FOOTNOTES:

[1] H. L. Ward (_Cat. of Romances_, i. 426) suggests that it was the

mention of Constantine in the Havelock legend which led Gaimar to

place the tale in the 6th century in the days of the Constantine who

succeeded King Arthur. Gaimar voices more than once an Anglo-Danish

legend of a Danish dynasty in Britain anterior to the Saxon invasion.

[2] A different person from the second wife of Anlaf Curan, also

Gormflaith, who forms another link with Amlethus, as she was a woman

of the Hermuthruda type and married her husband's conqueror.

HAVERFORDWEST (Welsh _Hwlfordd_, the English name being perhaps a

corruption of the Scandinavian _Hafna-Fjord_), the chief town of

Pembrokeshire, S. Wales, a contributory parliamentary and municipal

borough, and a county of itself with its own lord-lieutenant. Pop.

(1901), 6007. It is picturesquely situated on the slopes overlooking the

West Cleddau river, which is here crossed by two stone bridges. It has a

station on the Great Western Railway on the east side of the river, and

when viewed from this point the town presents an imposing appearance

with its castle-keep and its many ancient buildings. The river is tidal

and navigable for vessels of not more than 150 tons. Coal, cattle,

butter and grain are exported, but the commercial importance of the

place has greatly declined, as the many ruined warehouses near the river

plainly testify. The old walls and fortifications have almost

disappeared, but Haverfordwest is still rich in memorials of its past

greatness. The huge castle-keep, which dominates the town, was probably

built by Gilbert de Clare, early in the 12th century; formerly used as

the county gaol, it now serves as the police-station. The large church

of St Mary, at the top cf the steep High Street, has fine clerestory

windows, clustered columns and an elaborate carved-oak ceiling of the

15th century; it contains several interesting monuments of the 17th and

18th centuries, some of which commemorate members of the family of

Philipps of Picton Castle. At the N. corner of the adjacent churchyard

stands an ancient building with a vaulted roof, once the record office,

but now used as a fish-market. St Martin's, with a low tower and spire,

close to the castle, is probably the oldest church in the town, but has

been much modernized. Near St Thomas's church on the Green stands an old

Moravian chapel which is closely associated with the great scholar and

divine, Bishop John Gambold (1711-1771). In a meadow on the W. bank of

the river are the considerable remains of the Augustinian Priory of St

Mary and St Thomas, built by Robert de Hwlfordd, lord of Haverford,

about the year 1200. On the E. bank are the suburbs of Cartlet and

Prendergast, the latter of which contains the ancient parish church of

St David and the ruins of a large mansion originally built by Maurice de

Prendergast (12th century) and subsequently the seat of the Stepney

family. A little to the S. of the town are the remains of Haroldstone,

once the residence of the powerful Perrot family. The charities

belonging to the town, which include John Perrot's bequest (1579),

yielding about L350 annually for the improvement of the town, and

Tasker's charity school (1684), are very considerable.

Haverfordwest owes its origin to the advent of the Flemings, who were

permitted by Henry I. to settle in the hundred of Roose, or Rhos, in the

years 1106-1108, in 1111, and again in 1156. English is exclusively

spoken in the town and district, and its inhabitants exhibit their

foreign extraction by their language, customs and appearance.

Haverfordwest is, in fact, the capital of that English-speaking portion

of Pembrokeshire, which has been nicknamed "Little England beyond

Wales." This new settlement of intruding foreigners had naturally to be

protected against the infuriated natives, and the castle was accordingly

built c. 1113 by Gilbert de Clare, first earl of Pembroke, who

subsequently conferred the seignory of Haverford on his castellan,

Richard Fitz-Tancred. On the death of Robert de Hwlfordd, the benefactor

and perhaps founder of the priory of St Mary and St Thomas, in 1213, the

lordship of the castle reverted to the Crown, and was purchased for 1000

marks from King John by William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, who gave

various privileges to the town. Of the numerous charters the earliest

known (through an allusion found in a document of Bishop Houghton of St

Davids, c. 1370) is one from Henry II., who therein confirms all former

rights granted by his grandfather, Henry I. John in 1207 gave certain

rights to the town concerning the Port of Milford, while William Marshal

II., earl of Pembroke, presented it with three charters, the earliest of

which is dated 1219. An important charter of Edward V., as prince of

Wales and lord of Haverford, enacted that the town should be

incorporated under a mayor, two sheriffs and two bailiffs, duly chosen

by the burgesses. In 1536, under Henry VIII., Haverfordwest was declared

a town and county of itself and was further empowered to send a

representative burgess to parliament.

The town long played a prominent part in South Welsh history. In 1220

Llewelyn ap Iorwerth, prince of North Wales, during the absence of

William Marshal II., earl of Pembroke, attacked and burnt the suburbs,

but failed to reduce the castle by assault. Several of the Plantagenet

kings visited the town, including Richard II., who stopped here some

time on his return from Ireland in 1299, and is said to have performed

here his last regal act--the confirmation of the grant of a burgage to

the Friars Preachers. Oliver Cromwell spent some days here on his way to

Ireland, and his original warrant to the mayor and council for the

demolition of the castle is still preserved in the council chamber. The

prosperity and local importance of Haverfordwest continued unimpaired

throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, and Richard Fenton, the

historian of Pembrokeshire, describes it in 1810, as "the largest town

in the county, if not in all Wales." With the rise of Milford, however,

the shipping trade greatly declined, and Haverfordwest has now the

appearance of a quiet country town.

HAVERGAL, FRANCES RIDLEY (1836-1879), English hymn-writer, daughter of

the Rev. William Henry Havergal, was born at Astley, Worcestershire, on

the 14th of December 1836. At the age of seven she began to write verse,

most of it of a religious character. As a hymn-writer she was

particularly successful, and the modern English Church collections

include several of her compositions. Her collected _Poetical Works_ were

published in 1884. She died at Caswell Bay, Swansea, on the 3rd of June

1879.

See _Memorials of Frances Ridley Havergal_ (1880), by her sister.

HAVERHILL, a market town of England, in the Sudbury parliamentary

division of Suffolk, and the Saffron Walden division of Essex. Pop. of

urban district (1901), 4862. It is 55 m. N.N.E. from London by the Great

Eastern railway, on the Long Melford-Cambridge branch, and is the

terminus of the Colne Valley railway from Chappel in Essex. The church

of St Mary is Perpendicular, but extensively restored. There are large

manufactures of cloth, silk, matting, bricks, and boots and shoes, and a

considerable agricultural trade.

HAVERHILL, a city of Essex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated on

the Merrimac river, at the head of tide and navigation, and on the

Boston & Maine railway, 33 m. N. of Boston. Pop. (1880) 18,472; (1890)

27,412; (1900) 37,175, of whom 8530 were foreign-born (including 2403

French Canadians, 1651 English Canadians and 2144 Irish), and 15,077

were of foreign parentage (both parents foreign-born); (1910 census)

44,115. The city, 3 m. wide and 10 m. long, lies for its entire length

along the Merrimac river, from which it rises picturesquely, its surface

being undulating, with several detached round hills (maximum 330 ft.).

Like all old New England cities, it is irregularly laid out. A number of

lakes within its limits are the source of an abundant and excellent

water supply. There are fifteen public parks, the largest of which,

Winnikenni Park (214 acres), contiguous to Lake Kenoza, is of great

natural beauty. The city has three well-equipped hospitals, the

beautiful Pentucket club house, a children's home, an old ladies' home

and numerous charitable organizations. The schools of the city, both

public and private, are of high standing; they include Bradford Academy

(1803) for girls and the St James School (Roman Catholic). The public

library is generously endowed, and in 1908 had about 90,000 volumes.

Almost from the beginning of its history Haverhill was active

industrially. Thomas Dustin, the husband of Hannah Dustin, manufactured

bricks, and this industry has been carried on in the same locality for

more than two hundred years. The large Stevens woollen mills are the

outgrowth of mills established in 1835. The manufacture of woollen hats,

established in the middle of the 18th century, is one of the prominent

industries. There are large morocco factories. By far the leading

industry of the city is the manufacture of boots, shoes and slippers,

chiefly of the finer kinds, of which it is one of the largest producers

in the world. In 1905 Haverhill ranked fourth among the cities of the

United States in the product value of this manufacture, which was 4.8%

of the total value of boots and shoes made in the United States. This

industry began about 1795. In 1905 Haverhill's manufacturing

establishments produced goods valued at $24,446,594, 83.9% of this

output being represented by boots and shoes or their accessories. One of

the largest sole-leather manufactories in the world is here.

Haverhill was settled in June 1640 by a small colony from Newbury and

Ipswich, and its Indian name, Pentucket, was replaced by that of

Haverhill in compliment to the first minister, Rev. John Ward, who was

born at Haverhill, England. In its earlier years this frontier town

suffered severely from the forays of the Indians, and in 1690 the

abandonment of the settlement was contemplated. Two Indian attacks are

particularly noteworthy--one in 1698, in which Hannah Dustin, her

new-born babe, and her nurse were carried away to the vicinity of

Penacook, now Concord, New Hampshire. Here in the night Mrs Dustin,

assisted by her nurse and by a captive English boy, tomahawked and

scalped ten Indians (two men, the others children and women) and escaped

down the river to Haverhill; a monument to her stands in City Hall Park.

In 1708 250 French and Indians attacked the village, killing 40 of its

inhabitants. In 1873 a destructive fire caused the loss of 35 places of

business, and on the 17th of February 1882 almost the entire shoe

district (consisting of 10 acres) was burned, with a loss of more than

$2,000,000; but a greater business district was built on the ruins of

the old. Haverhill was the birthplace of Whittier, who lived here in

1807-1836, and who in his poem _Haverhill_, written for the 250th

anniversary of the town in 1890, and in many of his other poems, gave

the poet's touch to the history, the legends and the scenery of his

native city. His birthplace, the scene of _Snow-Bound_ in the eastern

part of the city, is owned by the Whittier Association and is open to

visitors. A petition from Haverhill to the national House of

Representatives in 1842, praying for a peaceable dissolution of the

Union, raised about J. Q. Adams, its presenter, perhaps the most violent

storm in the long course of his defence of the right of petition.

Haverhill was incorporated as a town in 1645 and became a city in 1869.

Bradford, a town (largely residential) lying on the opposite bank of the

river, became a part of the city in 1897. In October 1908, by popular

vote, the city adopted a new charter providing for government by

commission.

HAVERSACK, or HAVRESACK (through the French from Ger. _Habersack_, an

oat-sack, a nose-bag, _Hafer_ or _Haver_, oats), the bag in which

horsemen carried the oats for their horses. In Scotland and the north of

England _haver_, meaning oats, is still used, as haver-meal or

haver-bread. Haversack is now used for the strong bag made of linen or

canvas, in which soldiers, sportsmen or travellers, carry their personal

belongings, or more usually the provisions for the day.

HAVERSTRAW, a village of Rockland county, New York, U.S.A., in a

township of the same name, 32 m. N. of New York City, and finely

situated on the W. shore of Haverstraw Bay, an enlargement of the Hudson

river. Pop. of the village (1890), 5070; (1900) 5935, of whom 1231 were

foreign-born and 568 were negroes; (1905, state census) 6182; (1910)

5669; of the township (1910) 9335. Haverstraw is served by the West

Shore, the New Jersey & New York (Erie), and the New York, Ontario &

Western railways, and is connected by steamboat lines with Peekskill and

Newburgh. The village lies at the N. base of High Tor (832 ft.). It has

a public library, founded by the King's Daughters' Society in 1895 and

housed in the Fowler library building. Excellent clay is found in the

township, and Haverstraw is one of the largest brick manufacturing

centres in the world; brick-machines also are manufactured here. The

Minesceongo creek furnishes water power for silk mills, dye works and

print works. Haverstraw was settled by the Dutch probably as early as

1648. Near the village of Haverstraw (in the township of Stony Point),

in the Joshua Hett Smith House, or "Old Treason House," as it is

generally called, Benedict Arnold and Major Andre met before daylight on

the 22nd of September 1780 to arrange plans for the betrayal of West

Point. In 1826 a short-lived Owenite Community (of about 80 members) was

established near West Haverstraw and Garnerville (in the township of

Haverstraw). The members of the community established a Church of

Reason, in which lectures were delivered on ethics, philosophy and

science. Dissensions soon arose in the community, the experiment was

abandoned within five months, and most of the members joined in turn the

Coxsackie Community, also in New York, and the Kendal Community, near

Canton, Ohio, both of which were also short-lived. The village of

Haverstraw was originally known as Warren and was incorporated under

that name in 1854; in 1873 it became officially the village of

Haverstraw--both names had previously been used locally. The village of

West Haverstraw (pop. in 1890, 180; in 1900, 2079; and in 1910, 2369),

also in Haverstraw township, was founded in 1830, was long known as

Samsondale, and was incorporated under its present name in 1883.

