It will be seen from the figures that a mower consists of three

principal parts: (1) a truck or carriage on two high wheels carrying

the driving gear; (2) the cutting mechanism, comprising a

reciprocating knife or sickle operating through slots in the guards or

"fingers" fastened to the cutting bar which projects to either the

right or left of the truck; and (3) the pole with whipple-trees, by

which the horses are attached to give the motive power. The

reciprocating knife has a separate blade to correspond to each finger,

and is driven by a connecting rod and crank on the fore part of the

truck. In work the pointed "fingers" pass in between the stalks of

grass and the knives shear them off, acting against the fingers as the

crank drives them backwards and forwards. In the swathe of grass left

behind by the machine, the stalks are, in a manner, thatched over one

another, so that it is in the best position for drying in the sun, or,

per contra, for shedding off the rain if the weather is wet. This is a

great point in favour of the use of the machine, because the swathe

left by the scythe required to be "tedded" out, i.e. the grass had

to be shaken out or spread to allow it to be more easily dried.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Mower (side view).]

After the grass has lain in the swathe a day or two till it is partly

dried, it is necessary to turn it over to dry the other side. This used

to be done with the hand rake, and a band of men or women would advance

in _echelon_ across a field, each turning the swathe of hay by regular

strokes of the rake at each step: "driving the dusky wave along the

mead" as described in Thomson's _Seasons._ This part of the work was the

act of "haymaking" proper, and the subject of much sentiment in both

prose and poetry. The swathes as laid by the mowing machine lent

themselves to this treatment in the old days when the swathe was only

some 3 to 4 ft. wide, but with the wide cut of the present day it

becomes impracticable. If the hay is turned and "made" at all, the

operation is now generally performed by a machine made for the purpose.

There is a wide selection of "tedders" or "kickers," and

"swathe-turners" on the market. The one illustrated in fig. 3 is the

first prize winner at the Royal Agricultural Society's trials (1907). It

takes two swathes at a time, and it will be seen that the working part

consists of a wheel or circle of prongs or tines, which revolves

_across_ the line of the swathe. Each prong in turn catches the edge of

the swathe of grass and kicks it up and over, thus turning it and

leaving it loose for the wind to blow through.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Swathe-turner. (Blackstone & Co., Ltd.).]

The "kicker" is mounted on two wheels, and carries in bearings at the

rear of the frame a multiple-cranked shaft, provided with a series of

forks sleeved on the cranks and having their upper ends connected by

links to the frame. As the crankshaft is driven from the wheels by

proper gearing the forks move upward and forward, then downward and

rearward, in an elliptical path, and kick the hay sharply to the rear,

thus scattering and turning it.

It is a moot point, however, whether grass should be turned at all, or

left to "make" as it falls from the mowing machine. In a dry sunny

season and with a moderate crop it is only a waste of time and labour to

turn it, for it will be cured quite well as it lies, especially if raked

up into loose "windrows" a little before carrying to the stack. On the

other hand, where the crop is heavy (say over 2 tons per acre) or the

climate is wet, turning will be necessary.

With heavy crops of clover, lucerne and similar forage crops, turning

may be an absolute necessity, because a thick swathe of a succulent crop

will be difficult to dry or "make" excepting in hot sunny weather, but

with ordinary meadow grass or with a mixture of "artificial" grasses it

may often be dispensed with. It must be remembered, however, that the

process of turning breaks the stalks (thus letting out the albuminoid

and saccharine juices), and should be avoided as far as possible in

order to save both labour and the quality of the hay.

One of the earlier mechanical inventions in connexion with haymaking

was that of the horse rake (fig. 4). Before its introduction the hay,

after making, had to be gathered up by the hand rake--a tedious and

laborious process--but the introduction of this implement, whereby one

horse and one man can do work before requiring six or eight men,

marked a great advance. The horse rake is a framework on two wheels

carrying hinged steel teeth placed 3 in. apart, so that their points

slide along the ground below the hay. In work it gathers up the loose

hay, and when full a tipping mechanism permits the emptying of the

load.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Self-acting Horse Rake. (Ransomes, Sims &

Jefferies, Ltd.).]

The tipping is effected by pulling down a handle which sets a leverage

device in motion, whereby the teeth are lifted up and the load of hay

dropped below and left behind. On some rakes a clutch is worked by the

driver's foot, and this put in action causes the ordinary forward

revolving motion of the driving wheels to do the tipping.

The loads are tipped end to end as the rake passes and repasses at the

work, and thus the hay is left loose in long parallel rows on the

field. Each row is termed a "windrow," the passage of the wind through

the hay greatly aiding the drying and "making" thereof. When hay is in

this form it may either be carried direct to the stack if sufficiently

"made," or else put into cocks to season a little longer. The original

width of horse rakes was about 8 ft., but nowadays they range up to 16

and 18 ft. The width should be suited to that of the swathes as left

by the mower, and as the latter is now made to cut 5 and 6 ft. wide,

it is necessary to have a rake to cover two widths. The very wide

rakes are only suitable for even, level land; those of less width must

be used where the land has been laid down in ridge and furrow. As the

swathes lie in long parallel rows, it is a great convenience in

working for two to be taken in width at a time, so that the horse can

walk in the space between.

The side-delivery rake, a development of the ordinary horse rake, is a

useful implement, adapted for gathering and laying a quantity of hay

in one continuous windrow. It is customary with this to go up the

field throwing two swathes to one side, and then back down on the

adjacent swathes, so that thus four are thrown into one central

windrow. The implement consists of a frame carried on two wheels with

shafts for a horse; across the frame are fixed travelling or revolving

prongs of different varieties which pick up the hay off the ground and

pass it along sideways across the line of travel, leaving it in one

continuous line. Some makes of swathe-turners are designed to do this

work as well as the turning of the hay.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Sweep Rake.]

Perhaps the greatest improvement of modern times is the method of

carrying the hay from the field to the stack. An American invention

known as the sweep rake was introduced by the writer into England in

1894, and now in many modified forms is in very general use in the

Midlands and south of England, where the hay is carried from the cock,

windrow or swathe straight to the stack. This implement consists of a

wheeled framework fitted with long wooden iron-pointed teeth which

slide along the ground; two horses are yoked to it--one at each

side--the driver directing from a central seat behind the framework.

When in use it is taken to the farther end of a row of cocks, a

windrow, or even to a row of untouched swathes on the ground, and

walked forward. As it advances it scoops up a load, and when full is

drawn to where the stack is being erected (fig. 5). In ordinary

circumstances the sweep rake will pick up at a load two-thirds of an

ordinary cart-load, but, where the hay is in good order and it is

swept down hill, a whole one-horse cart-load can be carried each time.

The drier the hay the better will the sweep rake work, and if it is

not working sweetly but has a tendency to clog or make rolls of hay,

it may be inferred that the latter is not in a condition fit for

stacking. Where the loads must be taken through a gateway or a long

distance to the stack, it is necessary to use carts or wagons, and the

loading of these in the field out of the windrow is largely expedited

by the use of the "loader," also an American invention of which many

varieties are in the market. Generally speaking, it consists of a

frame carrying a revolving web with tines or prongs. The implement is

hitched on behind a cart or wagon, and as it moves forward the web

picks the loose hay off the ground and delivers it on the top, where a

man levels it with a pitchfork and builds it into a load ready to move

to the stack. At the stack the most convenient method of transferring

the hay from a cart, wagon or sweep rake is the elevator, a tall

structure with a revolving web carrying teeth or spikes (fig. 6). The

hay is thrown in forkfuls on at the bottom, a pony-gear causes the web

to revolve, and the hay is carried in an almost continuous stream up

the elevator and dropped over the top on to the stack. The whole

implement is made to fold down, and is provided with wheels so that it

can be moved from stack to stack. In the older forms there is a

"hopper" or box at the bottom into which the hay is thrown to enable

the teeth of the web to catch it, but in the modern forms there is no

hopper, the web reaching down to the ground so that hay can be picked

up from the ground level. Where the hay is brought to the stack on

carts or wagons it can be unloaded by means of the horse fork. This is

an adaptation of the principle of the ordinary crane; a central pole

and jib are supported by guy ropes, and from the end of the jib a rope

runs over a pulley. At the end of this rope is a "fork" formed of two

sets of prongs which open and shut. This is lowered on to the load of

hay, the prongs are forced into it, a horse pulls at the other end of

the rope, and the prongs close and "grab" several cwt. of hay which

are swung up and dropped on the stack. In this way a large cart or

wagon load is hoisted on to the stack in three or four "forkfuls." The

horse fork is not suited for use with the sweep rake, however, because

the hay is brought up to the stack in a loose flat heap without

sufficient body for the fork to get hold of.

In northern and wet districts of England it is customary to "make" the

hay as in the south, but it is then built up into little stacks in the

field where it grew (ricks, pykes or tramp-cocks are names used for

these in different districts), each containing about 10 to 15 cwt. These

are made in the same way as the ordinary stack--one person on top

building, another on the ground pitching up the hay--and are carefully

roped and raked down. In these the hay gets a preliminary sweating or

tempering while at the same time it is rendered safe from the weather,

and, thus stored, it may remain for weeks before being carried to the

big stacks at the homestead. The practice of putting up the hay into

little ricks in the field has brought about the introduction of another

set of implements for carrying these to the stackyard.

Various forms of rick-lifters are in use, the characteristic feature

of which is a tipping platform on wheels to which a horse is attached

between shafts. The vehicle is backed against a rick, and a chain

passed round the bottom of the latter, which is then pulled up the

slant of the tipped platform by means of a small windlass. When the

centre of the balance is passed, the platform carrying the rick tips

back to the level, and the whole is thus loaded ready to move. Another

variety of loader is formed of three shear-legs with block and tackle.

These are placed over a rick, under which the grab-irons are passed,

and the whole hauled up by a horse. When high enough a cart is backed

in below, the rick lowered, and the load is ready to carry away.

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Hay Elevator. (Maldon Iron Works Co.).]

When put into a stack the next stage in curing the hay begins--the

heating or sweating. In the growing plants the tissues are composed of

living cells containing protoplasm. This continues its life action as

long as it gets sufficient moisture and air. As life action involves the

development of heat, the temperature in a confined space like a stack

where the heat is not dissipated may rise to such a point that

spontaneous combustion occurs. The chemical or physical reasons for this

are not very well understood. The starch and sugar contents of the

tissues are changed in part into alcohol. In the analogous process of

making silage (i.e. stacking wet green grass in a closed building) the

alcohol develops into acetic acid, thus making "sour" silage. In a

haystack the intermediate body, acetaldehyde, which is both inflammable

and suffocating, is produced--men having been suffocated when sleeping

on the top of a heating stack. The production of this gas leads to slow

combustion and ignition. One explanation of the process is that the

protoplasm of the cells acts as a fermenting agent (like yeast) until a

temperature sufficient to kill germ life, say 150 deg. F., is reached,

beyond which the action which leads up to the temperature of ignition

must be purely chemical. If the stack contains no air at all it does not

heat, or if it has excess of air it is safe. The danger-point in a stack

is the centre at about 6 ft. from the ground; below this the weight of

the hay itself squeezes out the air, and at the sides and top the heat

is dissipated outwards. If a stack shows signs of overheating (a process

that may take weeks or even months to develop) it can be saved by

cutting a gap in the side of it with the hay knife, thus letting out the

heat and fumes, and admitting fresh air to the centre. The essential

point in haymaking is that the hay should be dried sufficiently to

ensure the sweating process in the stack reaching no further than the

stage of the formation of sugar. Good hay should come out green and

with the odour of coumarin--to which is due the scent of new-mown hay.

