archenfield), there must have been a "burh" serving as
a Mercian outpost at Glasbury, 4 m. W. of Hay, which was itself several
miles west of Offa's Dyke. But the earliest settlement at Hay probably
dates from the Norman conquest of the district by Bernard Newmarch about
1088 (in which year he granted Glasbury, probably as the first fruits of
his invasion, to St Peter's, Gloucester). The manor of Hay, which
probably corresponded to some existing Welsh division, he gave to Sir
Philip Walwyn, but it soon reverted to the donor, and its subsequent
devolution down to its forfeiture to the crown as part of the duke of
Buckingham's estate in 1521, was identical with that of the lordship of
Brecknock (see BRECONSHIRE). The castle, which was probably built in
Newmarch's time and rebuilt by his great-grandson William de Breos,
passed on the latter's attainder to the crown, but was again seized by
de Breos's second son, Giles, bishop of Hereford, in 1215, and retaken
by King John in the following year. In 1231 it was burnt by Llewelyn ab
Iorwerth, and in the Barons' War it was taken in 1263 by Prince Edward,
but in the following year was burnt by Simon Montfort and the last
Llewelyn. From the 16th century the castle has been used as a private
residence.
The Welsh name of the town is Y Gelli ("the wood"), or formerly in full
(Y) Gelli ganddryll (literally "the wood all to pieces"), which roughly
corresponds to _Sepes Inscissa_, by which name Walter Map (a native of
the district) designates it. Its Norman name, La Haia (from the Fr.
_haie_, cf. English "hedge"), was probably intended as a translation of
Gelli. The same word is found in Urishay and Oldhay, both between Hay
and the Golden Valley. The town is still locally called _the_ Hay, as it
also is by Leland.
Even down to Leland's time Hay was surrounded by a "right strong wall,"
which had three gates and a postern, but the town within the wall has
"wonderfully decayed," its ruin being ascribed to Owen Glendower, while
to the west of it was a flourishing suburb with the church of St Mary on
a precipitous eminence overlooking the river. This was rebuilt in 1834.
The old parish church of St John within the walls, used as a
school-house in the 17th century, has entirely disappeared. The
Baptists, Calvinistic Methodists, Congregationalists and Primitive
Methodists have a chapel each. The other public buildings are the market
house (1833); a masonic hall, formerly the town hall, its basement still
serving as a cheese market; a clock tower (1884); parish hall (1890);
and a drill hall. The Wye is here crossed by an iron bridge built in
1864. There are also eighteen almshouses for poor women, built and
endowed by Miss Frances Harley in 1832-1836, and Gwyn's almshouses for
six aged persons, founded in 1702 and rebuilt in 1878.
Scarcely anything but provisions are sold in the weekly market, the
farmers of the district now resorting to the markets of Brecon and
Hereford. There are good monthly stock fairs and a hiring fair in May.
There is rich agricultural land in the district.
Hay was reputed to be a borough by prescription, but it never had any
municipal institutions. Its manor, like that of Talgarth, consisted of
an Englishry and a Welshery, the latter, known as Haya Wallensis,
comprising the parish of Llanigon with the hamlet of Glynfach, and in
this Welsh tenures and customs prevailed. The manor is specially
mentioned in the act of Henry VIII. (1535) as one of those which were
then taken to constitute the new county of Brecknock. (D. Ll. T.)
HAY (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger.
_Heu_, Dutch _hooi;_ the root from which it is derived, meaning "to
cut," is also seen in "to hew"; cf. "hoe"), grass mown and dried in the
sun and used as fodder for cattle. It is properly applied only to the
grass when cut, but is often also used of the standing crop. (See
_Haymaking_ below). Another word "hay," meaning a fence, must be
distinguished; the root from which it is derived is seen in its doublet
"hedge," cf. "haw-thorn," i.e. "hedge thorn." In this sense it survives
in legal history in "hay bote," _i.e._ hedge-bote, the right of a
tenant, copyholder, &c. to take wood to repair fences, hedges, &c. (see
ESTOVERS), and also in "hayward," an official of a manor whose duty was
to protect the enclosed lands from cattle breaking out of the common
land.
_Haymaking._--The term "haymaking" signifies the process of drying and
curing grass or other herbage so as to fit it for storage in stacks or
sheds for future use. As a regular part of farm work it was unknown in
ancient times. Before its introduction into Great Britain the animals
intended for beef and mutton were slaughtered in autumn and salted down;
the others were turned out to fend for themselves, and often lost all
the fat in winter they had gained the previous summer. The introduction
of haymaking gave unlimited scope for the production of winter food, and
improved treatment of live stock became possible.
Though every country has its own methods of haymaking, the principal
stages in the process everywhere are: (1) mowing, (2) drying or
"making," (3) "carrying" and storage in stacks or sheds.
In a wet district such as the west of Ireland the "making" is a
difficult affair and large quantities of hay are often spoiled, while
much labour has to be spent in cocking up, turning over, ricking, &c.,
before it is fit to be stacked up. On the other hand, in the dry
districts of south-eastern England it is often possible to cut and carry
the hay without any special "making," as the sun and wind will dry it
quickly enough to fit it for stacking up without the expenditure of much
labour. This rule also applies to dry countries like the United States
and several of the British colonies, and it is for this reason that most
of the modern implements used for quickly handling a bulk of hay have
been invented or improved in those countries. Forage of all kinds
intended for hay should be cut at or before the flowering stage if
possible. The full growth and food value of the plant are reached then,
and further change consists in the formation and ripening of the seed at
the expense of the leaves and stems, leaving these hard and woody and of
less feeding value.
Grass or other forage, when growing, contains a large proportion of
water, and after cutting must be left to dry in the sun and wind, a
process which may at times be assisted by turning over or shaking up. In
fine weather in the south of England grass is sufficiently dried in from
two to four days to be stacked straight away. In Scotland or other
districts where the rainfall is heavy and the air moist, it is first put
into small field-ricks or "pykes" of from 10 to 20 cwt. each. In the
drying process the 75% of water usually present in grass should be
reduced to approximately 15% in the hay, and in wet or broken weather it
is exceedingly difficult to secure this reduction. With a heavy crop or
in damp weather grass may need turning in the swathe, raking up into
"windrows," and then making up into cocks or "quiles," i.e. round
beehive-like heaps, before it can be "carried." A properly made cock
will stand bad weather for a week, as only the outside straws are
weathered, and therefore the hay is kept fresh and green. Indeed, it is
a good rule always to cock hay, for even in sunny weather undue exposure
ends in bleaching, which is almost as detrimental to its quality as
wet-weathering.
In the last quarter of the 19th century the methods of haymaking were
completely changed, and even some of the principles underlying its
practice were revised. Generally speaking, before that time the only
implements used were the scythe, the rake and the pitchfork;
nowadays--with the exception of the pitchfork--these implements are
seldom used, except where the work is carried on in a small way. Instead
of the scythe, for instance, the mowing machine is employed for cutting
the crop, and with a modern improved machine taking a swathe as wide as
5 or 6 ft. some 10 acres per day can easily be mown by one man and a
pair of horses (figs. 1 and 2).
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Mower (viewed from above) with enlarged detail
of Blade. (Harrison, M'Gregor & Co.)]