See F. B. Green, _History of Rockland County_ (New York, 1886).

HAVET, EUGENE AUGUSTE ERNEST (1813-1889), French scholar, was born in

Paris on the 11th of April 1813. Educated at the Lycee Saint-Louis and

the Ecole Normale, he was for many years before his death on the 21st of

December 1889 professor of Latin eloquence at the College de France. His

two capital works were a commentary on the works of Pascal, _Pensees de

Pascal publiees dans leur texte authentique avec un commentaire suivi_

(1852; 2nd ed. 2 vols., 1881), and _Le Christianisme et ses origines_ (4

vols., 1871-1884), the chief thesis of which was that Christianity owed

more to Greek philosophy than to the writings of the Hebrew prophets.

His elder son, Pierre Antoine Louis Havet (b. 1849), was professor of

Latin philology at the College de France and a member of the Institute.

The younger, Julien, is separately noticed.

HAVET, JULIEN (PIERRE EUGENE) (1853-1893), French historian, was born at

Vitry-sur-Seine on the 4th of April 1853, the second son of Ernest

Havet. He early showed a remarkable aptitude for learning, but had a

pronounced aversion for pure rhetoric. His studies at the Ecole des

Chartes (where he took first place both on entering and leaving) and at

the Ecole des Hautes Etudes did much to develop his critical faculty,

and the historical method taught and practised at these establishments

brought home to him the dignity of history, which thenceforth became his

ruling passion. His valedictory thesis at the Ecole des Chartes, _Serie

chronologique des gardiens et seigneurs des Iles Normandes_ (1876), was

a definitive work and but slightly affected by later research. In 1878

he followed his thesis by a study called _Les Cours royales dans les

Iles Normandes_. Both these works were composed entirely from the

original documents at the Public Record Office, London, and the archives

of Jersey and Guernsey. On the history of Merovingian institutions,

Havet's conclusions were widely accepted (see _La Formule N. rex

Francor., v. inl._, 1885). His first work in this province was _Du sens

du mot "romain" dans les lois franques_ (1876), a critical study on a

theory of Fustel de Coulanges. In this he showed that the status of the

_homo Romanus_ of the barbarian laws was inferior to that of the German

freeman; that the Gallo-Romans had been subjected by the Germans to a

state of servitude; and, consequently, that the Germans had conquered

the Gallo-Romans. He aimed a further blow at Fustel's system by showing

that the Frankish kings had never borne the Roman title of _vir

inluster_, and that they could not therefore be considered as being in

the first place Roman magistrates; and that in the royal diplomas the

king issued his commands as _rex Francorum_ and addressed his

functionaries as _viri inlustres_. His attention having been drawn to

questions of authenticity by the forgeries of Vrain Lucas, he devoted

himself to tracing the spurious documents that encumbered and perverted

Merovingian and Carolingian history. In his _A propos des decouvertes de

Jerome Vignier_ (1880), he exposed the forgeries committed in the 17th

century by this priest. He then turned his attention to a group of

documents relating to ecclesiastical history in the Carolingian period

and bearing on the question of false decretals, and produced _Les

Chartes de St-Calais_ (1887) and _Les Actes de l'eveche du Mans_ (1894).

On the problems afforded by the chronology of Gerbert's (Pope Silvester

II.) letters and by the notes in cipher in the MS. of his letters, he

wrote _L'Ecriture secrete de Gerbert_ (1877), which may be compared with

his _Notes tironiennes dans les diplomes merovingiens_ (1885). In 1889

he brought out an edition of Gerbert's letters, which was a model of

critical sagacity. Each new work increased his reputation, in Germany as

well as France. At the Bibliotheque Nationale, where he obtained a post,

he rendered great service by his wide knowledge of foreign languages,

and read voraciously everything that related, however remotely, to his

favourite studies. He was finally appointed assistant curator in the

department of printed books. He died prematurely at St Cloud on the 19th

of August 1893.

After his death his published and unpublished writings were collected

and published (with the exception of _Les Cours royales des Iles

Normandes_ and _Lettres de Gerbert_) in two volumes called _Questions

merovingiennes_ and _Opuscules inedits_ (1896), containing, besides

important papers on diplomatic and on Carolingian and Merovingian

history, a large number of short monographs ranging over a great

variety of subjects. A collection of his articles was published by his

friends under the title of _Melanges Havet_ (1895), prefixed by a

bibliography of his works compiled by his friend Henri Omont.

(C. B.*)

HAVRE, LE, a seaport of north-western France, in the department of

Seine-Inferieure, on the north bank of the estuary of the Seine, 143 m.

W.N.W. of Paris and 55 m. W. of Rouen by the Western railway. Pop.

(1906), 129,403. The greater part of the town stands on the level strip

of ground bordering the estuary, but on the N. rises an eminence, la

Cote, covered by the gardens and villas of the richer quarter. The

central point of the town is the Place de l'hotel de ville in which are

the public gardens. It is crossed by the Boulevard de Strasbourg,

running from the sea on the west to the railway station and the barracks

on the east. The rue de Paris, the busiest street, starts at the Grand

Quai, overlooking the outer harbour, and, intersecting the Place

Gambetta, runs north and enters the Place de l'hotel de ville on its

southern side. The docks start immediately to the east of this street

and extend over a large area to the south and south-east of the town.

Apart from the church of Notre-Dame, dating from the 16th and 17th

centuries, the chief buildings of Havre, including the hotel de ville,

the law courts, and the exchange, are of modern erection. The museum

contains a collection of antiquities and paintings. Havre is the seat of

a sub-prefect, and forms part of the maritime arrondissement of

Cherbourg. Among the public institutions are a tribunal of first

instance, a tribunal of commerce, a board of trade arbitrators, a

tribunal of maritime commerce, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the

Bank of France. There are lycees for boys and girls, schools of commerce

and other educational establishments. Havre, which is a fortified place

of the second class, ranks second to Marseilles among French seaports.

There are nine basins (the oldest of which dates back to 1669) with an

area of about 200 acres and more than 8 m. of quays. They extend to the

east of the outer harbour which on the west opens into the new outer

harbour, formed by two breakwaters converging from the land and leaving

an entrance facing west. The chief docks (see Dock for plan) are the

Bassin Bellot and the Bassin de l'Eure. In the latter the mail-steamers

of the Compagnie Generale Transatlantique are berthed; and the

Tancarville canal, by which river-boats unable to attempt the estuary of

the Seine can make the port direct, enters the harbour by this basin.

There are, besides, several repairing docks and a petroleum dock for the

use of vessels carrying that dangerous commodity. The port, which is an

important point of emigration, has regular steam-communication with New

York (by the vessels of the Compagnie Generale Transatlantique) and with

many of the other chief ports of Europe, North, South and Central

America, the West Indies and Africa. Imports in 1907 reached a value of

L57,686,000. The chief were cotton, for which Havre is the great French

market, coffee, copper and other metals, cacao, cotton goods, rubber,

skins and hides, silk goods, dye-woods, tobacco, oil-seeds, coal,

cereals and wool. In the same year exports were valued at L47,130,000,

the most important being cotton, silk and woollen goods, coffee, hides,

leather, wine and spirits, rubber, tools and metal ware, earthenware and

glass, clothes and millinery, cacao and fancy goods. In 1907 the total

tonnage of shipping (with cargoes) reached its highest point, viz.

5,671,975 tons (4018 vessels) compared with 3,816,340 tons (3832

vessels) in 1898. Forty-two per cent of this shipping sailed under the

British flag. France and Germany were Great Britain's most serious

rivals. Havre possesses oil works, soap works, saw mills, flour mills,

works for extracting dyes and tannin from dye-woods, an important

tobacco manufactory, chemical works and rope works. It also has

metallurgical and engineering works which construct commercial and

war-vessels of every kind as well as engines and machinery, cables,

boilers, &c.

Until 1516 Havre was only a fishing village possessing a chapel

dedicated to Notre-Dame de Grace, to which it owes the name, Havre

(harbour) de Grace, given to it by Francis I. when he began the

construction of its harbour. The town in 1562 was delivered over to the

keeping of Queen Elizabeth by Louis I., prince de Conde, leader of the

Huguenots, and the command of it was entrusted to Ambrose Dudley, earl

of Warwick; but the English were expelled in 1563, after a most

obstinate siege, which was pressed forward by Charles IX. and his

mother, Catherine de' Medici, in person. The defences of the town and

the harbour-works were continued by Richelieu and completed by Vauban.

In 1694 it was vainly besieged by the English, who also bombarded it in

1759, 1794 and 1795. It was a port of considerable importance as early

as 1572, and despatched vessels to the whale and cod-fishing at

Spitsbergen and Newfoundland. In 1672 it became the entrepot of the

French East India Company, and afterwards of the Senegal and Guinea

companies. Napoleon I. raised it to a war harbour of the first rank, and

under Napoleon III. works begun by Louis XVI. were completed.

See A. E. Borely, _Histoire de la ville du Havre_ (Le Havre,

1880-1881).

HAWAII (HAWAIIAN or SANDWICH ISLANDS), a Territory of the United States

of America, consisting of a chain of islands in the North Pacific Ocean,

eight inhabited and several uninhabited. The inhabited islands lie

between latitudes 18 deg. 54' and 22 deg. 15' N., and between longitudes

154 deg. 50' and 160 deg. 30' W., and extend about 380 m. from E.S.E. to

W.N.W.; the uninhabited ones, mere rocks and reefs, valuable only for

their guano deposits and shark-fishing grounds, continue the chain

several hundred miles farther W.N.W. From Honolulu, the capital, which

is about 100 m. N.W. of the middle of the inhabited group, the distance

to San Francisco is about 2100 m.; to Auckland, New Zealand, about 3810

m.; to Sydney, New South Wales, about 4410 m.; to Yokohama, about 3400

m.; to Hong-Kong, about 4920 m.; to Manila, about 4890 m. The total area

of the inhabited islands is 6651 sq. m., distributed as follows:

Hawaii, 4210; Maui, 728; Oahu, about 600; Kauai, 547; Molokai, 261;

Lanai, 139; Niihau, 97; Kahoolawe, 69.

All the islands are of volcanic origin, and have been built up by the

eruptive process from a base about 15,000 ft. below the sea to a

maximum height (Mauna Kea) on the largest island (Hawaii) of 13,823

ft. above the sea; altogether there are forty volcanic peaks. Evidence

of slight upheaval is occasionally afforded by an elevated coral-reef

along the shore, and evidence of the subsidence of the S. portion of

Oahu for several hundred feet has been discovered by artesian borings

through coral-rock. In some instances, notably the high and nearly

vertical wall along the N. shore of the E. half of Molokai, there is

evidence of a fracture followed by the submergence of a portion of a

volcano. With the exception of the coral and a small amount of

calcareous sandstone, the rocks are entirely volcanic and range from

basalt to trachyte, but are mainly basalt. Cinder cones and tufa cones

abound, but one of the most distinguishing features of the Hawaiian

volcanoes is the great number of craters of the engulfment type, i.e.

pit-craters which enlarge slowly by the breaking off and falling in of

their walls, and discharge vast lava-flows with comparatively little

violence. The age of the several inhabited islands, or at least the

time since the last eruptions on them, decreases from W. to E., and on

the most easterly (Hawaii) volcanic forces are still in operation.

That those to the westward have long been inactive is shown by the

destruction of craters by denudation, by deep ravines, valleys and

tall cliffs eroded on the mountain sides, especially on the windward

side, by the depth of soil formed from the disintegrated rocks, and by

the amount as well as variety of vegetable life.

_Hawaii Island_, from which the group and later the Territory was named,

has the shape of a rude triangle with sides of 90 m., 75 m. and 65 m.

Its coast, unlike that of the other islands of the archipelago, has few

coral reefs. Its surface consists mainly of the gentle slopes of five

volcanic mountains which have encroached much upon one another by their

eruptions.

Mauna Loa ("Great Mountain"), on the S., is by far the largest volcano

in the world; from a base measuring at sea-level about 75 m. from N.

to S. and 50 m. from E. to W., it rises gradually to a height of

13,675 ft. On its E.S.E. side, at an elevation of 4000 ft. above the

sea (300 ft. above the adjoining plain on the W.) is Kilauea, from

whose lava-flows the island has been extended to form its S.E. angle.