Only part of a stack can ever attain to a perfect state: the tops,

bottom and outsides are generally wasted by the weather after stacking,

while there may be three or four intermediate qualities present. In some

markets hay that has been sweated till it is brown in colour is desired,

but for general purposes green hay is the best.

Hay often becomes musty when the weather during "making" has been too

wet to allow of its getting sufficiently dry for stacking. Mustiness is

caused by the growth of various moulds (_Penicillium_, _Aspergillus_,

&c.) on the damp stems, with the result that the hay when cut out for

use is dusty and shows white streaks and spots. Such hay is inferior to

that which has been overheated, and in practice it is found that a

strong heating will prevent mouldiness by killing the fungi.

Heavy lush crops--especially those containing a large proportion of

clover or other leguminous plants--are proportionately more difficult to

"make" than light grassy ones. Thus, if one ton is taken as a fair yield

off one acre, a two-ton crop will probably require four times as much

work in curing as the smaller crop. In the treacherous climate of Great

Britain hay is frequently spoiled because the weather does not hold good

long enough to permit of its being properly "made." Consequently many

experienced haymakers regard a moderate crop as the more profitable

because it can be stacked in first-class condition, whereas a heavy crop

forced by "high farming" is grown at a loss, owing to the weather waste

and the heavier expenses involved in securing it.

In handling or marketing out of the stack hay may be transported loose

on a cart or wagon, but it is more usual to truss or bale it. A truss

is a rectangular block cut out of the solid stack, usually about 3 ft.

long and 2 ft. wide, and of a thickness sufficient to give a weight of

56 lb.: thirty-six of these constitute a "load" of 18 cwt.--the unit

of sale in many markets. A truss is generally bound with two bands of

twisted straw, but if it has to undergo much handling it is compressed

in a hay-press and tied with two string bands. In some districts a

baler is used: a square box with a compressible lid. The hay is

tumbled in loose, the lid forced down by a leverage arrangement and

the bale tied by three strings. It is usually made to weigh from 1 to

1(1/2) cwt. The customs of different markets vary very much in their

methods of handling hay, and in the overseas hay trade the size and

style of the trusses or bales are adapted for packing on ship-board.

HAYASHI, TADASU, COUNT (1850- ), Japanese statesman, was born in Tokyo

(then Yedo), and was one of the first batch of students sent by the

Tokugawa government to study in England. He returned on the eve of the

abolition of the Shogunate, and followed Enomoto (q.v.) when the latter,

sailing with the Tokugawa fleet to Yezo, attempted to establish a

republic there in defiance of the newly organized government of the

emperor. Thrown into prison on account of this affair, Hayashi did not

obtain office until 1871. Thereafter he rose rapidly, until, after a

long period of service as vice-minister of foreign affairs, he was

appointed to represent his country first in Peking, then in St

Petersburg and finally in London, where he acted an important part in

negotiating the first Anglo-Japanese Alliance, for which service he

received the title of viscount. He remained in London throughout the

Russo-Japanese War, and was the first Japanese ambassador at the court

of St James after the war. Returning to Tokyo in 1906 to take the

portfolio of foreign affairs, he remained in office until the

resignation of the Saionji cabinet in 1908. He was raised to the rank of

count for eminent services performed during the war between his country

and Russia, and in connexion with the second Anglo-Japanese Alliance of

1905.

HAYDEN, FERDINAND VANDEVEER (1829-1887), American geologist, was born at

Westfield, Massachusetts, on the 7th of September 1829. He graduated

from Oberlin College in 1850 and from the Albany Medical College in

1853, where he attracted the notice of Professor James Hall, state

geologist of New York, through whose influence he was induced to join in

an exploration of Nebraska. In 1856 he was engaged under the United

States government, and commenced a series of investigations of the

Western Territories, one result of which was his _Geological Report of

the Exploration of the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers in 1859-1860_

(1869). During the Civil War he was actively employed as an army

surgeon. In 1867 he was appointed geologist-in-charge of the United

States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, and from

his twelve years of labour there resulted a most valuable series of

volumes in all branches of natural history and economic science; and he

issued in 1877 his _Geological and Geographical Atlas of Colorado_. Upon

the reorganization and establishment of the United States Geological

Survey in 1879 he acted for seven years as one of the geologists. He

died at Philadelphia on the 22nd of December 1887.

His other publications were: _Sun Pictures of Rocky Mountain Scenery_

(1870); _The Yellowstone National Park_, illustrated by

chromolithographic reproductions of water-colour sketches by Thomas

Moran (1876); _The Great West: its Attractions and Resources_ (1880).

With F. B. Meek, he wrote (_Smithsonian Institution Contributions_, v.

14. Art. 4) "Palaeontology of the Upper Missouri, Pt. 1,

Invertebrate." His valuable notes on Indian dialects are in _The

Transactions of the American Philosophical Society_ (1862), in _The

American Journal of Science_ (1862) and in _The Proceedings of the

American Philosophical Society_ (1869). With A. R. C. Selwyn he wrote

_North America_ (1883) for Stanford's _Compendium_.

HAYDN, FRANZ JOSEPH (1732-1809), Austrian composer, was born on the 31st

of March 1732 at Rohrau (Trstnik), a village on the borders of Lower

Austria and Hungary. There is sufficient evidence that his family was of

Croatian stock: a fact which throws light upon the distinctively

Slavonic character of much of his music. He received the first rudiments

of education from his father, a wheelwright with twelve children, and at

an early age evinced a decided musical talent. This attracted the

attention of a distant relative named Johann Mathias Frankh, who was

schoolmaster in the neighbouring town of Hainburg, and who, in 1738,

took the child and for the next two years trained him as a chorister. In

1740, on the recommendation of the Dean of Hainburg, Haydn obtained a

place in the cathedral choir of St Stephen's, Vienna, where he took the

solo-part in the services and received, at the choir school, some

further instruction on the violin and the harpsichord. In 1749 his voice

broke, and the director, Georg von Reutter, took the occasion of a

boyish escapade to turn him into the streets. A few friends lent him

money and found him pupils, and in this way he was enabled to enter upon

a rigorous course of study (he is said to have worked for sixteen hours

a day), partly devoted to Fux's treatise on counterpoint, partly to the

"Friedrich" and "Wurttemberg" sonatas of C. P. E. Bach, from which he

gained his earliest acquaintance with the principles of musical

structure. The first fruits of his work were a comic opera, _Der neue

krumme Teufel_, and a Mass in F major (both written in 1751), the former

of which was produced with success. About the same time he made the

acquaintance of Metastasio, who was lodging in the same house, and who

introduced him to one or two patrons; among others Senor Martinez, to

whose daughter he gave lessons, and Porpora, who, in 1753, took him for

the summer to Mannersdorf, and there gave him instruction in singing and

in the Italian language.

The turning-point of his career came in 1755, when he accepted an

invitation to the country-house of Freiherr von Furnberg, an

accomplished amateur who was in the habit of collecting parties of

musicians for the performance of chamber-works. Here Haydn wrote, in

rapid succession, eighteen divertimenti which include his first symphony

and his first quartet; the two earliest examples of the forms with which

his name is most closely associated. Thenceforward his prospects

improved. On his return to Vienna in 1756 he became famous as teacher

and composer, in 1759 he was appointed conductor to the private band of

Count Morzin, for whom he wrote several orchestral works (including a

symphony in D major erroneously called his first), and in 1760 he was

promoted to the sub-directorship of Prince Paul Esterhazy's _Kapelle_,

at that time the best in Austria. During the tenure of his appointment

with Count Morzin he married the daughter of a Viennese hairdresser

named Keller, who had befriended him in his days of poverty, but the

marriage turned out ill and he was shortly afterwards separated from

his wife, though he continued to support her until her death in 1800.

From 1760 to 1790 he remained with the Esterhazys, principally at their

country-seats of Esterhaz and Eisenstadt, with occasional visits to

Vienna in the winter. In 1762 Prince Paul Esterhazy died and was

succeeded by his brother Nicholas, surnamed the Magnificent, who

increased Haydn's salary, showed him every mark of favour, and, on the

death of Werner in 1766, appointed him _Oberkapellmeister_. With the

encouragement of a discriminating patron, a small but excellent

orchestra and a free hand, Haydn made the most of his opportunity and

produced a continuous stream of compositions in every known musical

form. To this period belong five Masses, a dozen operas, over thirty

clavier-sonatas, over forty quartets, over a hundred orchestral

symphonies and overtures, a Stabat Mater, a set of interludes for the

service of the Seven Words, an Oratorio _Tobias_ written for the

_Tonkunstler-Societat_ of Vienna, and a vast number of concertos,

divertimenti and smaller pieces, among which were no less than 175 for

Prince Nicholas' favourite instrument, the baryton.

Meanwhile his reputation was spreading throughout Europe. A Viennese

notice of his appointment as _Oberkapellmeister_ spoke of him as "the

darling of our nation," his works were reprinted or performed in every

capital from Madrid to St Petersburg. He received commissions from the

cathedral of Cadiz, from the grand duke Paul, from the king of Prussia,

from the directors of the _Concert Spirituel_ at Paris; beside his

transactions with Breitkopf and Hartel, and with La Chevardiere, he sold

to one English firm the copyright of no less than 129 compositions. But

the most important fact of biography during these thirty years was his

friendship with Mozart, whose acquaintance he made at Vienna in the

winter of 1781-1782. There can have been little personal intercourse

between them, for Haydn was rarely in the capital, and Mozart seems

never to have visited Eisenstadt; but the cordiality of their relations

and the mutual influence which they exercised upon one another are of

the highest moment in the history of 18th-century music. "It was from

Haydn that I first learned to write a quartet," said Mozart; it was from

Mozart that Haydn learned the richer style and the fuller mastery of

orchestral effect by which his later symphonies are distinguished.

In 1790 Prince Nicholas Esterhazy died and the _Kapelle_ was disbanded.