To the N.N.E. of Mauna Loa, and blending with it in an intervening

plateau, is Mauna Kea ("White Mountain," so named from the snow on its

summit), with a much smaller base but with steeper slopes and a

crowning cinder cone 13,823 ft. above the sea, the maximum height in

the Pacific Ocean; blending with Mauna Loa on the N.N.W. is Mauna

Hualalai, 8269 ft. in height; and rising abruptly from the extreme

N.W. shore are the remains of the oldest mountains of the island, the

Kohala, with a summit 5505 ft. in height. On the land side the Kohala

Mountains have been covered with lava from Mauna Kea, and form the

broad plains of Kohala, having a maximum elevation of about 3000 ft.;

on the ocean side, wherever this lava has not extended, erosion has

gone on until bluffs 1000 ft. in height face the sea and the enormous

gorges of Waipio and Waimanu, with nearly perpendicular walls as much

as 3000 ft. high and extending inland 5-6 m., have been formed. Mauna

Kea is not nearly so old as the Kohala Mountains, but there is no

record of its eruption, nor have its lavas a modern aspect. The last

eruption of Mauna Hualalai was in 1801. Mauna Loa and Kilauea are

still active. Cinder cones are the predominant type of craters on both

Mauna Kea and the Kohala Mountains, and they are also numerous on the

upper slopes of Mauna Hualalai; but the more typically Hawaiian pit or

engulfment craters also abound on Mauna Hualalai and Mokuaweoweo,

crowning the summit of Mauna Loa, as well as Kilauea, to the S.E. of

it, are prominent representatives of this type. Kilauea is the largest

active crater in the world (8 m. in circumference) and is easily

accessible. Enclosed by a circular wall from 200 to 700 ft. in height

is a black and slightly undulating plain having an area of 4.14 sq.

m., and within this plain is a pit, Halemaumau, of varying area (about

2000 ft. in diameter in 1905), now full of boiling lava, now empty to

a depth of perhaps 1000 ft. When most active, Halemaumau affords a

grand spectacle, especially at night: across the crust run glowing

cracks, the crust is then broken into cakes, the cakes plunge beneath,

lakes of liquid lava are formed, over whose surface play

fire-fountains 10 to 50 ft. in height, the surface again solidifies

and the process is repeated.[1] According to an account of the

natives, a violent eruption of Kilauea occurred in 1789, or about that

time, and deposits of volcanic sand, large stones, sponge-like scoria

(pumice) and ashes for miles around are evidence of such an eruption.

Since the Rev. William Ellis and a party of American missionaries

first made the volcano known to the civilized world in 1823, the

eruptions have consisted mainly in the quiet discharge of lava through

a subterranean passage into the sea. In the eruptions of 1823, 1832,

1840 and 1868 the floor of the crater rose on the eve of an eruption

and then sank, sometimes hundreds of feet, with the discharge of lava;

but since 1868 (in 1879, 1886, 1891, 1894 and 1907; and once, before

1868, in 1855) this action has been confined to Halemaumau and such

other pits as at the time existed.

[Illustration: Map of Hawaii.]

Mokuaweoweo, on the flat top of Mauna Loa, is a pit crater with a

floor 3.7 sq. m. in area and sunk 500-600 ft. within walls that are

almost vertical and that measure 9.47 m. in circumference. Formerly,

on the eve of a great eruption of Mauna Loa, this crater often spouted

forth great columns of flame and emitted clouds of vapour, but in

modern times this action has usually been followed by a fracture of

the mountain side from the summit down to a point 1000 ft. or more

below where the lava was discharged in great streams, the action at

the summit diminishing or wholly ceasing when this discharge began.

The first recorded eruption of Mauna Loa was in 1832; since then there

have been eruptions in 1851, 1852, 1855, 1859, 1868, 1880-1881, 1887,

1896, 1899 and 1907. The eruptions of 1868, 1887 and 1907 were

attended by earthquakes; in 1868 huge sea waves, 40 ft. in height,

were raised, and, as they broke on the S. shore, they destroyed the

villages of Punaluu, Ninole, Kawaa and Honuapo. But the eruptions of

Mauna Loa have consisted mainly in the quiet discharge of enormous

flows of lava: in 1859 the lava-stream, which began to run on the 23rd

of January, flowed N.W., reached the sea, 33 m. distant, eight days

later, and continued to flow into it until the 25th of November; and

the average length of the flows from seven other eruptions is nearly

14 m. The surface of the upper slopes of Mauna Loa is almost wholly of

two widely different kinds of barren lava-flows, called by the

Hawaiians the _pahoehoe_ and the _aa_. The _pahoehoe_ has a smooth but

billowy or hummocky surface, and is marked by lines which show that it

cooled as it flowed. The _aa_ is lava broken into fragments having

sharp and jagged edges. As the same stream sometimes changes abruptly

from one kind to the other, the two kinds must be due to different

conditions affecting the flow, and among the conditions which may

cause a stream to break up into the _aa_ have been mentioned the

greater depth of the stream, a sluggish current, impediments in its

course just as it is granulating, and, what is more probable,

subterranean moisture which causes it to cool from below upward

instead of from above downward as in the _pahoehoe_. The natives are

in the habit of making holes in the _aa_, and planting in them banana

shoots or sweet-potato cuttings, and though the holes are simply

filled with stones or fern leaves, the plants grow and in due time are

productive. Another curious feature of Mauna Loa, and to some extent

of other Hawaiian volcanoes, is the great number of caves, some of

them as much as 60 to 80 ft. in height and several miles in length;

they were produced by the escape of lava over which a crust had

formed. In the midst of barren wastes to the S.E. and S.W. of Kilauea

are small channels with steam cracks, along which appears the only

vegetation of the region.

_Maui_, lying 26 m. N.W. of Hawaii, is composed of two mountains

connected by an isthmus, Wailuku, 7 or 8 m. long, about 6 m. across, and

about 160 ft. above the sea in its highest part.

Mauna Haleakala, on the E. peninsula, has a height of 10,032 ft., and

forms a great dome-like mass, with a circumference at the base of 90

m. and regular slopes of only 8 deg. or 9 deg. It has numerous cinder

cones on its S.W. slope, is well wooded on the N. and E. slopes, and

has on its summit an extinct pit-crater which is one of the largest in

the world. This crater is 7.48 m. long, 2.37 m. wide, and covers 19

sq. m.; the circuit of its walls, which are composed of a hard grey

clinkstone much fissured, is 20 m.; its greatest depth is 2720 ft. At

opposite ends are breaks in the walls a mile or more in width--one

about 1000 ft., the other at least 3000 ft. in depth--through which

poured the lava of probably the last great eruption. From the floor of

the crater rise sixteen well-preserved cinder-cones, which range from

more than 400 ft. to 900 ft. in height. Along the N. base of the

mountain are numerous ravines (several hundred feet deep), to the

bottom of which small streams of water fall in long cascades, but

elsewhere on the eastern mountain there is little erosion or other

mark of age. That the mountainous mass of western Maui is much older

is shown by the destruction of its crater, by its sharp ridges and by

deeply eroded gorges or valleys. Its highest peak, Puu Kukui, rises

5788 ft. above the sea, and directly under this is the head of Iao

Valley, 5 m. long and 2 m. wide, which has been cut in the mountain to

a depth of 4000 ft. This and the smaller valleys are noted for the

beauty of their tropical scenery.

_Kahoolawe_ is a small island 6 m. S.W. of Maui. It is 14 m. long by 6

m. wide. Its mountains, which rise to a height of 1472 ft., are rugged

and nearly destitute of verdure, but the intervening valleys afford

pasturage for sheep.

_Lanai_ is another small island, 7 m. W. of Maui, about 18 m. long and

12 m. wide. It has a mountain range which rises to a maximum height,

S.E. of its centre, of about 3480 ft. The N.E. slope is cut by deep

gorges, and at the bottom of one of these, which is 2000 ft. deep, is

the only water-supply on the island. On the S. side is a rolling

table-land affording considerable pasturage for sheep, but over the

whole N.W. portion of the island the trade winds, driving through the

channel between Maui and Molokai, sweep the rocks bare. Kahoolawe and

Lanai are both privately owned.

_Molokai_, 8 m. N.W. of Maui, extends 40 m. from E. to W. and has an

average width of nearly 7 m. From the S.W. extremity of the island rises

the backbone of a ridge which extends E.N.E. about 10 m., where it

culminates in the round-topped hill of Mauna Loa, 1382 ft. above the

sea. Both the northern and southern slopes of this ridge are cut by

ravines and gulches, and along the N. shore is a steep sea-cliff. At the

E. extremity of the ridge there is a sudden drop to a low and gently

rolling plain, but farther on the surface rises gradually towards a

range of mountains which comprises more than one-half the island and

attains a maximum height of 4958 ft. in the peak of Kamakou. The S.

slope of this range is gradual but is cut by many straight and narrow

ravines, in some instances to a great depth. The N. slope is abrupt,

with precipices from 1000 to 4000 ft. in height. Extending N. from the

foot of the precipice, a little E. of the centre of the island, is a

comparatively low peninsula (separated from the mainland by a rock wall

2000 ft. high), on which is a famous leper settlement. The peninsula

forms a separate county, Kalawao.

_Oahu_, 23 m. N.W. of Molokai, has an irregular quadrangular form. It is

traversed from S.E. to N.W. by two roughly parallel ranges of hill

separated by a plain that is 20 m. long and in some parts 9 to 10 m.

wide. The highest point in the island is Mauna Kaala, 4030 ft., in the

Waianae or W. range; but the Koolau or E. range is much longer than the

other, and its ridge is very much broken; on the land side there are

many ravines formed by lateral spurs, but to the sea for 30 m. it

presents a nearly vertical wall without a break. The valleys are

remarkable for beautiful scenery,--peaks, cliffs, lateral ravines,

cascades and tropical vegetation. There are few craters on the loftier

heights, but on the coasts there are several groups of small cones with

craters, some of lava, others of tufa. The greater part of the coast is

surrounded by a coral reef, often half a mile wide; in several

localities an old reef upheaved, sometimes 100 ft. high, forms part of

the land.

_Kauai_, 63 m. W.N.W. of Oahu, has an irregularly circular form with a

maximum diameter of about 25 m. On the N.W. is a precipice 2000 ft. or

more in height and above this is a mountain plain, but elsewhere around

the island is a shore plain, from which rises Mount Waialeale to a

height of 5250 ft. The peaks of the mountain are irregular, abrupt and

broken; its sides are deeply furrowed by gorges and ravines; the shore

plain is broken by ridges and by broad and deep valleys; no other island

of the group is so well watered on all sides by large mountain streams;

and it is called "garden isle."

_Niihau_, the most westerly of the inhabited islands, is 18 m. W. by S.

of Kauai. It is 16 m. long and 6 m. wide. The western two-thirds

consists of a low plain, composed of an uplifted coral reef and matter

washed down from the mountains; but on the E. side the island rises

precipitously from the sea and attains a maximum height of 1304 ft. at

Paniau. There are large salt lagoons on the southern coast.

_Climate_.--The climate is cooler than that of other regions in the

same latitude, and is very healthy. The sky is usually cloudless or

only partly cloudy. The N.E. trades blow with periodic variations from

March to December; and the leeward coast, being protected by high

mountains, is refreshed by regular land and sea breezes. During

January, February and a part of March the wind blows strongly from the

S. or S.W.; and at this season an unpleasant hot, damp wind is

sometimes felt. More rain falls from January to May than during the

other months; very much more falls on the windward side of the

principal islands than on the leeward; and the amount increases with

the elevation also up to about 4000 ft. The greatest recorded extremes

of local rainfall for a year within the larger islands range from 12

to 300 in. For Honolulu the mean annual rainfall (1884-1899) was 28.18

in.; the maximum 49.82; and the minimum 13.46. At sea level the daily

average temperature for July is 76.4 deg. F., for December 70.7 deg.

F.; the mean annual temperature is about 73 deg. F.--68 deg. during

the night, 80 deg. during the day--and for each 200 ft. of elevation

the temperature falls about 1 deg. F., and snow lies for most of the

time on the highest mountains.

_Flora._--The Hawaiian Islands have a peculiar flora. As a result of

their isolation, the proportion of endemic plants is greater here than

in any other region, and the great elevation of the mountains, with

the consequent variation in temperature, moisture and barometric

pressure, has multiplied the number of species. Towards the close of

the 19th century William Hillebrand found 365 genera and 999 species,

and of this number of species 653 were peculiar to this part of the

Pacific. The number of species is greatest on the older islands,

particularly Kauai and Oahu, and the total number for the group has

been constantly increasing, some being introduced, others possibly

being produced by the varying climatic conditions from those already

existing. Among the peculiar dicotyledonous plants there is not a

single annual, and by far the greater number are perennial and woody.

Hawaiian forests are distinctly tropical, and are composed for the

most part of trees below the medium height. They are most common

between elevations of 2000 and 8000 ft.; there are only a few species

below 2000 ft., and above 8000 ft. the growth is stunted. The

destruction of considerable portions of the forests by cattle, goats,

insects, fire and cutting has been followed by reforesting, the

planting of hitherto barren tracts, the passage of severe forest fire

laws, and the establishment of forest reserves, of which the area in

1909 was 545,746 acres, of which 357,180 were government land. In

regions of heavy rainfall the ohia-lehua (_Metrosideros polymorpha_),

a tree growing from 30 to 100 ft. in height, is predominant, and on

account of the dense undergrowth chiefly of ferns and climbing vines,

forms the most impenetrable of the forests; its hard wood is used

chiefly for fuel. The koa (_Acacia koa_), from the wood of which the

natives used to make the bodies of their canoes, and the only tree of

the islands that furnishes much valuable lumber (a hard cabinet wood

marketed as "Hawaiian mahogany"), forms extensive forests on Hawaii

and Maui between elevations of 2000 and 4000 ft. The mamane (_Sophora

chrysophylla_), which furnishes the best posts, grows principally on

the high slopes of Mauna Kea and Hualalai. Posts and railway ties are

also made from ohia-ha (_Eugenia sandwicensis_). In many districts

between elevations of 2000 and 6000 ft., where there is only a

moderate amount of moisture, occur mixed forests of koa, koaia

(_Acacia koaia_), kopiko (_Straussia oncocarpa_ and _S. hawaiiensis_),

kolea (_Myrsine kauaiensis_ and _M. lanaiensis_), naio or bastard

sandalwood (_Myoporum sandwicense_) and pua (_Olea sandwicensis_); of

these the koaia furnishes a hard wood suitable for the manufacture of

furniture, and out of it the natives formerly made spears and fancy

paddles. The wood of the naio when dry has a fragrance resembling that

of sandalwood, and is used for torches in fishing. The kukui

(_Aleurites triloba_) and the algaroba (_Prosopis juliflora_) are the

principal species of forest trees that occur below elevations of 2000

ft. The kukui grows along streams and gulches; from its nuts, which

are very oily, the natives used to make candles, and it is still

frequently called the candlenut tree. On the leeward side, from near

the sea level to elevations of 1500 ft., and on ground that was

formerly barren, the algaroba tree has formed dense forests since its

introduction in 1837. Forests of iron-wood and blue gum have also been

planted. Sandalwood (_Santalum album_ or _freycinetianum_) was once

abundant on rugged and rather inaccessible heights, but so great a

demand arose for it in China,[2] where it was used for incense and for

the manufacture of fancy articles, that the supply was nearly

exhausted between 1802 and 1836; since then some young trees have

sprung up, but the number is relatively small. Other peculiar trees

prized for their wood are: the kauila (_Alphitonia ponderosa_), used

for making spears, mallets and other tools; the kela (_Mezoneuron

kauaiense_), the hard wood of which resembles ebony; the halapepe

(_Dracaena aurea_), out of the soft wood of which the natives carved

many of their idols; and the wiliwili (_Erythrina monosperma_), the

wood of which is as light as cork and is used for outriggers. In 1909,

on six large rubber plantations, mostly on the windward side of the

island of Maui, there were planted 444,450 ceara trees, 66,700 hevea

trees, and 600 castilloa trees. About the only indigenous

fruit-bearing plants are the Chilean strawberry (_Fragaria chilensis_)

and the ohelo berry (_Vaccinium reticulatum_), both of which grow at

high elevations on Hawaii and Maui. The ohelo berry is famous in song

and story, and formerly served as a propitiatory offering to Pele. The

number of fruit-bearing trees, shrubs and plants that have been

introduced and are successfully cultivated or grow wild is much

greater; among them are the mango, orange, banana, pineapple, coconut,

palm, grape, fig, strawberry, litchi (_Nephelium litchi_)--the

favourite fruit of the Chinese--avocado or alligator pear (_Persea

gratissima_), Sapodilla pear (_Achras sapota_), loquat or mespilus

plum (_Eriobotrya japonica_), Cape gooseberry (_Physalis peruviana_),

tamarind (_Tamarindus indica_), papaw (_Carica papaya_), resembling in

appearance the cantaloupe, granadilla (_Passiflora quadrangularis_)

and guava (_Psidium guajava_). Most of the native grasses are too

coarse for grazing, and some of them, particularly the hilo grass

(_Paspalum conjugatum_), which forms a dense mat over the ground,

prevent the spread of forests. The pili grass (_Heteropogon

contortus_) is also noxious, for its awns get badly entangled in the

wool of sheep. The native manienie (_Stenotaphrum americanum_) and

kukai (_Panicum pruriens_), however, are relished by stock and are

found on all the inhabited islands; the Bermuda grass (_Cynodon

dactylon_), a June grass (_Poa annua_), and Guinea grass (_Panicum

jumentorum_) have also been successfully introduced. The _Paspalum

orbiculare_ is the large swamp grass with which the natives covered

their houses. On the island of Niihau is a fine grass (_Cyperus

laevigatus_), out of which the beautiful Niihau mats were formerly

made; it is used in making Panama hats. Mats were also made of the

leaves of the hala tree (_Pandanus odoratissimus_). The wauke plant

(_Broussonetia papyrifera_), and to a less extent the mamake

(_Pipturus albidus_) and _Boehmeria stipularis_, furnished the bark

out of which the famous kapa cloth was made, while the olopa

(_Cheirodendron gaudichaudii_) and the koolea (_Myrsine lessertiana_)

furnished the dyes with which it was coloured. From several species of

_Cibotium_ is obtained a glossy yellowish wool, used for making

pillows and mattresses. Ferns, of which there are about 130 species

varying from a few inches to 30 ft. in height, form a luxuriant

undergrowth in the ohia-lehua and the koa forests, and the islands are

noted for the profusion and beautiful colours of their flowering

plants. Kalo (_Colocasia antiquorum_, var., _esculenta_), which

furnishes the principal food of the natives, and sugar cane

(_Saccharum officinarum_), the cultivation of which has become the

chief industry of the islands, were introduced before the discovery of

the group by Captain Cook in 1778. Sisal hemp has been introduced, and

there is a large plantation of it W. of Honolulu.

Over seventy varieties of seaweeds, growing in the fresh-water pools

and in the waters near the coast, are used by the natives as food.

These _limus_, as they are called by the Kanakas, are washed, salted,

broken and eaten as a relish or as a flavouring for fish or other

meat. The culture of such algae may prove of economic importance;

gelatine, glue and agar-agar would be valuable by-products.

_Fauna_.--A day-flying bat, whales and dolphins are about the only

indigenous mammals; hogs, dogs and rats had been introduced before

Cook's discovery. Fish in an interesting variety of colours and shapes

abound in the sea and in artificial ponds along the coasts.[3] There

are some fine species of birds, and the native avifauna is so

distinctive that Wallace argued from it that the Hawaiian Archipelago

had long been separated from any other land. There were native names

for 89 varieties. The most typical family is the _Drepanidae_, so

named for the stout sickle-shaped beak with which the birds extract

insects from heavy-barked trees; Gadow considers the family American

in its origin, and thinks that the _Moho_,[4] a family of

honey-suckers, were later comers and from Australia. The _mamo_

(_Drepanis pacifica_) has large golden feathers on its back; it is now

very rare, and is seldom found except on Mauna Loa, Hawaii, about 4000

ft. above the sea. The smaller yellow feathers, once used for the war

cloaks of the native chiefs, were furnished by the _oo_ (_Moho

nobilis_) and the _aa_ (_Moho braccatus_), now found only occasionally

in the valleys of Kauai near Hanalei, on the N. side of the island;

scarlet feathers for similar mantles were taken from the _iiwi_

(_Vestiaria coccinea_), a black-bodied, scarlet-winged song-bird,

which feeds on nectar and on insects found in the bark of the koa and

ohia trees, and from the _Fringilla coccinea_. In the old times birds

were protected by the native belief that divine messages were conveyed

by bird cries, and by royal edict forbidding the killing of species

furnishing the material for feather cloaks, contributions towards

which were long almost the only taxes paid. Thus the downfall of the

monarchy and of the ancient cults have been nearly fatal to some of

the more beautiful birds; feather ornaments, formerly worn only by

nobles, came to be a common decoration; and many species (for example

the Hawaiian gallinule, _Gallinula sandwicensis_, which, because of

its crimson frontal plate and bill, was said by the natives to have

played the part of Prometheus, burning its head with fire stolen from

the gods and bestowed on mortals) have been nearly destroyed by the

mongoose, or have been driven from their lowland homes to the

mountains, such being the fate of the mamo, mentioned above, and of

the Sandwich Island goose (_Bernicla sandwicensis_), which is here a

remarkable example of adaptation, as its present habitat is quite

arid. This goose has been introduced successfully into Europe. A bird

called moho, but actually of a different family, was the _Pennula

ecaudata_ or _millsi_, which had hardly any tail, and had wings so

degenerate that it was commonly thought wingless. The turnstone

(_Strepsilas interpres_) arrives in the islands in August after

breeding in Alaska. There are no parrots. The only reptiles are three

species of skinks and four of the gecko; the islands are famed for

their freedom from snakes. Land-snails, mostly _Achatinellidae_, are

remarkably frequent and diverse; over 300 varieties exist. Insects are

numerous, and of about 500 species of beetle some 80% are not known to

exist elsewhere; cockroaches and green locusts are pests, as are,

also, mosquitoes,[5] wasps, scorpions, centipedes and white ants,

which have all been introduced from elsewhere.

_Soil._--The soil of the Territory is almost wholly a decomposition of

lava, and in general differs much from the soils of the United States,

particularly in the large amount of nitrogen (often more than 1.25% in

cane and coffee soil, and occasionally 2.2%) and iron, and in the high

degree of acidity. High up on the windward side of a mountain it is

thin, light red or yellow, and of inferior quality. Low down on the

leeward side it is dark red and fertile, but still too pervious to

retain moisture well. In the older valleys on the islands of Kauai,

Oahu and Maui, as well as on the lowland plain of Molokai, the soil is

deeper and usually, too, the moisture is retained by a heavy clay. In

some places along the coast there is a narrow strip of decomposed

coral limestone; often, too, a coral reef has served to catch the

sediment washed down the mountain side until a deep sedimentary soil

has been deposited. On the still lower levels the soil is deepest and

most productive.

_Agriculture._--The tenure by which lands were held before 1838 was

strictly feudal, resembling that of Germany in the 11th century, and

lands were sometimes enfeoffed to the seventh degree. But in the

"Great Division" which took place in 1848 and forms the foundation of

present land titles, about 984,000 acres, nearly one-fourth of the

inhabited area, were set apart for the crown, about 1,495,000 acres

for the government, and about 1,619,000 acres for the several chiefs;

and the common people received fee-simple titles[6] for their house

lots and the pieces of land which they cultivated for themselves,

about 28,600 acres, almost entirely in isolated patches of irregular

shape hemmed in by the holdings of the crown, the government or the

great chiefs. Generally the chiefs ran into debt; many died without

heirs; and their lands passed largely into the hands of foreigners. At

the abolition of the monarchy in 1893, the crown domains were declared

to be public lands, and, with the other government lands, were by the

terms of annexation turned over to the United States in 1898. They had

been offered for sale or lease in accordance with land acts (of 1884

and 1895--the latter corresponding generally to the land laws of New

Zealand) designed to promote division into small farms and their

immediate improvement. In 1909 the area of the public land was about

1,700,000 acres. In 1900 there were in the Territory 2273 farms, of

which 1209 contained less than 10 acres, 785 contained between 10 and

100 acres, and 116 contained 1000 acres or more. The natives seldom

cultivate more than half an acre apiece, and the Portuguese settlers

usually only 25 or 30 acres at most. Of the total area of the

Territory only 86,854 acres, or 2.77%, were under cultivation in 1900,

and of this 65,687 acres, or 75.6%, were divided into 170 farms and

planted to sugar-cane. In 1909 it was estimated that 213,000 acres

(about half of which was irrigated) were planted to sugar, one half

being cropped each year. The average yield per acre of cane-sugar is

the greatest in the world, 30 to 40 tons of cane being an average per

acre, and as much as 10(1/4) tons of sugar having been produced from a

single acre under irrigation. The cultivation of the cane was greatly

encouraged by the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875, which established

practically free trade between the islands and the United States, and

since 1879 it has been widely extended by means of irrigation, the

water being obtained both by pumping from numerous artesian wells and

by conducting surface water through canals and ditches. The sugar

farms are mostly on the islands of Hawaii, Oahu, Maui and Kauai, at

the bases of mountains; those on the leeward side have the better

soil, but require much more irrigating. The product increased from

26,072,429 lb. in 1876 to 259,789,462 lb. in 1890, 542,098,500 lb. in

1899 and about 1,060,000,000 lb. (valued at more than $40,000,000) in

1909. Nearly all of it is exported to the United States. Rice was the

second product in importance until competition with Japan, Louisiana

and Texas made the crop a poor investment; improved culture and

machinery may restore rice culture to its former importance. It is

grown almost wholly by Japanese and Chinese on small low farms along

the coasts, mostly on the islands of Kauai and Oahu. In 1899 the

product amounted to 33,442,400 lb.; in 1907 about 12,000 acres were

planted, and the crop was estimated to be worth $2,500,000. Coffee of

good quality is grown at elevations ranging between 1000 to 3000 ft.

above the sea; the Hawaiian product is called Kona coffee--from Kona,

a district of the S. side of Hawaii island, where much of it is grown.