Haydn, thus released from his official duties, forthwith accepted a

commission from Salomon, the London concert-director, to write and

conduct six symphonies for the concerts in the Hanover Square Rooms. He

arrived in England at the beginning of 1791 and was welcomed with the

greatest enthusiasm, receiving among other honours the degree of D Mus.

from the university of Oxford. In June 1792 he returned home, and,

breaking his journey at Bonn, was presented with a Cantata by Beethoven,

then aged two-and-twenty, whom he invited to come to Vienna as his

pupil. The lessons, which were not very successful, lasted for about a

year, and were then interrupted by Haydn's second visit to England

(January 1794 to July 1795), where he produced the last six of his

"Salomon" symphonies. From 1795 onward he resided in the Mariahilf

suburb of Vienna, and there wrote his last eight Masses, the last and

finest of his chamber works, the Austrian national anthem (1797), the

_Creation_ (1799) and the _Seasons_ (1801). His last choral composition

which can be dated with any certainty was the Mass in C minor, written

in 1802 for the name-day of Princess Esterhazy. Thenceforward his health

declined, and his closing years, surrounded by the love of friends and

the esteem of all musicians, were spent almost wholly in retirement. On

the 27th of March 1808 he was able to attend a performance of the

_Creation_, given in his honour, but it was his last effort, and on the

31st of May 1809 he died, aged seventy-seven. Among the mourners who

followed him to the grave were many French officers from Napoleon's

army, which was then occupying Vienna.

Haydn's place in musical history is best determined by his instrumental

compositions. His operas, for all their daintiness and melody, no longer

hold the stage; the Masses in which he "praised God with a cheerful

heart" have been condemned by the severer decorum of our own day; of his

oratorios the _Creation_ alone survives. In all these his work belongs

mainly to the style and idiom of a bygone generation: they are

monuments, not landmarks, and their beauty and invention seem rather to

close an epoch than to inaugurate its successor. Even the naif pictorial

suggestion, of which free use is made in the _Creation_ and in the

_Seasons_, is closer to the manner of Handel than to that of the 19th

century: it is less the precursor of romance than the descendant of an

earlier realism. But as the first great master of the quartet and the

symphony his claim is incontestable. He began, half-consciously, by

applying through the fuller medium the lessons of design which he had

learned from C. P. E. Bach's sonatas; then the medium itself began to

suggest wider horizons and new possibilities of treatment; his position

at Eisenstadt enabled him to experiment without reserve; his genius,

essentially symphonic in character, found its true outlet in the

opportunities of pure musical structure. The quartets in particular

exhibit a wider range and variety of structural invention than those of

any other composer except Beethoven. Again it is here that we can most

readily trace the important changes which he wrought in melodic idiom.

Before his time instrumental music was chiefly written for the

_Paradiesensaal_, and its melody often sacrificed vitality of idea to a

ceremonial courtliness of phrase. Haydn broke through this convention by

frankly introducing his native folk-music, and by writing many of his

own tunes in the same direct, vigorous and simple style. The innovation

was at first received with some disfavour; critics accustomed to polite

formalism censured it as extravagant and undignified; but the freshness

and beauty of its melody soon silenced all opposition, and did more than

anything else throughout the 18th century to establish the principle of

nationalism in musical art. The actual employment of Croatian folk-tunes

may be illustrated from the string quartets Op. 17, No. 1; Op. 33, No.

3; Op. 50, No. 1; Op. 77, No. 1, and the Salomon Symphonies in D and

E[flat], while there is hardly an instrumental composition of Haydn's in

which his own melodies do not show some traces of the same influence.

His natural idiom in short was that of a heightened and ennobled

folk-song, and one of the most remarkable evidences of his genius was

the power with which he adapted all his perfection and symmetry of style

to the requirements of popular speech. His music is in this way

singularly expressive; its humour and pathos are not only absolutely

sincere, but so outspoken that we cannot fail to catch their

significance.

In the development of instrumental polyphony Haydn's work was almost as

important as that of Mozart. Having at his disposal a band of picked

virtuosi he could produce effects as different from the tentative

experiments of C. P. E. Bach as these were from the orchestral

platitudes of Reutter or Hasse. His symphony _Le Midi_ (written in 1761)

already shows a remarkable freedom and independence in the handling of

orchestral forces, and further stages of advance were reached in the

oratorio of _Tobias_, in the Paris and Salomon symphonies, and above all

in the _Creation_, which turns to good account some of the debt which he

owed to his younger contemporary. The importance of this lies not only

in a greater richness of musical colour, but in the effect which it

produced on the actual substance and texture of composition. The

polyphony of Beethoven was unquestionably influenced by it and, even in

his latest sonatas and quartets, may be regarded as its logical outcome.

The compositions of Haydn include 104 symphonies, 16 overtures, 76

quartets, 68 trios, 54 sonatas, 31 concertos and a large number of

divertimentos, cassations and other instrumental pieces; 24 operas and

dramatic pieces, 16 Masses, a Stabat Mater, interludes for the "Seven

Words," 3 oratorios, 2 Te Deums and many smaller pieces for the

church, over 40 songs, over 50 canons and arrangements of Scottish and

Welsh national melodies.

His younger brother, JOHANN MICHAEL HAYDN (1737-1806), was also a

chorister at St Stephen's, and shortly after leaving the choir-school

was appointed _Kapellmeister_ at Grosswardein (1755) and at Salzburg

(1762). The latter office he held for forty-three years, during which

time he wrote over 360 compositions for the church and much

instrumental music, which, though unequal, deserves more consideration

than it has received. He was the intimate friend of Mozart, who had a

high opinion of his genius, and the teacher of C. M. von Weber. His most

important works were the _Missa hispanica_, which he exchanged for his

diploma at Stockholm, a Mass in D minor, a Lauda Sion, a set of

graduals, forty-two of which are reprinted in Diabelli's

_Ecclesiasticon_, three symphonies (1785), and a string quintet in C

major which has been erroneously attributed to Joseph Haydn. Another

brother, JOHANN EVANGELIST HAYDN (1743-1805), gained some reputation as

a tenor vocalist, and was for many years a member of Prince Esterhazy's

_Kapelle_.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--S. Mayr, _Brevi notizie storiche della vita e delle

opere di Giuseppe Haydn_ (1809); Griesinger, _Biographische Notizen

uber Joseph Haydn_ (1810); Carpani, _Le Haydeni_ (1812 and 1823);

Bombet (M. de Stendhal), _Vies de Haydn, de Mozart et de Metastase_

(Paris, 1854); Karajan, _Joseph Haydn in London_ (1861); C. F. Pohl,

_Mozart und Haydn in London_ (1867); _Joseph Haydn_ (vol. i. 1875,

vol. ii. 1882: this, the standard biography, was left unfinished at Dr

Pohl's death and needs a third volume to complete it); article on

Haydn in Grove's _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_; Fr. S. Kuhac,

_Josip Haydn i Hravatske Narodne Popievke_ (Joseph Haydn and the

Croatian Folk-songs) (Agram, 1880); A. Niggli, _Joseph Haydn, sein

Leben und Werken_ (Basel, 1882); L. Nohl, _Biographie Haydns_

(Leipzig, Reclam); P. D. Townsend; _Joseph Haydn_ (London, 1884),

Biography in H. Reimann's _Beruhmte Musiker_ (Berlin, 1898); J. C.

Hadden, _Joseph Haydn_ (Great Musicians series) (London, 1902). To

these should be added the list of Haydn's symphonies printed in Alfred

Wotquenne's _Catalogue de la Bibliotheque du Conservatoire Royal de

Bruxelles_, vol. ii. (1902). (W. H. Ha.)

HAYDON, BENJAMIN ROBERT (1786-1846), English historical painter and

writer, was born at Plymouth on the 26th of January 1786. His mother was

the daughter of the Rev. Benjamin Cobley, rector of Dodbrook, Devon,

whose son, General Sir Thomas Cobley, signalized himself in the Russian

service at the siege of Ismail. His father, a prosperous printer,

stationer and publisher, was a man of literary taste, and was well known

and esteemed amongst all classes in Plymouth. Haydon, an only son, at an

early date gave evidence of his taste for study, which was carefully

fostered and promoted by his mother. At the age of six he was placed in

Plymouth grammar school, and at twelve in Plympton St Mary school. He

completed his education in this institution, where Sir Joshua Reynolds

also had acquired all the scholastic training he ever received. On the

ceiling of the school-room was a sketch by Reynolds in burnt cork, which

it used to be Haydon's delight to sit and contemplate. Whilst at school

he had some thought of adopting the medical profession, but he was so

shocked at the sight of an operation that he gave up the idea. A perusal

of Albinus, however, inspired him with a love for anatomy; and

Reynolds's discourses revived within him a smouldering taste for

painting, which from childhood had been the absorbing idea of his mind.

Sanguine of success, full of energy and vigour, he started from the

parental roof, on the 14th of May 1804, for London, and entered his name

as a student of the Royal Academy. He began and prosecuted his studies

with such unwearied ardour that Fuseli wondered when he ever found time

to eat. At the age of twenty-one (1807) Haydon exhibited, for the first

time, at the Royal Academy, "The Repose in Egypt," which was bought by

Mr Thomas Hope the year after. This was a good start for the young

artist, who shortly received a commission from Lord Mulgrave and an

introduction to Sir George Beaumont. In 1809 he finished his well-known

picture of "Dentatus," which, though it brought him a great increase of

fame, involved him in a lifelong quarrel with the Royal Academy, whose

committee had hung the picture in a small side-room instead of the great

hall. In 1810 his difficulties began through the stoppage of an

allowance of L200 a year he had received from his father. His

disappointment was embittered by the controversies in which he now

became involved with Sir George Beaumont, for whom he had painted his

picture of "Macbeth," and Payne Knight, who had denied the beauties as

well as the money value of the Elgin Marbles. "The Judgment of Solomon,"

his next production, gained him L700, besides L100 voted to him by the

directors of the British Institution, and the freedom of the borough of

Plymouth. To recruit his health and escape for a time from the cares of

London life, Haydon joined his intimate friend Wilkie in a trip to

Paris; he studied at the Louvre; and on his return to England produced

his "Christ's Entry into Jerusalem," which afterwards formed the nucleus

of the American Gallery of Painting, erected by his cousin, John

Haviland of Philadelphia. Whilst painting another large work, the

"Resurrection of Lazarus," his pecuniary difficulties increased, and for

the first time he was arrested but not imprisoned, the sheriff-officer

taking his word for his appearance. Amidst all these harassing cares he

married in October 1821 a beautiful young widow who had some children,

Mrs Hyman, to whom he was devotedly attached.

In 1823 Haydon was lodged in the King's Bench, where he received

consoling letters from the first men of the day. Whilst a prisoner he

drew up a petition to parliament in favour of the appointment of "a

committee to inquire into the state of encouragement of historical

painting," which was presented by Brougham. He also, during a second

imprisonment in 1827, produced the picture of the "Mock Election," the

idea of which had been suggested by an incident that happened in the

prison. The king (George IV.) gave him L500 for this work. Among

Haydon's other pictures were--1829, "Eucles" and "Punch"; 1831,

"Napoleon at St Helena," for Sir Robert Peel; "Xenophon, on his Retreat

with the 'Ten Thousand,' first seeing the Sea"; and "Waiting for the

_Times_," purchased by the marquis of Stafford; 1832, "Falstaff" and

"Achilles playing the Lyre." In 1834 he completed the "Reform Banquet,"

for Lord Grey--this painting contained 197 portraits; in 1843, "Curtius

Leaping into the Gulf," and "Uriel and Satan." There was also the

"Meeting of the Anti-Slavery Society," energetically treated, now in the

National Portrait Gallery. When the competition took place at

Westminster Hall, Haydon sent two cartoons, "The Curse of Adam" and

"Edward the Black Prince," but, with some unfairness, he was not allowed

a prize for either. He then painted "The Banishment of Aristides," which

was exhibited with other productions under the same roof where the

American dwarf Tom Thumb was then making his debut in London. The

exhibition was unsuccessful; and the artist's difficulties increased to

such an extent that, whilst employed on his last grand effort, "Alfred

and the Trial by Jury," overcome by debt, disappointment and

ingratitude, he wrote "Stretch me no longer on this rough world," and

put an end to his existence with a pistol-shot, on the 22nd of June

1846, in the sixty-first year of his age. He left a widow and three

children (various others had died), who, by the generosity of their

father's friends, were rescued from their pecuniary difficulties and

comfortably provided for; amongst the foremost of these friends were Sir

Robert Peel, Count D'Orsay, Mr Justice Talfourd and Lord Carlisle.

Haydon began his first lecture on painting and design in 1835, and

afterwards visited all the principal towns in England and Scotland. His

delivery was energetic and imposing, his language powerful, flowing and

apt, and replete with wit and humour; and to look at the lecturer,

excited by his subject, one could scarcely fancy him a man overwhelmed

with difficulties and anxieties. The height of Haydon's ambition was to

behold the chief buildings of his country adorned with historical

representations of her glory. He lived to see the acknowledgment of his

principles by government in the establishment of schools of design, and

the embellishment of the new houses of parliament; but in the

competition of artists for the carrying out of this object, the

commissioners (amongst whom was one of his former pupils) considered, or

affected to consider, that he had failed. Haydon was well versed in all

points of his profession; and his _Lectures_, which were published

shortly after their delivery, showed that he was as bold a writer as

painter. It may be mentioned in this connexion that he was the author of

the long and elaborate article, "Painting," in the 7th edition of the

_Encyclopaedia Britannica_.

To form a correct estimate of Haydon it is necessary to read his

autobiography. This is one of the most natural books ever written, full

of various and abundant power, and fascinating to the reader. The author

seems to have daguerreotyped his feelings and sentiments without

restraint as they rose in his mind, and his portrait stands in these

volumes limned to the life by his own hand. His love for his art was

both a passion and a principle. He found patrons difficult to manage;

and, not having the tact to lead them gently, he tried to drive them

fiercely. He failed, abused patrons and patronage, and intermingled talk

of the noblest independence with acts not always dignified. He was

self-willed to perversity, but his perseverance was such as is seldom

associated with so much vehemence and passion. With a large fund of

genuine self-reliance he combined a considerable measure of vanity. To

the last he believed in his own powers and in the ultimate triumph of

art. In taste he was deficient, at least as concerned himself. Hence the

tone of self-assertion which he assumed in his advertisements,

catalogues and other appeals to the public. He proclaimed himself the

apostle and martyr of high art, and, not without some justice, he

believed himself to have on that account a claim on the sympathy and

support of the nation. It must be confessed that he often tested

severely those whom he called his friends. Every reader of his

autobiography will be struck at the frequency and fervour of the short

prayers interspersed throughout the work. Haydon had an overwhelming

sense of a personal, overruling and merciful providence, which

influenced his relations with his family, and to some extent with the

world. His conduct as a husband and father entitles him to the utmost

sympathy. In art his powers and attainments were undoubtedly very great,

although his actual performances mostly fall short of the faculty which

was manifestly within him; his general range and force of mind were also

most remarkable, and would have qualified him to shine in almost any

path of intellectual exertion or of practical work. His eager and

combative character was partly his enemy; but he had other enemies

actuated by motives as unworthy as his own were always high-pitched and

on abstract grounds laudable. Of his three great works--the "Solomon,"

the "Entry into Jerusalem" and the "Lazarus"--the second has generally

been regarded as the finest. The "Solomon" is also a very admirable

production, showing his executive power at its loftiest, and of itself

enough to place Haydon at the head of British historical painting in his

own time. The "Lazarus" (which belongs to the National Gallery, but is

not now on view there) is a more unequal performance, and in various

respects open to criticism and censure; yet the head of Lazarus is so

majestic and impressive that, if its author had done nothing else, we

must still pronounce him a potent pictorial genius.

The chief authorities for the life of Haydon are _Life of B. R.

Haydon, from his Autobiography and Journals_, edited and compiled by

Tom Taylor (3 vols., 1853); and _B. R. Haydon's Correspondence and

Table Talk_, with a memoir by his son, F. W. Haydon (2 vols., 1876).

(W. M. R.)

HAYES, RUTHERFORD BIRCHARD (1822-1893), nineteenth president of the

United States, was born in Delaware, Ohio, on the 4th of October 1822.

He received his first education in the common schools, graduated in 1842

at Kenyon College, Gambier, Ohio, and was a student at the law school of

Harvard University from 1843 until his graduation in 1845. He was

admitted to the bar in 1845, and practised law, first at Lower Sandusky

(now Fremont), and then at Cincinnati, where he won a very respectable

standing, and in 1858-1861 served as city solicitor. In politics he was

at first an anti-slavery Whig and then from the time of its organization

in 1854 until his death was a member of the Republican party. In

December 1852 he married Lucy Ware Webb of Chillicothe, Ohio, who

survived him. After the breaking out of the Civil War the governor of

Ohio, on the 7th of June 1861, appointed him a major of a volunteer

regiment, and in July he was sent to western Virginia for active

service. He served throughout the war, distinguished himself

particularly at South Mountain, Winchester, Fisher's Hill and Cedar

Creek, and by successive promotions became a brigadier-general of

volunteers and, by brevet, a major-general of volunteers. While still

in the field he was elected a member of the National House of

Representatives, and took his seat in December 1865. He was re-elected

in 1866, and supported the reconstruction measures advocated by his

party. From 1868 to 1872 he was governor of Ohio. In 1873 he removed

from Cincinnati to Fremont, his intention being to withdraw from public

life; but in 1875 the Republican party in Ohio once more selected him as

its candidate for the governorship. He accepted the nomination with

great reluctance. The Democrats adopted a platform declaring in favour

of indefinitely enlarging the volume of the irredeemable paper currency

which the Civil War had left behind it. Hayes stoutly advocated the

speediest practicable resumption of specie payments, and carried the

election. The "sound-money campaign" in Ohio having attracted the

attention of the whole country, Hayes was marked out as a candidate for

the presidency, and he obtained the nomination of the Republican

National Convention of 1876, his chief competitor being James G. Blaine.

The candidate of the Democratic party, Samuel J. Tilden, by his

reputation as a statesman and a reformer of uncommon ability, drew many

Republican votes. An excited controversy having arisen about the result

of the balloting in the states of South Carolina, Florida, Oregon and

Louisiana, the two parties in Congress in order to allay a crisis

dangerous to public peace agreed to pass an act referring all contested

election returns to an extraordinary commission, called the "Electoral

Commission" (q.v.), which decided each contest by eight against seven

votes in favour of the Republican candidates. Hayes was accordingly on

the 2nd of March 1877 declared duly elected.

During his administration President Hayes devoted his efforts mainly to

civil service reform, resumption of specie payments and the pacification

of the Southern States, recently in rebellion. In order to win the

co-operation of the white people in the South in maintaining peace and

order, he put himself in communication with their leaders. He then

withdrew the Federal troops which since the Civil War had been stationed

at the southern State capitals. An end was thus made of the "carpet-bag

governments" conducted by Republican politicians from the North, some of

which were very corrupt, and had been upheld mainly by the Federal

forces. This policy found much favour with the people generally, but

displeased many of the Republican politicians, because it loosened the

hold of the Republican party upon the Southern States. Though it did not

secure to the negroes sufficient protection in the exercise of their

political rights, it did much to extinguish the animosities still

existing between the two sections of the Union and to promote the

material prosperity of the South. President Hayes endeavoured in vain to

induce Congress to appropriate money for a Civil Service Commission; and

whenever he made an effort to restrict the operation of the traditional

"spoils system," he met the strenuous opposition of a majority of the

most powerful politicians of his party. Nevertheless the system of

competitive examinations for appointments was introduced in some of the

great executive departments in Washington, and in the custom-house and

the post-office in New York. Moreover, he ordered that "no officer

should be required or permitted to take part in the management of

political organizations, caucuses, conventions or election campaigns,"

and that "no assessment for political purposes on officers or

subordinates should be allowed"; and he removed from their offices the

heads of the post-office in St Louis and of the custom-house in New

York--influential party managers--on the ground that they had misused

their official positions for partisan ends. In New York the three men

removed were Chester A. Arthur, the collector; Alonzo B. Cornell, the

naval officer of the Port; and George H. Sharpe, the surveyor of the

customs. While these measures were of limited scope and effect, they

served greatly to facilitate the more extensive reform of the civil

service which subsequently took place, though at the same time they

alienated a powerful faction of the Republican party in New York under

the leadership of Roscoe Conkling. Although the resumption of specie

payments had been provided for, to begin at a given time by the

Resumption Act of January 1875, opposition to it did not cease. A bill

went through both Houses of Congress providing that a silver dollar

should be coined of the weight of 412(1/2) grains, to be full legal

tender for all debts and dues, public and private, except where

otherwise expressly stipulated in the contract. President Hayes returned

this bill with his veto, but the veto was overruled in both Houses of

Congress. Meanwhile, however, the preparations for the return to specie

payments were continued by the Administration with unflinching constancy

and on the 1st of January 1879 specie payments were resumed without

difficulty. None of the evils predicted appeared. A marked revival of

business and a period of general prosperity ensued. In his annual

message of the 1st of December 1879 President Hayes urged the suspension

of the silver coinage and also the withdrawal of the United States legal

tender notes, but Congress failed to act upon the recommendation. His

administration also did much to ameliorate the condition of the Indian

tribes and to arrest the spoliation of the public forest lands.

Although President Hayes was not popular with the professional

politicians of his own party, and was exposed to bitter attacks on the

part of the Democratic opposition on account of the cloud which hung

over his election, his conduct of public affairs gave much satisfaction

to the people generally. In the presidential election of 1880 the

Republican party carried the day after an unusually quiet canvass, a

result largely due to popular contentment with the then existing state

of public affairs. On the 4th of March 1881 President Hayes retired to

his home at Fremont, Ohio. Various universities and colleges conferred

honorary degrees upon him. His remaining years he devoted to active

participation in philanthropic enterprises; thus he served as president

of the National Prison Association and of the Board of Trustees chosen

to administer the John F. Slater fund for the promotion of industrial

education among the negroes of the South, and was a member, also, of the

Board of Trustees of the Peabody Education fund for the promotion of

education in the South. He died at Fremont, after a short illness, on

the 17th of January 1893.

There is no adequate biography, but three "campaign lives" may be

mentioned: _Life, Public Services and Select Speeches of Rutherford B.

Hayes_, by James Quay Howard (Cincinnati, 1876); _Life of R. B.

Hayes_, by William D. Howells (New York, 1876); and a _Life_ by

Russell H. Conwell (Boston, 1876). See also Paul L. Haworth, _The

Hayes-Tilden Disputed Presidential Election of 1876_ (Cleveland, O.,

1906). (C. S.)