In 1909 about 4500 acres were in coffee, the value of the crop was

$350,000; and 1,763,119 lb. of coffee, valued at $211,535, were

exported from Hawaii to the mainland of the United States. A few

bananas and (especially from Oahu) pineapples of fine quality are

exported; since 1901 the canning of pineapples has been successfully

carried on, and in the year ending May 31, 1907, 186,700 cases were

exported, being packed in nine canneries. Oranges, lemons, limes,

figs, mangoes, grapes and peaches, besides a considerable variety of

vegetables, are raised in small quantities for local consumption. In

1909 the exports of fruits and nuts to the continental United States

were valued at $1,457,644. An excellent quality of sisal is grown.

Rubber trees have been planted with some success, particularly on the

eastern part of the island of Maui; they were not tapped for

commercial use until 1909. In 1907 there were vanilla plantations in

the islands of Oahu and Hawaii. Tobacco of a high grade, especially

for wrappers, has been grown at the Agricultural Experiment Station's

farm at Hamakua, on the island of Hawaii, where the tobacco is

practically "shade grown" under the afternoon fogs from Mauna Kea.

Cotton and silk culture have been experimented with on the islands;

and the work of the Hawaiian Agricultural Experiment Station is of

great value, in introducing new crops, in improving old, in studying

soils and fertilizers and in entomological research. Honey is a crop

of some importance; in 1908 the yield was about 950 tons of honey and

15 tons of wax. The small islands of Lanai, Niihau and Kahoolawe are

devoted chiefly to the raising of sheep and cattle--Niihau is one

large privately owned sheep-ranch. There are large cattle-ranches on

the islands supplying nearly all the meat for domestic consumption,

and cattle-raising is second in importance to the sugar industry. It

was estimated in 1908 that there were about 130,500 cattle and about

99,500 sheep on the islands. The "native" cattle, descended from those

left on the islands by early navigators, are being improved by

breeding with imported Hereford, Shorthorn, Angus and Holstein bulls,

the Herefords being the best for the purpose. In the fiscal year 1908,

359,413 lb. of wool (valued at $58,133) and 928,599 lb. of raw hides

(valued at $87,599) were shipped from the Territory to the United

States.

_Minerals._--The islands have large (unworked) supplies of pumice,

sandstone, sulphur, gypsum, alum and mineral-paint ochres, and some

salt, kaolin and sal-ammoniac, but otherwise they are without mineral

wealth other than lava rocks for building purposes.

_Manufactures._--The manufactures are chiefly sugar, fertilizers, and

such products of the foundry and machine shop as are required for the

machinery of the sugar factories. Most of the manufacturing

industries, indeed, are maintained for supplying the local market,

there being only three important exceptions--the manufacture of sugar,

the cleaning of coffee and the cleaning and polishing of rice. The

manufacture of sugar, which began between 1830 and 1840, has long been

much the most important of the manufacturing industries: thus in 1900

the value of the sugar production was $19,254,773, and the total value

of all manufactures, including custom work and repairing, was only

$24,992,068. Next to sugar, fertilizers were the most important

manufactured product, their value being $1,150,625; the products of

the establishments for the polishing and cleaning of rice were valued

at $664,300. Of the total product in 1900, only 18.5% (by value) is to

be credited to the city of Honolulu. The growth of manufacturing is

much hampered by the lack of labour. Excellent water power is utilized

on the island of Kauai in an electric plant.

_Communications._--There are good wagon roads on the islands, some of

them macadamized, built of the hard blue lava rock. Hawaii had in 1909

about 200 m. of railway, of which the principal line is that of the

Oahu Railway & Land Company (about 89 m.), extending from Honolulu W.

and N. along the coast to Kahuku about one-half the distance around

Oahu; another line from Kahuku Mill, the most northerly point of the

island, S.E. to Honolulu, was projected in 1905; on the island of

Hawaii is the Hilo Railroad (about 46 m.), carrying sugar, pineapples,

rubber and lumber; other railways are for the most part short lines on

sugar estates and in coffee-producing sections of the islands of

Hawaii and Maui. Each of the larger islands has one or more ports

which a local steamboat serves regularly, and Honolulu has the regular

service of seven trans-Pacific lines (the American-Hawaiian Steamship

Co., the Canadian-Australian Steamship Co., the Matson Navigation Co.,

the Oceanic Steamship Co., the Pacific Mail Steamship Co., the Mexican

Oriental and the Toyo Kisen Kaisha); it is a midway station for

vessels between the United States (mainland) and Australia and

Southern Asia. In 1908 five steamship companies were engaged in

traffic between island ports and the mainland (including Mexico).

Honolulu has cable connexion with San Francisco and the East, and the

several islands of the group are served by wireless telegraph.

_Commerce._--The position of the archipelago, at the "cross-roads" of

the North Pacific, has made it commercially important since the days

of the whale fishery, and it has a practical monopoly of coaling,

watering and victualling. Its main disadvantage is the lack of

harbours--Honolulu and Pearl Harbor are the only ones in the

archipelago; but under the River and Harbour Act of 1905 examinations

and surveys were made to improve Hilo Bay on the island of Hawaii.

Pearl Harbor is the U.S. naval station, and a great naval dock, nearly

1200 ft. long, was projected for the station in 1908. Within recent

years commerce has grown greatly in volume; it has always been almost

entirely with the United States. In 1880 the value of imports from the

United States was $2,086,000, that of exports to the United States was

$4,606,000; in 1907 the value of shipments of domestic merchandise

from the United States to Hawaii was $5,357,907, and the value of

shipments of domestic merchandise from Hawaii to the United States was

$31,984,433, of which $30,111,524 was the value of brown sugar,

$133,133 the value of rice, $601,748 the value of canned fruits,

$124,146 the value of green, ripe or dried fruits, $117,403 the value

of hides and skins, and $105,515 the value of green or raw coffee. The

shipments of foreign merchandise each way are relatively

insignificant. In the fiscal year 1908 the exports from Hawaii to

foreign countries were valued at $597,640, ten times as much as in

1905 ($59,541); the imports into Hawaii from foreign countries were

valued at $4,682,399 in the fiscal year 1908, as against $3,014,964 in

1905.

_Population._--The total population of the islands in 1890 was 89,990;

in 1900 it was 154,001, an increase within the decade of 71.13%; in 1910

it was 191,909. In 1908 there were about 72,000 Japanese, 18,000

Chinese, 5000 Koreans, 23,000 Portuguese, 2000 Spanish, 2000 Porto

Ricans, 35,000 Hawaiians and part Hawaiians and 12,000 Teutons. Of the

total for 1900 there were 61,111 Japanese, 25,767 Chinese and 233

negroes; of the same total there were 90,780 foreign-born, of whom

56,234 were natives of Japan, and 6512 were natives of Portugal. There

were in all in 1900, 106,369 males (69.1%; a preponderance due to the

large number of Mongolian labourers, whose wives are left in Asia) and

only 47,632 females. About three-fifths of the Hawaiians and nearly all

of American, British or North European descent are Protestants. Most of

the Portuguese and about one-third of the native Hawaiians are Roman

Catholics. The Mormons claim more than 4000 adherents, whose principal

settlement is at Laie, on the north-east shore of Oahu; the first Mormon

missionaries came to the islands in 1850. The population of 1910 was

distributed among the several islands as follows: Oahu, 82,028; Hawaii,

55,382; Kauai and Niihau, 23,952; Kalawao, 785; and Maui, Lanai,

Kahoolawe and Molokai, 29,762. The population of Honolulu district, the

entire urban population of the Territory, was 22,907 in 1890, 39,306 in

1900, and 52,183 in 1910.

Native population.

The aboriginal Hawaiians (sometimes called Kanakas, from a Hawaiian word

_kanaka_, meaning "man") belong to the Malayo-Polynesian race; they

probably settled in Hawaii in the 10th century, having formerly lived in

Samoa, and possibly before that in Tahiti and the Marquesas. Their

reddish-brown skin has been compared in hue to tarnished copper. Their

hair is dark brown or black, straight, wavy or curly; the beard is thin,

the face broad, the profile not prominent, the eyes large and

expressive, the nose somewhat flattened, the lips thick, the teeth

excellent in shape and of a pearly whiteness. The skull is

sub-brachycephalic in type, with an index of 82.6 from living

"specimens" and 79 from a large collection of skulls; it is never

prognathous. Most of the people are of moderate stature, but the chiefs

and the women of their families have been remarkable for their height,

and 400 pounds was formerly not an unusual weight for one of this class.

This corpulence was due not alone to over-feeding but to an almost

purely vegetable diet; stoutness was a part of the ideal of feminine

beauty. The superiority in physique of the nobles to the common people

may have been due in part to a system of massage, the _lomi-lomi_; it is

certainly contrary to the belief in the bad effects of inbreeding--among

the upper classes marriage was almost entirely between near relatives.

The Rev. William Ellis, an early English missionary, described the

natives as follows: "The inhabitants of these islands are, considered

physically, amongst the finest races in the Pacific, bearing the

strongest resemblance to the New Zealanders in stature, and in their

well-developed muscular limbs. The tattooing of their bodies is less

artistic than that of the New Zealanders, and much more limited than

among some of the other islanders. They are also more hardy and

industrious than those living nearer the equator. This in all

probability arises from their salubrious climate, and the comparative

sterility of their soil rendering them dependent upon the cultivation of

the ground for the yam, the arum, and the sweet potato, their chief

articles of food. Though, like all undisciplined races, the Sandwich

Islanders [Hawaiians] have proved deficient in firm and steady

perseverance, they manifest considerable intellectual capability. Their

moral character, when first visited by Europeans, was not superior to

that of other islanders; and excepting when improved and preserved by

the influence of Christianity, it has suffered much from the vices of

intemperance and licentiousness introduced by foreigners. Polygamy

prevailed among the chiefs and rulers, and women were subject to all the

humiliations of the tabu system, which subjected them to many

privations, and kept them socially in a condition of inferiority to the

other sex. Infanticide was practised to some extent, the children

destroyed being chiefly females. Though less superstitious than the

Tahitians, the idolatry of the Sandwich Islanders was equally barbarous

and sanguinary, as, in addition to the chief objects of worship included

in the mythology of the other islands, the supernatural beings supposed

to reside in the volcanoes and direct the action of subterranean fires

rendered the gods objects of peculiar terror. Human sacrifices were

slain on several occasions, and vast offerings presented to the spirits

supposed to preside over the volcanoes, especially during the periods of

actual eruptions. The requisitions of their idolatry were severe and its

rites cruel and bloody. Grotesque and repulsive wooden figures, animals

and the bones of chiefs were the objects of worship. Human sacrifices

were offered whenever a temple was to be dedicated, or a chief was sick,

or a war was to be undertaken; and these occasions were frequent. The

apprehensions of the people with regard to a future state were

undefined, but fearful. The lower orders expected to be slowly devoured

by evil spirits, or to dwell with the gods in burning mountains. The

several trades, such as that of fisherman, the tiller of the ground, and

the builder of canoes and houses, had each their presiding deities.

Household gods were also kept, which the natives worshipped in their

habitations. One merciful provision, however, had existed from time

immemorial, and that was [the _puuhonuas_] sacred inclosures, places of

refuge, into which those who fled in time of war, or from any violent

pursuer, might enter and be safe. To violate their sanctity was one of

the greatest crimes of which a man could be guilty." The native religion

was an admixture of idolatry and hero-worship, of some ethical but

little moral force. The king was war chief, priest and god in one, and

the shocking licence at the death of a king was probably due to the

feeling that all law or restraint was annulled by the death of the

king--incarnate law. The mythic and religious legends of the people were

preserved in chants, handed down from generation to generation; and in

like poetic form was kept the knowledge of the people of botany,

medicine and other sciences. Name-songs, written at the birth of a

chief, gave his genealogy and the deeds of his ancestors; dirges and

love-songs were common. These were without rhyme or rhythm, but had

alliteration and a parallelism resembling Hebrew poetry. Drums, gourd

and bamboo flutes, and a kind of guitar, were known before Cook's day.