HAY FEVER, HAY ASTHMA, or SUMMER CATARRH, a catarrhal affection of the

mucous membrane of the upper respiratory tract, due to the action of the

pollen of certain grasses. It is often associated with asthmatic

attacks. The disease affects certain families, and is hereditary in

about one-third of the cases. It is more common among women than men,

city than country dwellers, and the educated and highly nervous than the

lower classes. It has no connexion with the coryzas that are produced in

nervous people by the odour of cats, &c. The complaint has been

investigated by Professor W. P. Dunbar of Hamburg, who has shown that it

is due to the pollens of certain grasses (notably rye) and plants, and

that the severity of the attack is directly proportional to the amount

of pollen in the air. He has isolated an albuminoid poison which, when

applied to the nose of a susceptible individual, causes an attack, while

there is no result in the case of a normal person. By injecting the

poison into animals, he has obtained an anti-toxin, which is capable of

aborting an attack of hay fever. The symptoms are those commonly

experienced in the case of a severe cold, consisting of headache,

violent sneezing and watery discharge from the nostrils and eyes,

together with a hard dry cough, and occasionally severe asthmatic

paroxysms. The period of liability to infection naturally coincides with

the pollen season.

The radical treatment is to avoid vegetation. Local treatment consisting

of thorough destruction of the sensitive area of the mucous membrane of

the nose often produces good results. There are various drugs, the best

of which are cocaine and the extract of the suprarenal body, which, when

applied to the nose, are sometimes effectual; in practice, however, it

is found that larger and larger doses are required, and that sooner or

later they afford no relief. The same remarks apply to a number of

patent specifics, of which the principal constituent is one of the above

drugs. An additional and stronger objection to the use of cocaine is

that a "habit" is often contracted, with the most disastrous results.

Finally Dunbar's serum may be applied to the nose and eyes on rising,

and on the slightest suggestion of irritation during the day; it will,

in the large majority of cases, be found to be quite effectual.

HAYLEY, WILLIAM (1745-1820), English writer, the friend and biographer

of William Cowper, was born at Chichester on the 9th of November 1745.

He was sent to Eton in 1757, and to Trinity Hall, Cambridge, in 1763;

his connexion with the Middle Temple, London, where he was admitted in

1766, was merely nominal. In 1767 he left Cambridge and went to live in

London. Two years later he married Eliza, daughter of Thomas Ball, dean

of Chichester. His private means enabled Hayley to live on his

patrimonial estate at Eartham, Sussex, and he retired there in 1774. He

had already written many occasional poetical pieces, when in 1771 his

tragedy, _The Afflicted Father_, was rejected by David Garrick. In the

same year his translation of Pierre Corneille's _Rodogune as The Syrian

Queen_ was also declined by George Colman. Hayley won the fame he

enjoyed amongst his contemporaries by his poetical _Essays and

Epistles_; a _Poetical Epistle to an Eminent Painter_ (1780), addressed

to his friend George Romney, an _Essay on History_ (1780), in three

epistles, addressed to Edward Gibbon; _Essay on Epic Poetry_ (1782)

addressed to William Mason; _A Philosophical Essay on Old Maids_ (1785);

and the _Triumphs of Temper_ (1781). The last mentioned work was so

popular as to run to twelve or fourteen editions; together with the

_Triumphs of Music_ (Chichester, 1804) it was ridiculed by Byron in

_English Bards and Scotch Reviewers_. So great was Hayley's fame that on

Thomas Warton's death in 1790 he was offered the laureateship, which he

refused. In 1792, while writing the _Life of Milton_ (1794), Hayley made

Cowper's acquaintance. A warm friendship sprang up between the two which

lasted till Cowper's death in 1800. Hayley indeed was mainly

instrumental in getting Cowper his pension. In 1800 Hayley also lost his

natural son, Thomas Alphonso Hayley, to whom he was devotedly attached.

He had been a pupil of John Flaxman's, to whom Hayley's _Essay on

Sculpture_ (1800) is addressed. Flaxman introduced William Blake to

Hayley, and after the latter had moved in 1800 to his "marine hermitage"

at Felpham, Sussex, Blake settled near him for three years to engrave

the illustrations for the _Life of Cowper_. This, Hayley's best known

work, was published in 1803-1804 (Chichester) in 3 vols. In 1805 he

published _Ballads founded on Anecdotes of Animals_ (Chichester), with

illustrations by Blake, and in 1809 _The Life of Romney_. For the last

twelve years of his life Hayley received an allowance for writing his

_Memoirs_. He died at Felpham on the 12th of November 1820. Hayley's

first wife died in 1797; her mind had been seriously affected, and since

1789 they had been separated. He married in 1809 Mary Welford, but they

also separated after three years. He left no children.

Hayley's _Poetical Works_ were published in 3 vols. (1785); his _Poems

and Plays_ in 6 vols. (1788).

See _Memoirs ... of William Hayley ... and Memoirs of his son T. A.

Hayley_, ed. John Johnson (2 vols., 1823) (containing many of Hayley's

letters); an article on these memoirs by Robert Southey in the

_Quarterly Review_, vol. xxxi., 1825; _William Blake_, by A. C.

Swinburne (2nd ed., 1868, pp. 28 et seq.); _Life of William Blake_, by

Alexander Gilchrist (vol. i., 1880), with some of Blake's letters to

Hayley; _The Correspondence of William Cowper_, arranged by Thomas

Wright (vol. iv., 1904), containing many letters to Hayley.

HAYM, RUDOLF (1821-1901), German publicist and philosopher, was born at

Grunberg, in Silesia, on the 5th of October 1821, and died at St Anton

(Arlberg) on the 27th of August 1901. He studied philosophy and theology

at Halle and Berlin, and lived at Halle during 1846 and 1847. He was a

member of the National Assembly at Frankfort in 1848, and wrote an

account of the proceedings from the standpoint of the Right Centre.

From 1851 he lectured in literature and philosophy at the university of

Halle, and became professor in 1860. His writings are biographical and

critical, devoted mainly to modern German philosophy and literature. In

1870 he published a masterly history of the Romantic school. He also

wrote biographies of W. von Humboldt (1856), Hegel (1857), Schopenhauer

(1864), Herder (1877-1885), Max Duncker (1890). In 1901 he published

_Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben_.

HAYNAU, JULIUS JACOB (1786-1853), Austrian general, was the natural son

of the landgrave--afterwards elector--of Hesse-Cassel, William IX. He

entered the Austrian army as an infantry officer in 1801, and saw much

service in the Napoleonic wars. He was wounded at Wagram, and

distinguished during the operations in Italy in 1813 and 1814. Between

1815 and 1847 he rose to the rank of field marshal lieutenant. A violent

temper, which he made no attempt to control or conceal, led him into

trouble with his superiors. His hatred of revolutionary principles was

fanatical. When the insurrectionary movements of 1848 broke out in

Italy, his known zeal for the cause of legitimacy, as much as his

reputation as an officer, marked him out for command. He fought with

success in Italy, but was chiefly noted for the severity he showed in

suppressing and punishing a rising in Brescia. It ought to be remembered

that the mob of Brescia had massacred invalid Austrian soldiers in the

hospital, a provocation which always leads to reprisals. In June 1849

Haynau was called to Vienna to command first an army of reserve, and

then in the field against the Hungarians. His successes against the

declining revolutionary cause were numerous and rapid. In Hungary, as in

Italy, he was accused of brutality. It was, for instance, asserted that

he caused women who showed any sympathy with the insurgents to be

whipped. His ostentatious hatred of the revolutionary parties marked him

out as the natural object for these accusations. On the restoration of

peace he was appointed to high command in Hungary. His temper quickly

led him into quarrels with the minister of war, and he resigned his

command in 1850. He then travelled abroad. The refugees had spread his

evil reputation. In London he was attacked and beaten by Messrs Barclay

& Perkins' draymen when visiting the brewery, and he was saved from mob

violence in Brussels with some difficulty. He died on the 14th of March

1853. On the 11th of October 1808 Haynau had married Therese von Weber,

the daughter of Field Marshal Lieutenant Weber, who was slain at Aspern.

She died, leaving one daughter, in 1850.

See R. v. Schonhals, _Biographie des K. K. Feldzeugmeisters Julius

Freiherrn von Haynau_ (Vienna, 1875).

HAYNE, ROBERT YOUNG (1791-1839), American political leader, born in St

Paul's parish, Colleton district, South Carolina, on the 10th of

November 1791. He studied law in the office Of Langdon Cheves

(1776-1857) in Charleston, S.C., and in November 1812 was admitted to

the bar there, soon obtaining a large practice. For a short time during

the War of 1812 against Great Britain, he was captain in the Third South

Carolina Regiment. He was a member of the lower house of the state

legislature from 1814 to 1818, serving as speaker in the latter year;

was attorney-general of the state from 1818 to 1822, and in 1823 was

elected, as a Democrat, to the United States Senate. Here he was

conspicuous as an ardent free-trader and an uncompromising advocate of

"States Rights," opposed the protectionist tariff bills of 1824 and

1828, and consistently upheld the doctrine that slavery was a domestic

institution and should be dealt with only by the individual states. In

one of his speeches opposing the sending by the United States of

representatives to the Panama Congress, he said, "The moment the federal

government shall make the unhallowed attempt to interfere with the

domestic concerns of the states, those states will consider themselves

driven from the Union." Hayne is best remembered, however, for his great

debate with Daniel Webster (q.v.) in January 1830. The debate arose over

the so-called "Foote's Resolution," introduced by Senator Samuel A.

Foote (1780-1846) of Connecticut, calling for the restriction of the

sale of public lands to those already in the market, but was concerned

primarily with the relation to one another and the respective powers of

the federal government and the individual states, Hayne contending that

the constitution was essentially a compact between the states, and the

national government and the states, and that any state might, at will,

nullify any federal law which it considered to be in contravention of

that compact. He vigorously opposed the tariff of 1832, was a member of

the South Carolina Nullification Convention of November 1832, and

reported the ordinance of nullification passed by that body on the 24th

of November. Resigning from the Senate, he was governor of the state

from December 1832 to December 1834, and as such took a strong stand

against President Jackson, though he was more conservative than many of

the nullificationists in the state. He was intendant (mayor) of

Charleston, S.C., from 1835 to 1837, and was president of the

Louisville, Cincinnati & Charleston railway from 1837 to 1839. He died

at Asheville, N.C., on the 24th of September 1839. His son, Paul

Hamilton Hayne (1830-1886), was a poet of some distinction, and in 1878

published a life of his father.

See Theodore D. Jervey, _Robert Y. Hayne and his Times_ (New York,

1909).

HAYTER, SIR GEORGE (1792-1871), English painter, was the son of a

popular drawing-master and teacher of perspective who published a

well-known introduction to perspective and other works. He was born in

London, and in his early youth went to sea. He afterwards studied in the

Royal Academy, became a miniature-painter, and was appointed in 1816

miniature-painter to the princess Charlotte. He passed some years in

Italy, more especially in Rome, between 1816 and 1831, returned to

London in the last-named year, resumed portrait-painting, now chiefly in

oil-colour, executed many likenesses of the royal family, and attained

such a reputation for finish and refinement in his work that he received

the appointment of principal painter to Queen Victoria and teacher of

drawing to the princesses. In 1842 he was knighted. He painted various

works on a large scale of a public and semi-historical character, but

essentially works of portraiture; such as "The Trial of Queen Caroline"

(189 likenesses), "The Meeting of the First Reformed Parliament," now in

the National Portrait Gallery, "Queen Victoria taking the Coronation

Oath" (accounted his finest production), "The Marriage of the Queen,"

and the "Trial of Lord William Russell." The artistic merits of Hayter's

works are not, however, such as to preserve to him with posterity an

amount of _prestige_ corresponding to that which court patronage

procured him.

He is not to be confounded with a contemporary artist, John Hayter, who

produced illustrations for the _Book of Beauty_, &c.

HAYTON (HAITHON, HETHUM), king of Little Armenia or Cilicia from 1224 to

1269, traveller in western and central Asia, Mongolia, &c., was the son

of Constantine Rupen, and became heir to the throne of Lesser Armenia by

his marriage with Isabella, daughter and only child of Leo II. After a

reign of forty-five years he abdicated (1269) in favour of his son Leo

III., became a monk and died in 1271. Before his accession he had been

"constable," or head of the Armenian army, and "bailiff" of the realm.

Throughout his reign he followed the policy of friendship and alliance

with the overwhelming power of the Mongols. In about 1248 he sent his

brother Sempad, who was now constable in his place, on a mission to

Kuyuk Khan, the supreme Mongol emperor. Sempad was well received and

returned home in 1250, bringing letters from Kuyuk. After Mangu's

accession in 1251, Batu (the most powerful of the Mongol princes and

generals, and the conqueror--in name at least--of eastern Europe, now

commanding on the line of the Volga) summoned Hayton to the court of the

new grand khan. Carefully disguised, so as to pass safely through the

Turkish states in the interior of eastern Asia Minor (where he was hated

as an ally of the Mongols against Islam), Hayton made his way to Kars,

the central Mongol camp in Great Armenia, where the famous general

Bachu, or Baiju, commanded. Here he reported himself, and was permitted

to remain some time in the Ararat region, at the foot of Mt Alagoz, near

the metropolitan church of Echmiadzin. Being joined by his suite,

especially the clerical diplomatists Basil the Priest, and James the

Abbot, Hayton next passed through eastern Caucasia, threading the pass

of the Iron Gates of Derbent, and so reached the camp of Batu on the

Volga, where he was cordially welcomed. Thence he set out (May 13th,

1254) on the "very long road beyond the Caspian Sea" to the residence of

Mangu at or near Karakorum, south of Lake Baikal. After passing the Ural

river, we only hear of his arrival at Or, probably the present Ili

province, east of Balkhash, and of his reaching the Irtish, entering the

Naiman country, and passing through "Karakhitai" (apparently the capital

of the ruined Karakhitai empire is intended, a place perhaps situated on

the Chu, mentioned out of its proper place in Hayton's record). On the

13th of September the travellers entered Mongolia, and on the 14th (?)

of September were received by Mangu. Here the king remained till the 1st

of November, when he left with diplomas, seals and letters of

enfranchisement which promised great things for the Armenian state,

church and people. His return journey was by very unusual and

interesting routes--through the Urumtsi region, the basin of "the sea of

milk," Lake Sairam, the valley of the Ili, the neighbourhood of Kulja,

and so over mountains, which probably answer to certain outliers of the

Alexander range, to Talas near the present Aulie Ata, midway between the

Syr Daria and the Chu. Here he met and conferred with Hulagu Khan,

Mangu's brother, the future conqueror of Bagdad: probably Hayton was

expected to aid in the coming forward movement of the Mongol armies

against the Moslem world. From Talas Hayton made a detour to the

north-west to meet another Mongol prince, Sartach the son of Batu; after

which he ascended the valley of the Syr Daria, crossed into

Trans-Oxiana, visited Samarkand and Bokhara, and passed the Oxus

apparently near Charjui. By way of Merv and Sarakhs he then entered

Khorasan and traversed north Persia, passing through Rai near Tehran,

Kazvin and Tabriz, and so returning to the camp of Bachu in Armenia, now

at Sisian near Lake Gokcha (July 1255). Thanks to his powerful friends,

Hayton's journey was unusually rapid. Eight months after quitting

Mangu's horde, he was back in Great Armenia. The narrative of this

journey, which was written by a member of the king's suite, one Kirakos

of Gandsak (the modern Elizavetpol), concludes with some interesting

references to Buddhist tenets, to Chinese habits, to various monstrous

races and to certain "women endowed with reason" dwelling "beyond

Cathay." It also gives some notes, compounded of truth and legend, on

the wild tribes and animals of the Gobi and adjoining regions.

The record drawn up by Kirakos Gandsaketsi was in Armenian. A MS. of

his, dated 1616, was found in the Sanahin monastery in Georgia, and

translated into Russian by Prince Argutinsky in the _Sibirsky

Vyestnik_ for 1822, pp. 69, &c. This Russian version was again

translated into French by Klaproth in the _Nouveau Journal asiatique_

for 1833 (vol. xii. pp. 273, &c.). Another French translation was made

direct from the Armenian by M. Brosset in the _Memoires de l'Academie

des Sciences de St Petersbourg_ for 1870; a fresh Russian version of

the original, by Professor Patkanov, appeared in 1874. See also E.

Bretschneider, _Medieval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources_, i.

164-172 (London, 1888, "Trubner's Oriental" Series); C. R. Beazley,

_Dawn of Modern Geography_, ii. 381-391 (1901). (C. R. B.)

HAYWARD, ABRAHAM (1801-1884), English man of letters, son of Joseph

Hayward, of an old Wiltshire family, was born at Wilton, near Salisbury,

on the 22nd of November 1801. After education at Blundell's school,

Tiverton, he entered the Inner Temple in 1824, and was called to the bar

in June 1832. He took part as a conservative in the discussions of the

London Debating Society, where his opponents were J. A. Roebuck and John

Stuart Mill. The editorship of the _Law Magazine; or, Quarterly Review

of Jurisprudence_, which he held from 1829 to 1844, brought him into

connexion with John Austin, G. Cornewall Lewis, and such foreign jurists

as Savigny, whose tractate on contemporary legislation and jurisprudence

he rendered into English. In 1833 he travelled abroad, and on his return

printed privately a translation of Goethe's _Faust_ into English prose

(pronounced by Carlyle to be the best version extant in his time). A

second and revised edition was published after another visit to Germany

in January 1834, in the course of which Hayward met Tieck, Chamisso, De

La Motte Fouque, Varnhagen von Ense and Madame Goethe. In 1878 he

contributed the rather colourless volume on Goethe to Blackwood's

_Foreign Classics_. A successful translation was in those days a

first-rate credential for a reviewer, and Hayward began contributing to

the _New Monthly_, the _Foreign Quarterly_, the _Quarterly Review_ and

the _Edinburgh Review_. His first successes in this new field were won

in 1835-1836 by articles on Walker's "Original" and on "Gastronomy." The

essays were reprinted to form one of his best volumes, _The Art of

Dining_, in 1852. In February 1835 he was elected to the Athenaeum Club

under Rule II., and he remained for nearly fifty years one of its most

conspicuous and most influential members. He was also a subscriber to

the Carlton, but ceased to frequent it when he became a Peelite. At the

Temple, Hayward, whose reputation was rapidly growing as a connoisseur

not only of a bill of fare but also (as Swift would have said) of a bill

of company, gave _recherche_ dinners, at which ladies of rank and

fashion appreciated the wit of Sydney Smith and Theodore Hook, the

dignity of Lockhart and Lyndhurst and the oratory of Macaulay. At the

Athenaeum and in political society he to some extent succeeded to the

position of Croker. He and Macaulay were commonly said to be the two

best-read men in town. Hayward got up every important subject of

discussion immediately it came into prominence, and concentrated his

information in such a way that he habitually had the last word to say on

a topic. When Rogers died, when _Vanity Fair_ was published, when the

_Greville Memoirs_ was issued or a revolution occurred on the continent,

Hayward, whose memory was as retentive as his power of accumulating

documentary evidence was exhaustive, wrote an elaborate essay on the

subject for the _Quarterly_ or the _Edinburgh_. He followed up his paper

by giving his acquaintances no rest until they either assimilated or

undertook to combat his views. Political ladies first, and statesmen

afterwards, came to recognize the advantage of obtaining Hayward's good

opinion. In this way the "old reviewing hand" became an acknowledged

link between society, letters and politics. As a professional man he was

less successful; his promotion to be Q.C. in 1845 excited a storm of

opposition, and, disgusted at not being elected a Bencher of his Inn in

the usual course, Hayward virtually withdrew from legal practice. In

February 1848 he became one of the chief leader-writers for the Peelite

organ, the _Morning Chronicle_. The morbid activity of his memory,

however, continued to make him many enemies. He alienated Disraeli by

tracing a purple patch in his official eulogy of Wellington to a

newspaper translation from Thiers's funeral panegyric on General St Cyr.

His sharp tongue made an enemy of Roebuck, and he disgusted the friends

of Mill by the stories he raked up for an obituary notice of the great

economist (_The Times_, 10th May 1873). He broke with Henry Reeve in

1874 by a venomous review of the _Greville Memoirs_, in which Reeve was

compared to the beggarly Scot deputed to let off the blunderbuss which

Bolingbroke (Greville) had charged. His enemies prevented him from

enjoying a well-selected _quasi_-sinecure, which both Palmerston and

Aberdeen admitted to be his due. Samuel Warren attacked him (very

unjustly, for Hayward was anything but a parasite) as Venom Tuft in _Ten

Thousand a Year_; and Disraeli aimed at him partially in Ste Barbe (in

_Endymion_), though the satire here was directed primarily against

Thackeray. After his break with Reeve, Hayward devoted himself more

exclusively to the _Quarterly_. His essays on Chesterfield and Selwyn

were reprinted in 1854. Collective editions of his articles appeared in

volume form in 1858, 1873 and 1874, and _Selected Essays_ in two

volumes, 1878. In his useful but far from flawless edition of the

_Autobiography, Letters and Literary Remains of Mrs_ (_Thrale_) _Piozzi_

(1861), he again appears as a supplementer and continuator of J. W.

Croker. His _Eminent Statesmen and Writers_ (1880) commemorates to a

large extent personal friendships with such men as Dumas, Cavour and

Thiers, whom he knew intimately. As a counsellor of great ladies and of

politicians, to whom he held forth with a sense of all-round

responsibility surpassing that of a cabinet minister, Hayward retained

his influence to the last years of his life. But he had little sympathy

with modern ideas. He used to say that he had outlived every one that he

could really look up to. He died, a bachelor, in his rooms at 8 St

James's Street (a small museum of autograph portraits and reviewing

trophies) on the 2nd of February 1884.

Two volumes of Hayward's _Correspondence_ (edited by H. E. Carlisle)

were published in 1886. In _Vanity Fair_ (27th November 1875) he may

be seen as he appeared in later life. (T. Se.)