When the islands first became known to Europeans, the Hawaiian family

was in a stage including both polyandry and polygyny, and, according to

Morgan, older than either: two or more brothers, with their wives, or

two or more sisters with their husbands, cohabited with seeming

promiscuity. This system called _punalua_ (a word which in the modern

vernacular means merely "dear friend") was first brought to the

attention of ethnologists in 1871 by Lewis H. Morgan (who was incorrect

in many of his premises) and was made the basis of his second stage, the

_punaluan_, in the evolution of the family. These conditions did not

last long after the coming of the missionaries. Descent was more

commonly traced through the female line. As regard cannibalism, it

appears that the heart and liver of the human victims offered in the

temples were eaten as a religious rite, and that the same parts of any

prominent warrior slain in battle were devoured by the victor chiefs,

who believed that they would thereby inherit the valour of the dead man.

Under _taboo_ as late as 1819 women were to be put to death if they ate

bananas, cocoa-nuts, pork, turtles or certain fish. In the days of

idolatry the only dress worn by the men was a narrow strip of cloth

wound around the loins and passed between the legs. Women wore a short

petticoat made of _kapa_ cloth (already referred to), which reached from

the waist to the knee. But now the common class of men wear a shirt and

trousers; the better class are attired in the European fashion. The

women are clad in the holoka, a loose white or coloured garment with

sleeves, reaching from the neck to the feet. A coloured handkerchief is

twisted around the head or a straw hat is worn. Both sexes delight in

adorning themselves with garlands (_leis_) of flowers and necklaces of

coloured seeds. The Hawaiians are a good-tempered, light-hearted and

pleasure-loving race. They have many games and sports, including boxing,

wrestling (both in and out of water), hill-sliding, spear-throwing, and

a game of bowls played with stone discs. Both sexes are passionately

fond of riding. They delight to be in the water and swim with remarkable

skill and ease. In the exciting sport of surf-riding, which always

astonishes strangers, they balance themselves lying, kneeling or

standing on a small board which is carried landwards on the curling

crest of a great roller. All games were accompanied by gambling. Dances,

especially the indecent _hula_, "danse du ventre," were favourite

entertainments.

Even at the time when they were first known to Europeans, they had stone

and lava hatchets, shark's-tooth knives, hardwood spades, _kapa_ cloth

or paper, mats, fans, fish-hooks and nets, woven baskets, &c., and they

had introduced a rough sort of irrigation of the inland country with

long canals from highlands to plains. They derived their sustenance

chiefly from pork and fish (both fresh and dried), from seaweed

(_limu_), and from the kalo (_Colocasia antiquorum_, var. _esculenta_),

the banana, sweet potato, yam, bread-fruit and cocoa-nut. From the root

of the kalo is made the national dish called _poi_; after having been

baked and well beaten on a board with a stone pestle it is made into a

paste with water and then allowed to ferment for a few days, when it is

ready to be eaten. One of the table delicacies of former days was a

particular breed of dog which was fed exclusively on poi before it was

killed, cooked and served. Like other South Sea Islanders they made an

intoxicating drink, _awa_ or _kava_, from the roots of the _Macropiper

latifolium_ or _Piper methysticum_; in early times this could be drunk

only by nobles and priests. The native dwellings are constructed of

wood, or occasionally are huts thatched with grass at the sides and top.

What little cooking is undertaken among the poorer natives is usually

done outside. The oven consists of a hole in the ground in which a fire

is lighted and stones made hot; and the fire having been removed, the

food is wrapped up in leaves and placed in the hole beside the hot

stones and covered up until ready; or else, as is now more common, the

cooking is done in an old kerosene-oil can over a fire.

The Hawaiian language is a member of the widely-diffused

Malayo-Polynesian group and closely resembles the dialect of the

Marquesas; Hawaiians and New Zealanders, although occupying the most

remote regions north and south at which the race has been found, can

understand each other without much difficulty. Various unsuccessful

attempts have been made to prove the language Aryan in its origin. It is

soft and harmonious, being highly vocalic in structure. Every syllable

is open, ending in a vowel sound, and short sentences may be constructed

wholly of vocalic sounds. The only consonants are _k_, _l_, _m_, _n_ and

_p_, which with the gently aspirated _h_, the five vowels, and the

vocalic _w_, make up all the letters in use. The letters _r_ and _t_

have been discarded in favour of _l_ and _k_, as expressing more

accurately the native pronunciation, so that, for example, _taro_, the

former name of the _Colocasia_ plant, is now _kalo_. The language was

not reduced to a written form until after the arrival of the

missionaries. A Hawaiian spelling book was printed in 1822; in 1834 two

newspapers were founded; and in 1839 the first translation of the Bible

was published.

In spite of moral and material progress--indeed largely because of

changes in their food, clothing, dwellings and of other "advantages" of

civilization--the race is probably dying out. Captain Cook estimated the

number of natives at 400,000, probably an over-estimate; in 1823 the

American missionaries estimated their number at 142,000; the census of

1832 showed the population to be 130,313; the census of 1878 proved that

the number of natives was no more than 44,088. In 1890 they numbered

34,436; in 1900, 29,834, a decrease of 4602 or 13.3% within the decade.

To account for this it is said that the blood of the race has become

poisoned by the introduction of foreign diseases. The women are much

less numerous than the men; and the married ones have few children at

the most; two out of three have none. Moreover, the mothers appear to

have little maternal instinct and neglect their offspring. It is,

however, thought by some that these causes are now diminishing in force,

and that the "fittest" of the race may survive. The part-Hawaiians, the

offspring of intermarriage between Hawaiian women and men of other

races, increased from 3420 in 1878 to 6186 in 1890 and 7835 in 1900.

Immigration.

The pressing demand for labour created by the Reciprocity Treaty of

1875 with the United States led to great changes in the population of

the Hawaiian Islands. It became the policy of the government to assist

immigrants from different countries. In 1877 arrangements were made

for the importation of Portuguese families from the Azores and

Madeira, and during the next ten years about 7000 of these people were

brought to the islands; in 1906-1907 there was a second immigration

from the Azores and Madeira of 1325 people. In 1900 the total number

of Portuguese in the islands, including those born there, was not far

from 16,000, about 2400 of whom were employed in sugar plantations.

They have shown themselves to be industrious, thrifty and law-abiding.

In 1907 2201 Spanish immigrants from the sugar district about Malaga

arrived in Hawaii, and about the same number of Portuguese immigrated

in the same year. The Board of Immigration, using funds contributed by

planters, was very active in its efforts to encourage the immigration

of suitable labourers, but the general immigration law of 1907

prohibited the securing of such immigration through contributions from

corporations. Persistent efforts have also been made to introduce

Polynesian islanders, as being of a cognate race with the Hawaiians,

but the results have been wholly unsatisfactory. About 2000, mainly

from the Gilbert Islands, were brought in at the expense of the

government between 1878 and 1884; but they did not give satisfaction

either as labourers or as citizens, and most of them have been

returned to their homes. There never existed any treaty or labour

convention between Hawaii and China. In early days a limited number of

Chinese settled in the islands, intermarried with the natives and by

their industry and economy generally prospered. About 750 of them were

naturalized under the monarchy. The first importation of Chinese

labourers was in 1852. In 1878 the number of Chinese had risen to

5916. During the next few years there was such a steady influx of

Chinese free immigrants that in the spring of 1881 the Hawaiian

government sent a despatch to the governor of Hong Kong to stop this

invasion. Again, in April 1883, it was suddenly renewed, and within

twenty days five steamers arrived from Hong Kong bringing 2253 Chinese

passengers, followed the next month by 1100 more, with the news that

several thousand more were ready to embark. Accordingly, the Hawaiian

government sent another despatch to the governor of Hong Kong,

refusing to permit any further immigration of male Chinese from that

port. Various regulations restricting Chinese immigration were enacted

from time to time, until in 1886 the landing of any Chinese passenger

without a passport was prohibited. The number of Chinese in the

islands had then risen to 21,000. The consent of the Japanese

government to the immigration of its subjects to Hawaii was obtained

with difficulty in 1884, and in 1886 a labour convention was ratified.

Subsequently the increase of the Japanese element in the population

was rapid. It rose from 116 in 1884 to 12,360 in 1890 and 24,400 in

1896. Most of these were recruited from the lowest classes in Japan.

Unlike the Chinese, they show no inclination to intermarry with the

Hawaiians. The effect of making Hawaii a Territory of the United

States was to put an end to all assisted immigration, of whatever

race, and to exclude all Chinese labourers. No Chinese labourer is

allowed to enter any other Territory of the Union from Hawaii; and the

act of Congress of the 26th of February 1885, "to prohibit the

importation and migration of foreigners and aliens under contract or

agreement to perform labour in the United States, its Territories and

the District of Columbia," and the amending and supplementary acts,

are extended to it. But in the treaty of 1894 between the United

States and Japan there is nothing to limit the free immigration of

Japanese; and several companies have been formed to promote it. The

system of contract labour, which was abolished by the act of Congress

in 1900, and under which labourers had been restrained from leaving

their work before the end of the contract term, concerned few

labourers except the Japanese. Various methods of co-operation or

profit-sharing are in successful operation on some plantations.

An interesting sociological problem is raised by the presence of the

large Asiatic element in the population. The Japanese and Koreans, and

in less measure the Chinese, act as domestic servants, work under

white contractors on irrigating ditches and reservoirs, do most of the

plantation labour and compete successfully with whites and native

islanders in all save skilled urban occupations, such as printing and

the manufacture, of machinery. The "Yellow Peril" is considered less

dangerous in Hawaii than formerly, although it was used as a political

cry in the campaign for American annexation. No success met the

apparently well-meaning efforts of the Central Japanese League which

was organized in November and December 1903 to promote the observance

of law and order by the Japanese in the islands, who assumed a too

independent attitude and felt themselves free from governmental

control whether Japanese or American; indeed, after the League had

been in operation for a year or more, it almost seemed that it

contributed to industrial disorders among the Japanese. At about the

same time Japanese immigration to Hawaii fell off upon the opening of

new fields for colonization by the Russo-Japanese War, and Korean

immigration was promoted by employers on the islands. From the first

of January 1903 to the 30th of June 1905 Japanese immigrants numbered

18,027; Koreans 7388 (four Koreans to every ten Japanese); but in the

last twelve months of this same period there were 4733 Koreans to 5941

Japanese (eight Koreans to every ten Japanese). Another fact which is

possibly contributing to the solution of the problem is that the

Japanese are leaving the islands in large numbers as compared with the

Koreans. The Japanese leaving Hawaii between the 14th of June 1900 and

the 31st of December 1905 numbered 42,313, or 4284 more than the

number of Japanese immigrants arriving during the same period. The

corresponding figures for Koreans during the same period are as

follows: number leaving between the 14th of June 1900 and the 31st of

December 1905, 721, or 6673 less than the Korean immigrants for the

same period. The acceleration of the departure of the Japanese is

shown by the fact that in the eighteen months (July 1904 to January

1906) occurred 19,114 of the 42,313 departures in the sixty-six months

from July 1900 to January 1906.[7] After 1906, owing to restrictions

by the Japanese government, immigration to Hawaii greatly decreased.

At the same time the number of departures was decreasing rapidly. The

change in the character of the immigration of Japanese is shown by the

fact that in the fiscal year 1906-1907 the ratio of female immigrants

to males was as 1 to 8, in the fiscal year 1907-1908 it was as 1 to 2,

and in the latter year, of 4593 births in the Territory, 2445 were

Japanese.

_Administration._--The Hawaiian Islands are governed under an Act of

Congress, signed by the president on the 30th of April 1900, which first

organized them as a Territory of the United States. The legislature,

which meets biennially at Honolulu, consists of a Senate of 15 members

holding office for four years, and a House of Representatives of 30

members holding office for two years. In order to vote for

Representatives or Senators, the elector must be a male citizen of the

United States who has attained the age of twenty-one years, has lived in

the Territory not less than one year preceding, and is able to speak,

read and write the English or Hawaiian language. No person is allowed to

vote by reason of being in or attached to the army or navy. The

executive power is vested in a governor, appointed by the president and

holding office for four years. He must not be less than thirty-five

years of age and must be a citizen of the Territory. The secretary of

the Territory is appointed in like manner for a term of the same length.