HAYWARD, SIR JOHN (c. 1560-1627), English historian, was born at or near

Felixstowe, Suffolk, where he was educated, and afterwards proceeded to

Pembroke College, Cambridge, where he took the degrees of B.A., M.A. and

LL.D. In 1599 he published _The First Part of the Life and Raigne of

King Henrie IV._ dedicated to Robert Devereux, earl of Essex. This was

reprinted in 1642. Queen Elizabeth and her advisers disliked the tone of

the book and its dedication, and the queen ordered Francis Bacon to

search it for "places in it that might be drawn within case of treason."

Bacon reported "for treason surely I find none, but for felony very

many," explaining that many of the sentences were stolen from Tacitus;

but nevertheless Hayward was put in prison, where he remained until

about 1601. On the accession of James I. in 1603 he courted the new

king's favour by publishing two pamphlets--"An Answer to the first part

of a certaine conference concerning succession," and "A Treatise of

Union of England and Scotland." The former pamphlet, an argument in

favour of the divine right of kings, was reprinted in 1683 as "The Right

of Succession" by the friends of the duke of York during the struggle

over the Exclusion Bill. In 1610 Hayward was appointed one of the

historiographers of the college which James founded at Chelsea; in 1613

he published his _Lives of the Three Norman Kings of England_, written

at the request of James's son, Prince Henry; in 1616 he became a member

of the College of Advocates; and in 1619 he was knighted. He died in

London on the 27th of June 1627. Among his manuscripts was found _The

Life and Raigne of King Edward VI._, first published in 1630, and

_Certain Yeres of Queen Elizabeth's Raigne_, the beginning of which was

printed in an edition of his _Edward VI._, published in 1636, but which

was first published in a complete form in 1840 for the Camden Society

under the editorship of John Bruce, who prefixed an introduction on the

life and writings of the author. Hayward was conscientious and diligent

in obtaining information, and although his reasoning on questions of

morality is often childish, his descriptions are generally graphic and

vigorous. Notwithstanding his imprisonment under Elizabeth, his portrait

of the qualities of the queen's mind and person is flattering rather

than detractive. He also wrote several works of a devotional character.

HAYWOOD, ELIZA (c. 1693-1756), English writer, daughter of a London

tradesman named Fowler, was born about 1693. She made an early and

unhappy marriage with a man named Haywood, and her literary enemies

circulated scandalous stories about her, possibly founded on her works

rather than her real history. She appeared on the stage as early as

1715, and in 1721 she revised for Lincoln's Inn Fields _The Fair

Captive_, by a Captain Hurst. Two other pieces followed, but Eliza

Haywood made her mark as a follower of Mrs Manley in writing scandalous

and voluminous novels. To _Memoirs of a certain Island adjacent to

Utopia, written by a celebrated author of that country_. _Now translated

into English_ (1725), she appended a key in which the characters were

explained by initials denoting living persons. The names are supplied to

these initials in the copy in the British Museum. _The Secret History of

the Present Intrigues of the Court of Caramania_ (1727) was explained in

a similar manner. The style of these productions is as extravagant as

their matter. Pope attacked her in a coarse passage in _The Dunciad_

(bk. ii. 11. 157 et seq.), which is aggravated by a note alluding to the

"profligate licentiousness of those shameless scribblers (for the most

part of that sex which ought least to be capable of such malice or

impudence) who in libellous Memoirs and Novels reveal the faults or

misfortunes of both sexes, to the ruin of public fame, or disturbance

of private happiness." Swift, writing to Lady Suffolk, says, "Mrs

Haywood I have heard of as a stupid, infamous, scribbling woman, but

have not seen any of her productions." She continued to be a prolific

writer of novels until her death on the 25th of February 1756, but her

later works are characterized by extreme propriety, though an anonymous

story of _The Fortunate Foundlings_ (1744), purporting to be an account

of the children of Lord Charles Manners, is generally ascribed to her.

A collected edition of her novels, plays and poems appeared in 1724,

and her _Secret Histories, Novels and Poems_ in 1725. See also an

article by S. L. Lee in the _Dictionary of National Biography_.

HAZARA, a race of Afghanistan. The Hazaras are of Mongolian origin,

speak a dialect of Persian, and belong to the Shiah sect of Mahommedans.

They are of middle size but stoutly made, with small grey eyes, high

cheek bones and smooth faces. They are descendants of military colonists

introduced by Jenghiz Khan, who occupy all the highlands of the upper

Helmund valley, spreading through the country between Kabul and Herat,

as well as into a strip of territory on the frontier slopes of the Hindu

Kush north of Kabul. In the western provinces they are known as the

Chahar Aimak (Hazaras, Jamshidis, Taimanis and Ferozkhois), and in other

districts they are distinguished by the name of the territory they

occupy. They are pure Mongols, intermixing with no other races (chiefly

for the reason that no other races will intermix with them), preserving

their language and their Mongol characteristics uninfluenced by their

surroundings, having absolutely displaced the former occupants of the

Hazarajat and Ghor. They make good soldiers and excellent pioneers. The

amir's companies of engineers are recruited from the Hazaras, and they

form perhaps the most effective corps in his heterogeneous army. They

are now recruited into the British service in India.

HAZARA, a district of British India, in the Peshawar division of the

North-West Frontier Province, with an area of 3391 sq. m. It is bounded

on the N. by the Black Mountain, the Swat country, Kohistan and Chilas;

on the E. by the native state of Kashmir; on the S. by Rawalpindi

district; and on the W. by the river Indus. On the creation of the

North-West Frontier Province in 1901 the district was reconstituted, the

Tahsil of Attock being transferred to Rawalpindi. The district forms a

wedge of territory extending far into the heart of the outer Himalayas,

and consisting of a long narrow valley, shut in on both sides by lofty

mountains, whose peaks rise to a height of 17,000 ft. above sea level.

Towards the centre of the district the vale of Kagan is bounded by

mountain chains, which sweep southward still maintaining a general

parallel direction, and send off spurs on every side which divide the

country into numerous minor dales. The district is well watered by the

tributaries of the Indus, the Kunhar, which flows through the Kagan

Valley into the Jhelum, and many rivulets. Throughout the scenery is

picturesque. To the north rise the distant peaks of the snow-clad

ranges; midway, the central mountains stand clothed to their rounded

summits with pines and other forest trees, while grass and brushwood

spread a green cloak over the nearer hills, and cultivation covers every

available slope. The chief frontier tribes on the border are the

cis-Indus Swatis, Hassanzais, Akazais, Chagarzais, Pariari Syads, Madda

Khels, Amazais and Umarzais. Within the district Pathans are not

numerous.

The name Hazara possibly belonged originally to a Turki family which

entered India with Timur in the 14th century, and subsequently settled

in this remote region. During the prosperous period of the Mogul dynasty

the population included a number of mixed tribes, which each began to

assert its independence, so that the utmost anarchy prevailed until

Hazara attracted the attention of the rising Sikh monarchy. Ranjit Singh

first obtained a footing here in 1818, and, after eight years of

constant aggression, became master of the whole country. During the

minority of the young maharaja Dhuleep Singh, the Sikh kingdom fell into

a state of complete disorganization; the people seized the opportunity

for recovering their independence, and rose in 1845 in rebellion. They

stormed the Sikh forts, laid siege to Haripur, and drove the governor

across the borders. After the first Sikh War it was proposed to transfer

Hazara with Kashmir to Gulab Singh, but it remained under the Lahore

government in charge of James Abbott, who pacified it in less than a

year and held it single-handed throughout the troubles of the second

Sikh War. It was also undisturbed during the Mutiny. The population in

1901 was 560,288, showing an increase of 8.52% in the decade. The

headquarters are at Abbotabad; pop. (1901) 7764. Through the Kagan

valley and over the Babusar pass at its head lies the most direct route

from the Punjab to Chilas and Gilgit.

HAZARD (O. Fr. _hazard_, from Span. _azar_, unlucky throw at dice,

misfortune, from Arab, _al_, and _zar_, dice), a game of dice (called

Craps in America), once very popular in England and played for large

stakes at the famous rooms of Crockford (St James's Street, London) and

Almack (Pall Mall, London). The player or "caster" calls a "main" (that

is, any number from five to nine inclusive). He then throws with two

dice. If he "throws in," or "nicks," he wins the sum played for from the

banker or "setter." Five is a nick to five, six and twelve are nicks to

six, seven and eleven to seven, eight and twelve to eight and nine to

nine. If the caster "throws out" by throwing aces, or deuce-ace (called

crabs or craps), he loses. When the main is five or nine the caster

throws out with 11 or 12; when the main is six or eight he throws out

with 11; when the main is seven he throws out with 12. If the caster

neither nicks nor throws out, the number thrown is his "chance," and he

keeps on throwing till either the chance comes up, when he wins, or till

the main comes up, when he loses. When a chance is thrown the "odds" for

or against the chance are laid by the setter to the amount of the

original stake. Seven is the best main for the caster to call, as it can

be thrown in six different ways out of the thirty-six casts which are

possible with dice. Supposing seven to be the main; then the caster wins

if he throws 7 or 11; he loses if he throws crabs or 12. If he throws

any other number, 4 for example, that is his chance. The odds against

him are two to one, as 7 can be thrown in six ways, but 4 only in three;

hence six to three, or two to one, are the correct odds, and if the

original stake was L1, the setter now lays L2 to L1 in addition. It is

useful to remember that 2 and 12 can be thrown in one way; 3 and 11 in

two ways; 4 and 10 in three ways; 5 and 9 in four ways; 6 and 8 in five

ways. The odds against the caster are thus given by Hoyle: If 7 is the

main and 4 the chance, two to one; 6 and 4, five to three; 5 and 4, four

to three; 7 and 9, three to two; 7 and 6, six and five; 7 and 5, three

to two; 6 and 5, five to four; 8 and 5, five to four, &c.

HAZARIBAGH, a town and district of British India, in the Chota Nagpur

division of Bengal. The town is well situated at an elevation of 2000

ft. Pop. (1901) 15,799. Hazaribagh has ceased to be a military

cantonment since the European penitentiary was abolished. There are a

central jail and a reformatory school. The Dublin University Mission

maintains a First Arts college.

The DISTRICT comprises an area of 7021 sq. m. In 1901 the population was

1,177,961, showing an increase of 1% in the decade. The physical

formation of Hazaribagh exhibits three distinct features: (1) a high

central plateau occupying the western section, the surface of which is

undulating and cultivated; (2) a lower and more extensive plateau

stretching along the north and eastern portions; to the north, the land

is well cultivated, while to the east the country is of a more varied

character, the elevation is lower, and the character of a plateau is

gradually lost; (3) the central valley of the Damodar river occupying

the entire southern section. Indeed, although the characteristics of the

district are rock, hill and wide-spreading jungle, fine patches of

cultivation are met with in all parts, and the scenery is generally

pleasing and often striking. The district forms a part of the chain of

high land which extends across the continent of India, south of the

Nerbudda on the west, and south of the Sone river on the east. The most

important river is the Damodar, with its many tributaries, which drains

an area of 2480 sq. m.