The governor appoints, by and with the consent of the Senate of the

Territory, an attorney-general, treasurer, commissioner of public lands,

commissioner of agriculture and forestry, superintendent of public

works, superintendent of public instruction, commissioners of public

instruction, auditor and deputy-auditor, surveyor, high sheriff, members

of the board of health, board of prison inspectors, board of

registration, inspectors of election, &c. All such officers are

appointed for four years except the commissioners of public instruction

and the members of the said boards, whose terms are as provided by the

laws of the Territory; all must be citizens of the Territory. The

judicial power is vested in a supreme court, 5 circuit courts, and 29

district courts, each having a jurisdiction corresponding to similar

courts in each state in the Union; and, entirely distinct from these

territorial courts, Hawaii has a United States district court. A

Supplementary Act of the 3rd of March 1905 provides that writs of error

and appeals may be taken from the Supreme Court of Hawaii to the Supreme

Court of the United States "in all cases where the amount involved

exclusive of costs or value exceeds the sum of five thousand dollars."

The Territory was without the forms of local government common to the

United States until 1905, when the Territorial legislature divided it

into five counties[8] without, however, giving to them the usual powers

of taxation. Each county has the following officers: a board of

supervisors, a clerk, a treasurer, an auditor, an assessor and

tax-collector, a sheriff and coroner, and an attorney. The members (from

five to nine) of the board of supervisors are elected by districts into

which the county is divided, usually only one from each. All county

officers are elected for a term of two years. The act of 1900 provides

for the election of a delegate to Congress, and prescribes that the

delegate shall have the qualifications necessary for membership in the

Hawaiian Senate, and shall be elected by voters qualified to vote for

members of the House of Representatives of Hawaii. As usual, the

delegate has a right to take part in the debates in the national House

of Representatives, but may not vote.

_Charities._--The principal public charity of the Territory is the

leper asylum on a peninsula almost 10 sq. m. in area on the N. side of

the island of Molokai. A steep precipice forms a natural wall between

it and the rest of the island. The place became an asylum for lepers

and the caring for them began to be a charity under government charge

in 1866; but conditions here were at first unspeakably unhygienic,

their improvement being largely due to Father Damien, who devoted

himself to this work in 1873. The patients are almost exclusively

native Hawaiians, and their number is slowly but steadily decreasing;

in 1908 they numbered 791, and there were at Molokai 46 non-leprous

helpers and 27 officers and assistants, including the Roman Catholic

brothers and sisters in charge of the homes. In 1905 the United States

government appropriated $100,000 for a hospital station and laboratory

"for the study of the methods of transmission, cause and treatment of

leprosy," and $50,000 a year for their maintenance; the station and

laboratory to be established when the territorial government should

have ceded to the United States a tract of 1 sq. m. on the leper

reservation. The cession was made soon afterward by the territorial

government. In 1907-1908 a home for non-leprous boys of leprous

parents was established at Honolulu. Another public charity of Hawaii

is the general free dispensary maintained by the territorial

government at Honolulu.

_Education._--Education is universal, compulsory and free. Every child

between the ages of six and fifteen must attend either a public school

or a duly authorized private school. Consequently the percentage of

illiteracy is extremely low. The school system is essentially American

in its text-books and in its methods, thanks to the foundations laid

by American missionaries. Between 1820 and 1824 the missionaries

taught about 2000 natives to read. Several important schools were

founded before 1840, when the first written laws were published. Among

these was a law providing for compulsory education, and decreeing that

no illiterate born after the beginning of Liholiho's reign should hold

office, and that no illiterate man or woman, born after the same date,

could marry. The first Hawaiian minister of public instruction was the

Rev. William Richards (1792-1847), who held office from 1843 to 1847,

and was followed by Richard Armstrong (1805-1860), an American

Presbyterian missionary, the father of General S. C. Armstrong. He

laid stress on the importance of manual and industrial training during

his term of office (1847-1855), and was succeeded by a board of

education (1855-1865), of which he was first president; then an

inspector-general of schools was appointed, Judge Abraham Fornander

being the first inspector; in 1896 an executive department was created

under a minister of public instruction and six commissioners; in 1900

a superintendent of public instruction was first appointed. English is

by law the medium of instruction in all schools, both public and

private, although other languages may be taught in addition. Formal

instruction in Hawaiian ceased in 1898. The schools are in session

forty weeks during the year. In 1908 there were 154 public schools

with 18,564 pupils (27.06% of whom were Japanese, 20.89% Hawaiian,

13.54% part Hawaiian, 18.72% Portuguese and 10.63% Chinese) and 51

private schools with 4881 pupils. A normal school has been established

at Honolulu, with a practice school attached to it. The territorial

legislature of 1907 established the College of Agriculture and

Mechanic Arts of the Territory of Hawaii, and also founded a public

library. The Honolulu high school does excellent work and has

beautiful buildings and grounds. The Lahainaluna Seminary on west

Maui, founded in 1831 as a training school for teachers, furnishes

instruction to Hawaiian boys in agriculture, carpentry, printing and

mechanical drawing. The boys in the industrial school (1902) at

Waialee, on the island of Oahu, are taught useful trades. The teaching

of sewing in the public schools has met with great success, and a

simple form of the Swedish sloid was introduced into many of the

schools in 1894. Lace work was introduced into the public schools in

1903. But the best industrial instruction is furnished by the

independent schools, among which the Kamehameha schools take the first

place. They were founded by Mrs Bernice Pauahi Bishop (1831-1884), the

last lineal descendant of Kamehameha I., who left her extensive landed

estates in the hands of trustees for their support. They furnish a

good manual and technical training to Hawaiian boys and girls, in

addition to a primary and grammar school course of study, and exert a

strong religious influence. There are six boarding schools for

Hawaiian girls, supported by private resources. The most advanced

courses of study are offered by Oahu College, which occupies a

beautiful site near the beach just E. of Honolulu; it was founded in

1841 as the Punahou School for missionaries' children, and was

chartered as Oahu College in 1852. It is well equipped with buildings

and apparatus, and has an endowment of about $300,000.

_Finance_.--The revenue of the Territory for the fiscal year ending

the 30th of June 1908 amounted to $2,669,748.32, of which $640,051.42

was the proceeds of the tax on real estate, $635,265.81 was the

proceeds of the tax on personal property; and among the larger of the

remaining items were the income tax ($266,241.74), waterworks

($141,898.04), public lands (sales, $37,585.75; revenue, $122,541.71)

and licences ($206,374.28). On the 30th of June 1908 the bonded debt

of the Territory was $3,979,000; there was on hand net cash, without

floating debt, $677,648.48.

_History_.--The history of the islands before their discovery by Captain

James Cook, in 1778, is obscure.[9] This famous navigator, who named the

islands in honour of the earl of Sandwich, was received by the natives

with many demonstrations of astonishment and delight; and offerings and

prayers were presented to him by their priest in one of the temples; and

though in the following year he was killed by a native when he landed in

Kealakekua Bay in Hawaii, his bones were preserved by the priests and

continued to receive offerings and homage from the people until the

abolition of idolatry. At the time of Cook's visit the archipelago seems

to have been divided into three distinct kingdoms: Hawaii; Oahu and

Maui; and Lanai and Molokai. On the death of the chief who ruled Hawaii

at that time there succeeded one named Kamehameha (1736-1819), who

appears to have been a man of quick perception and great force of

character. When Vancouver visited the islands in 1792, he left sheep and

neat cattle,[10] protected by a ten years' taboo, and laid down the keel

of a European ship for Kamehameha. Ten or twelve years later Kamehameha

had 20 vessels (of 25 to 50 tons), which traded among the islands. He

afterwards purchased others from foreigners. Having encouraged a warlike

spirit in his people and having introduced firearms, Kamehameha attacked

and overcame the chiefs of the other kingdoms one after another, until

(in 1795) he became undisputed master of the whole group. He made John

Young (c. 1775-1835) and Isaac Davis, Americans from one of the ships of

Captain Metcalf which visited the island in 1789, his advisers,

encouraged trade with foreigners, and derived from its profits a large

increase of revenue as well as the means of consolidating his power. He

died in 1819, and was succeeded by his son, Lilohilo, or Kamehameha II.,

a mild and well-disposed prince, but destitute of his father's energy.

One of the first acts of Kamehameha II. was, for vicious and selfish

reasons, to abolish taboo and idolatry throughout the islands. Some

disturbances were caused thereby, but the insurgents were defeated.

On the 31st of March 1820 missionaries of the American Board of

Commissioners for Foreign Missions--two clergymen, two teachers, a

physician, a farmer, and a printer, each with his wife--and three

Hawaiians educated in the Cornwall (Connecticut) Foreign Missionary

School, arrived from America and began their labours at Honolulu. A

short time afterwards the British government presented a small schooner

to the king, and this afforded an opportunity for the Rev. William

Ellis, the well-known missionary, to visit Honolulu with a number of

Christian natives from the Society Islands. Finding the language of the

two groups nearly the same, Mr Ellis, who had spent several years in the

southern islands, was able to assist the American missionaries in

reducing the Hawaiian language to a written form. In 1825 the ten

commandments were recognized by the king as the basis of a code of laws.

In the years 1830-1845 the educational work of the American missionaries

was so successful that hardly a native was unable to read and write. A

law prohibiting drunkenness (1835) was followed in 1838 by a licence law

and in 1839 by a law prohibiting the importation of spirits and taxing

wines fifty cents a gallon; in 1840 another prohibitory law was enacted;

but licence laws soon made the sale of liquor common. Missionary effort

was particularly fruitful in Hilo, where Titus Coan (1801-1882), sent

out in 1835 by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions,

worked in repeated revivals, induced most of his church members to give

up tobacco even, and received prior to 1880 more than 12,000 members

into a church which became self-supporting and sent missions to the

Gilbert Islands and the Marquesas. In 1823 Keopuolani, the king's

mother, was baptized; and on a single Sunday in 1838 Coan baptized 1705

converts at Hilo. In 1864 the American Board withdrew its control of

evangelical work.

In 1824 the king and queen of the Hawaiian Islands paid a visit to

England, and both died there of measles. His successor, Kamehameha III.

ruled from 1825 to 1854. In 1839 Kamehameha III. signed a Bill of Rights

and in 1840 he promulgated the first constitution of the realm; in 1842

a code of laws was proclaimed; by 1848 the feudal system of land tenure

was completely abolished; the first legislature met in 1845 and full

suffrage was granted in 1852, but in 1864 suffrage was restricted.

Progress was at times interrupted by the conduct of the officers of

foreign powers. On one occasion (July 1839) French officers abrogated

the laws (particularly against the importation of liquor), dictated

treaties, extorted $20,000 and by force of arms procured privileges for

Roman Catholic[11] priests in the country; and at another time (February

1843) a British officer, Captain Paulet of the "Carysfort," went so far

as to take possession of Oahu and establish a commission for its

government. The act of the British officer was disavowed by his

superiors as soon as known.

These incidents led to a representation on the part of the native

sovereign to the governments of Great Britain, France and the United

States, and the independence of the islands (recognized by the United

States in 1842) was recognized in 1844 by France and Great Britain. In

1844 John Ricord, an American lawyer, became the first minister of

foreign affairs. A new constitution came into effect in 1852. It was the

aim of Kamehameha III. and his advisers to combine the native and the

foreign elements under one government; to make the king the sovereign

not of one race or class, but of all; and to extend equal and impartial

laws over all inhabitants of the country. Kamehameha IV. and his queen,

Emma, ruled from 1855 to 1863 and were succeeded by his brother,

Kamehameha V., who died in 1872, and in whose reign a third (and a

reactionary) constitution went into effect in 1864, by mere royal

proclamation. Lunalilo, a grandson of Kamehameha I., was king for two

years, and in 1874, backed by American influence, Kalakaua was elected

his successor, in preference to Queen Emma, a member of the Anglican

Church and the candidate of the pro-British party. Kalakaua considered

residents of European or American descent as alien invaders, and he

aimed to restore largely the ancient system of personal government,

under which he should have control of the public treasury. On the 2nd of

July 1878, and again on the 14th of August 1880, he dismissed a ministry

without assigning any reason, after it had been triumphantly sustained

by a test vote of the legislature. On the latter occasion he appointed

C. C. Moreno, who had come to Honolulu in the interest of a Chinese

steamship company, as Premier and minister of foreign affairs. This

called forth the protest of the representatives of Great Britain, France

and the United States, and aroused such opposition on the part of both

the foreigners and the better class of natives that the king was

obliged, after four days of popular excitement, to remove the obnoxious

minister. During the king's absence on a tour round the world in 1881,

his sister, Mrs Lydia Dominis (b. 1838), also styled Liliuokalani, acted

as regent. After his return the contest was renewed between the

so-called National party, which favoured absolution, and the Reform

party, which sought to establish parliamentary government. The king took

an active part in the elections, and used his patronage to the utmost to

influence legislation. For three successive sessions a majority of the

legislature was composed of office-holders, dependent on the favour of

the executive. Among the measures urged by the king and opposed by the

Reform party were the project of a ten-million dollar loan, chiefly for

military purposes; the removal of the prohibition of the sale of

alcoholic liquor to Hawaiians, which was carried in 1882; the licensing

of the sale of opium; the chartering of a lottery company; the licensing

of kahunas, or medicine men, &c. Systematic efforts were made to turn

the constitutional question into a race issue, and the party cry was

raised of "Hawaii for Hawaiians." Adroit politicians flattered the

king's vanity, defended his follies and taught him how to violate the

spirit of the constitution while keeping the letter of the law. From

1882 till 1887 his prime minister was Walter Murray Gibson (1823-1888),

a singular and romantic genius, a visionary adventurer and a shrewd

politician, who had been imprisoned by the Dutch government in Batavia

in 1852 on a charge of inciting insurrection in Sumatra, and had arrived

at Honolulu in 1861 with the intention of leading a Mormon colony to the

East Indies. To exalt his royal dignity, which was lowered, he thought,

by his being only an elected king, Kalakaua caused himself to be crowned

with imposing ceremonies on the ninth anniversary of his election (Feb.