The history of the district is involved in obscurity until 1755, about

which time a certain Mukund Singh was chief of the country. In a few

years he was superseded by Tej Singh, who had gained the assistance of

the British. In 1780 Hazaribagh, along with the surrounding territory,

passed under direct British rule.

The district contains an important coal-field at Giridih which supplies

the East Indian railway. There are altogether six mines. There are also

mica mines which are gaining in importance. Rice and oilseeds are the

principal crops. Tea cultivation has been tried but does not flourish,

and is almost extinct. The only railways are the branch of the East

Indian to the coal-field at Giridih, where there is a technical school

maintained by the railway company, and the newly-opened Gaya-Katrasgarh

chord line; but the district is traversed by the Grand Trunk road.

Parasnath hill is annually visited by large numbers of Jain worshippers.

HAZEBROUCK, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in

the department of Nord, on the canalized Bourre, 29 m. W.N.W. of Lille,

on the Northern railway, between that town and St Omer. Pop. (1906),

town, 8798; commune, 12,819. With the exception of the church of St

Eloi, a building of the 16th century with a spire of fine open work 260

ft. high, and the hospice, occupying a convent built in the 16th and

17th centuries, there is little of architectural interest in the town.

Hazebrouck is the seat of a sub prefect, and has a tribunal of first

instance and a board of trade arbitration. It is the market for a

fertile agricultural district, and has trade in live-stock, grain and

hops. Cloth-weaving is the chief industry. Hazebrouck is an important

junction, and railway employes form a large part of its population.

HAZEL (O. Eng. _haesel_[1]; cf. Ger. _Hasel_, Swed. and Dan. _hassel_,

&c.,; Fr. _noisetier, coudrier_), botanically _corylus_, a genus of

shrubs or low trees of the natural order Corylaceae. The common hazel,

_Corylus Avellana_ (fig. 1), occurs throughout Europe, in North Africa

and in central and Russian Asia, except the northernmost parts. It is

commonly found in hedges and coppices, and as an undergrowth in woods,

and reaches a height of some 12 ft.; occasionally, as at Eastwell Park,

Kent, it may attain to 30 ft. According to Evelyn (_Sylva_, p. 35,

1664), hazels "above all affect cold, barren, dry, and sandy soils; also

mountains, and even rockie ground produce them; but more plentifully if

somewhat moist, dankish, and mossie." In Kent they flourish best in a

calcareous soil. The bark of the older stems is of a bright brown,

mottled with grey, that of the young twigs is ash-coloured, and

glandular and hairy. The leaves are alternate, from 2 to 4 in. in

length, downy below, roundish heart-shaped, pointed and shortly stalked.

In the variety _C. purpurea_, the leaves, as also the pellicle of the

kernel and the husk of the nut, are purple, and in _C. heterophylla_

they are thickly clothed with hairs. In autumn the rich yellow tint

acquired by the leaves of the hazel adds greatly to the beauty of

landscapes. The flowers are monoecious, and appear in Great Britain in

February and March, before the leaves. The cylindrical drooping yellow

male catkins (fig. 2) are 1 to 2(1/2) in. long, and occur 2 to 4 in a

raceme; when in unusual numbers they may be terminal in position. The

female flowers are small, sub-globose and sessile, resembling

leaf-buds, and have protruding crimson stigmas; the minute inner bracts,

by their enlargement, form the palmately lobed and cut involucre or husk

of the nut. The ovary is not visible till nearly midsummer, and is not

fully developed before autumn. The nuts have a length of from 1/2 to 3/4

in., and grow in clusters. Double nuts are the result of the equal

development of the two carpels of the original flower, of which

ordinarily one becomes abortive; fusion of two or more nuts is not

uncommon. From the light-brown or brown colour of the nuts the terms

_hazel_ and _hazelly_, i.e. "in hue as hazel nuts" (Shakespeare, _Taming

of the Shrew_, ii. 1), derive their significance.[2] The wood of the

hazel is whitish-red, close in texture and pliant, and has when dry a

weight of 49 lb. per cub. ft.; it has been used in cabinet-making, and

for toys and turned articles. Curiously veined veneers are obtained from

the roots; and the root-shoots are largely employed in the making of

crates, coal-corves or baskets, hurdles, withs and bands, whip-handles

and other objects. The rods are reputed to be most durable when from the

driest ground, and to be especially good where the bottom is chalky. The

light charcoal afforded by the hazel serves well for crayons, and is

valued by gunpowder manufacturers. An objection to the construction of

hedges of hazel is the injury not infrequently done to them by the

nut-gatherer, who "with active vigour crushes down the tree" (Thomson's

_Seasons_, "Autumn"), and otherwise damages it.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Hazel (_Corylus Avellana_).--1, Female catkin

(enlarged); 2, Pair of fruits (nuts) each enclosed in its involucre

(reduced).]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Catkin of Hazel (_Corylus Avellana_), consisting

of an axis covered with bracts in the form of scales, each of which

covers a male flower, the stamens of which are seen projecting beyond

the scale. The catkin falls off entire, separating from the branch by an

articulation.]

The filbert,[3] among the numerous varieties of _Corylus Avellana_, is

extensively cultivated, especially in Kent, for the sake of its nuts,

which are readily distinguished from cob-nuts by their ample involucre

and greater length. It may be propagated by suckers and layers, by

grafting and by sowing. Suckers afford the strongest and

earliest-bearing plants. Grafted filberts are less liable than others to

be encumbered by suckers at the root. By the Maidstone growers the best

plants are considered to be obtained from layers. These become well

rooted in about a twelvemonth, and then, after pruning, are bedded out

in the nursery for two or three years. The filbert is economically grown

on the borders of plantations or orchards, or in open spots in woods. It

thrives most in a light loam with a dry subsoil; rich and, in

particular, wet soils are unsuitable, conducing to the formation of too

much wood. Plantations of filberts are made in autumn, in well-drained

ground, and a space of about 10 ft. by 8 has to be allowed for each

tree. In the third year after planting the trees may require

root-pruning; in the fifth or sixth they should bear well. The nuts grow

in greatest abundance on the extremities of second year's branches,

where light and air have ready access. To obtain a good tree, the

practice in Kent is to select a stout upright shoot 3 ft. in length;

this is cut down to about 18 in. of which the lower 12 are kept free

from outgrowth. The head is pruned to form six or eight strong offsets;

and by judicious use of the knife, and by training, preferably on a hoop

placed within them, these are caused to grow outwards and upwards to a

height of about 6 ft. so as to form a bowl-like shape. Excessive

luxuriance of the laterals may be combated by root-pruning, or by

checking them early in the season, and again later, and by cutting back

to a female blossom bud, or else spurring nearly down to the main branch

in the following spring.

Filbert nuts required for keeping must be gathered only when quite

ripe; they may then be preserved in dry sand, or, after drying, by

packing with a sprinkling of salt in sound casks or new flower-pots.

Their different forms include the Cosford, which are thin-shelled and

oblong; the Downton, or large square nut, having a lancinated husk;

the white or Wrotham Park filbert; and the red hazel or filbert, the

kernel of which has a red pellicle. The last two, on account of their

elongated husk, have been distinguished as a species, under the name

_Corylus tubulosa_. Like these, apparently, were the nuts of Abella,

or Avella, in the Campania (cf. Fr. _aveline_, filbert), said by Pliny

to have been originally designated "Pontic," from their introduction

into Asia and Greece from Pontus (see _Nat. Hist._ xv. 24, xxiii. 78).

Hazel-nuts, under the name of Barcelona or Spanish nuts, are largely

exported from France and Portugal, and especially Tarragona and other

places in Spain. They afford 60% of a colourless or pale-yellow,

sweet-tasting, non-drying oil, which has a specific gravity of 0.92

nearly, becomes solid at -19 deg. C. (Cloez), and consists

approximately of carbon 77, and hydrogen and oxygen each 11.5%. Hazel

nuts formed part of the food of the ancient lake-dwellers of

Switzerland and other countries of Europe (see Keller, _Lake

Dwellings_, trans. Lee, 2nd ed., 1878). By the Romans they were

sometimes eaten roasted. Kaltenbach (_Pflanzenfeinde_, pp. 633-638,

1874) enumerates ninety-eight insects which attack the hazel. Among

these the beetle _Balaninus nucum_, the nut-weevil, seen on hazel and

oak stems from the end of May till July, is highly destructive to the

nuts. The female lays an egg in the unripe nut, on the kernel of which

the larva subsists till September, when it bores its way through the

shell, and enters the earth, to undergo transformation into a

chrysalis in the ensuing spring. The leaves of the hazel are

frequently found mined on the upper and under side respectively by the

larvae of the moths _Lithocolletis coryli_ and _L. Nicelii_. Squirrels

and dormice are very destructive to the nut crop, as they not only

take for present consumption but for a store for future supply.

Parasitic on the roots of the hazel is found the curious leafless

_Lathraea Squamaria_ or toothwort.

The Hebrew word _luz_, translated "hazel" in the authorized version of

the English Bible (Gen. xxx. 37), is believed to signify "almond" (see

Kitto, _Cycl. of Bibl. Lit._ ii. 869, and iii. 811, 1864). A belief in

the efficacy of divining-rods of hazel for the discovery of concealed

objects is probably of remote origin (cf. Hosea iv. 12). G. Agricola,

in his treatise _Vom Bergwerck_ (pp. xxix.-xxxi., Basel, 1557), gives

an account, accompanied by a woodcut, of their employment in searching

for mineral veins. By certain persons, who for different metals used

rods of various materials, rods of hazel, he says, were held

serviceable simply for silver lodes, and by the skilled miner, who

trusted to natural signs of mineral veins, they were regarded as of no

avail at all. The virtue of the hazel wand was supposed to be

dependent on its having two forks; these were to be grasped in the

fists, with the fingers uppermost, but with moderate firmness only,

lest the free motion of the opposite end downwards towards the

looked-for object should be interfered with. According to Cornish

tradition, the divining or dowsing rod is guided to lodes by the

pixies, the guardians of the treasures of the earth. By Vallemont, who

wrote towards the end of the 17th century, the divining-rod of hazel,

or "baguette divinatoire," is described as instrumental in the pursuit

of criminals. The Jesuit Vaniere, who flourished in the early part of

the 18th century, in the _Praedium rusticum_ (pp. 12, 13, new ed.,

Toulouse, 1742) amusingly relates the manner in which he exposed the

chicanery of one who pretended by the aid of a hazel divining-rod to

point out hidden water-courses and gold. The burning of hazel nuts for

the magical investigation of the future is alluded to by John Gay in

_Thursday, or the Spell_, and by Burns in _Halloween_. The hazel is

very frequently mentioned by the old French romance writers. _Corylus

rostrata_ and _C. americana_ of North America have edible fruits like

those of _C. Avellana_.

The witch hazel is quite a distinct plant, _Hamamelis virginica_, of

the natural order Hamamalideae, the astringent bark of which is used

in medicine. It is a hardy deciduous shrub, native of North America,

which bears a profusion of rich yellow flowers in autumn and winter

when the plant is leafless.