12, 1883).

Kalakaua was now no longer satisfied with being merely king of Hawaii,

but aspired to what was termed the "Primacy of the Pacific." Accordingly

Mr Gibson addressed a protest to the great powers, deprecating any

further annexation of the islands of the Pacific Ocean, and claiming for

Hawaii the exclusive right "to assist them in improving their political

and social condition." In pursuance of this policy, two commissioners

were sent to the Gilbert Islands in 1883 to prepare the way for a

Hawaiian protectorate. On the 23rd of December 1886 Mr J. E. Bush was

commissioned as minister plenipotentiary to the king of Samoa, the king

of Tonga and the other independent chiefs of Polynesia. He arrived in

Samoa on the 3rd of January 1887, and remained there six months, during

which time he concluded a treaty of alliance with Malietoa, which was

ratified by his government. The "Explorer," a steamer of 170 tons, which

had been employed in the copra trade, was purchased for $20,000, and

refitted as a man-of-war, to form the "nest-egg" of the future Hawaiian

navy. She was renamed the "Kaimiloa," and was despatched to Samoa on the

17th of May 1887 to strengthen the hands of the embassy. As R. L.

Stevenson wrote: "The history of the 'Kaimiloa' is a story of

debauchery, mutiny and waste of government property." At length the

intrigues of the Hawaiian embassy gave umbrage to the German government,

and it was deemed prudent to recall it to Honolulu in July 1887.

Meanwhile a reform league had been formed to stop the prevailing misrule

and extravagance; it was supported by a volunteer military force, the

"Honolulu Rifles." The king carried through the legislature of 1886 a

bill for an opium licence, as well as a Loan Act, under which a million

dollars were borrowed in London. Under his influence the Hale Naua

Society was organized in 1886 for the spread of idolatry and

king-worship; and in the same year a "Board of Health" was formed which

revived the vicious practices of the _kahunas_ or medicine-men.

The king's acceptance of two bribes--one of $75,000 and another of

$80,000 for the assignment of an opium licence--precipitated the

revolution of 1887. An immense mass meeting was held on the 30th of

June, which sent a committee to the king with specific demands for

radical reforms. Finding himself without support, he yielded without a

struggle, dismissed his ministry and signed a constitution on the 7th of

July 1887, revising that of 1864, and intended to put an end to personal

government and to make the cabinet responsible only to the legislature;

this was called the "bayonet constitution," because it was so largely

the result of the show of force made by the Honolulu Rifles. By its

terms office-holders were made ineligible for seats in the legislature,

and no member of the legislature could be appointed to any civil office

under the government during the term for which he had been elected. The

members of the Upper House, instead of being appointed by the king for

life, were henceforth to be elected for terms of six years by electors

possessing a moderate property qualification. The remainder of

Kalakaua's reign teemed with intrigues and conspiracies to restore

autocratic rule. One of these came to a head on the 30th of July 1889,

but this "Wilcox rebellion," led by R. W. Wilcox, a half-breed, educated

in Italy, and a friend of the king and of his sister, was promptly

suppressed. Seven of the insurgents were killed and a large number

wounded. For his health the king visited California in the United States

cruiser "Charleston" in November 1890, and died on the 20th of January

1891 in San Francisco. On the 29th of January at noon his sister, the

regent, took the oath to maintain the constitution of 1887, and was

proclaimed queen, under the title of Liliuokalani.

The history of her reign shows that it was her constant purpose to

restore autocratic government. The legislative session of 1892, during

which four changes of ministry took place, was protracted to eight

months chiefly by her determination to carry through the opium and

lottery bills and to have a pliable cabinet. She had a new constitution

drawn up, practically providing for an absolute monarchy, and

disfranchising a large class of citizens who had voted since 1887; this

constitution (drawn up, so the royal party declared, in reply to a

petition signed by thousands of natives) she undertook to force on the

country after proroguing the legislature on the 14th of January 1893,

but her ministers shrank from the responsibility of so revolutionary an

act, and with difficulty prevailed upon her to postpone the execution of

her design. An uprising similar to that of 1887 declared the monarchy

forfeited by its own act. A third party proposed a regency during the

minority of the heir-apparent, Princess Kaiulani, but in her absence

this scheme found few supporters. A Committee of Safety was appointed at

a public meeting, which formed a provisional government and reorganized

the volunteer military companies, which had been disbanded in 1890. Its

leading spirits were the "Sons of Missionaries" (as E. L. Godkin styled

them), who were accused of using their knowledge of local affairs and

their inherited prestige among the natives for private ends--of founding

a "Gospel Republic" which was actually a business enterprise. The

provisional government called a mass meeting of citizens, which met on

the afternoon of the 6th and ratified its action. The United States

steamer "Boston," which had unexpectedly arrived from Hilo on the 14th,

landed a small force on the evening of the 16th, at the request of the

United States minister, Mr J. L. Stevens, and a committee of residents,

to protect the lives and property of American citizens in case of riot

or incendiarism. On the 17th the Committee of Safety took possession of

the government building, and issued a proclamation declaring a monarchy

to be abrogated, and establishing a provisional government, to exist

"until terms of union with the United States of America shall have been

negotiated and agreed upon." Meanwhile two companies of volunteer troops

arrived and occupied the grounds. By the advice of her ministers, and to

avoid bloodshed, the queen surrendered under protest, in view of the

landing of United States troops, appealing to the government of the

United States to reinstate her in authority. A treaty of annexation was

negotiated with the United States during the next month, just before the

close of President Benjamin Harrison's administration, but it was

withdrawn on the 9th of March 1893 by President Harrison's successor,

President Cleveland, who then despatched James H. Blount (1837-1903) of

Macon, Georgia, as commissioner paramount, to investigate the situation

in the Hawaiian Islands. On receiving Blount's report to the effect that

the revolution had been accomplished by the aid of the United States

minister and by the landing of troops from the "Boston," President

Cleveland sent Albert Sydney Willis (1843-1897) of Kentucky to Honolulu

with secret instructions as United States minister. Willis with much

difficulty and delay obtained the queen's promise to grant an amnesty,

and made a formal demand on the provisional government for her

reinstatement on the 19th of December 1893. On the 23rd President

Sanford B. Dole sent a reply to Willis, declining to surrender the

authority of the provisional government to the deposed queen. The United

States Congress declared against any further intervention by adopting on

the 31st of May 1894 the Turpie Resolution. On the 30th of May 1894 a

convention was held to frame a constitution for the republic of Hawaii,

which was proclaimed on the 4th of July following, with S. B. Dole as

its first president. Toward the end of the same year a plot was formed

to overthrow the republic and to restore the monarchy. A cargo of arms

and ammunition from San Francisco was secretly landed at a point near

Honolulu, where a company of native royalists were collected on the 6th

of January 1895, intending to capture the government buildings by

surprise that night, with the aid of their allies in the city. A

premature encounter with a squad of police alarmed the town and broke up

their plans. There were several other skirmishes during the following

week, resulting in the capture of the leading conspirators, with most of

their followers. The ex-queen, on whose premises arms and ammunition and

a number of incriminating documents were found, was arrested and was

imprisoned for nine months in the former palace. On the 24th of January

1895 she formally renounced all claim to the throne and took the oath of

allegiance to the republic. The ex-queen and forty-eight others were

granted conditional pardon on the 7th of September, and on the following

New Year's Day the remaining prisoners were set at liberty.

On the inauguration of President McKinley, in March 1897, negotiations

with the United States were resumed, and on the 16th of June a new

treaty of annexation was signed at Washington. As its ratification by

the Senate had appeared to be uncertain, extreme measures were taken:

the Newlands joint resolution, by which the cession was "accepted,

ratified and confirmed," was passed by the Senate by a vote of 42 to 21

and by the House of Representatives by a vote of 209 to 91, and was

signed by the president on the 7th of July 1898. The formal transfer of

sovereignty took place on the 12th of August 1898, when the flag of the

United States (the same flag hauled down by order of Commissioner

Blount) was raised over the Executive Building with impressive

ceremonies.

The sovereigns of the monarchy, the president of the republic and the

governors of the Territory up to 1910 were as follows: Sovereigns:

Kamehameha I., 1795-1819; Kamehameha II., 1819-1824; Kaahumanu (regent),

1824-1832; Kamehameha III., 1832-1854; Kamehameha IV., 1855-1863;

Kamehameha V., 1863-1872; Lunalilo, 1873-1874; Kalakaua, 1874-1891;

Liliuokalani, 1891-1893. President: Sanford B. Dole, 1893-1898.

Governors: S. B. Dole, 1898-1904; George R. Carter, 1904-1907; W. F.

Frear, 1907.

AUTHORITIES.--Consult the bibliography in Adolf Marcuse, _Die

hawaiischen Inseln_ (Berlin, 1894); A. P. C. Griffen, _List of Books

relating to Hawaii_ (Washington, 1898); C. E. Dutton, _Hawaiian

Volcanoes_, in the fourth annual report of the United States

Geological Survey (Washington, 1884); J. D. Dana, _Characteristics of

Volcanoes with Contribution of Facts and Principles from the Hawaiian

Islands_ (New York, 1890); W. H. Pickering, _Lunar and Hawaiian

Physical Features compared_ (1906); C. H. Hitchcock, _Hawaii and its

Volcanoes_ (Honolulu, 1909); Augustin Kramer, _Hawaii, Ostmikronesien

und Samoa_ (Stuttgart, 1906); Sharp, _Fauna_ (London, 1899); Walter

Maxwell, _Lavas and Soils of the Hawaiian Islands_ (Honolulu, 1898);

W. Hillebrand, _Flora of the Hawaiian Islands_ (London, 1888); G. P.

Wilder, _Fruits of the Hawaiian Islands_ (3 vols., Honolulu, 1907); H.

W. Henshaw, _Birds of the Hawaiian Islands_ (Washington, 1902); A.

Fornander, _Account of the Polynesian Race and the Ancient History of

the Hawaiian People to the Times of Kamehameha I._ (3 vols., London,

1878-1885); W. D. Alexander, _A Brief History of the Hawaiian People_

(New York, 1899); C. H. Forbes-Lindsay, _American Insular Possessions_

(Philadelphia, 1906); Jose de Olivares, _Our Islands and their People_

(New York, 1899); J. A. Owen, _Story of Hawaii_ (London, 1898); E. J.

Carpenter, _America in Hawaii_ (Boston, 1899); W. F. Blackman, _The

Making of Hawaii, a Study in Social Evolution_ (New York, 1899), with

bibliography; T. G. Thrum, _Hawaiian Almanac and Annual_ (Honolulu);

Lucien Young, _The Real Hawaii_ (New York, 1899), written by a

lieutenant of the "Boston," an ardent defender of Stevens;

Liliuokalani, _Hawaii's Story_ (Boston, 1898); C. T. Rodgers,

_Education in the Hawaiian Islands_ (Honolulu, 1897); Henry E.

Chambers, _Constitutional History of Hawaii_ (Baltimore, 1896), in

_Johns Hopkins University Studies_; W. Ellis, _Tour Around Hawaii_

(London, 1829); J. J. Jarves, _History of the Sandwich Islands_

(Honolulu, 1847); H. Bingham, _A Residence of Twenty-one Years in the

Sandwich Islands_ (Hartford, 1848); Isabella Bird, _Six Months in the

Sandwich Islands_ (New York, 1881); Adolf Bastian, _Zur Kenntnis

Hawaiis_ (Berlin, 1883); the annual _Reports_ of the governor of

Hawaii, of the Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, of the Hawaiian

Sugar Planters' Experiment Station, of the Board of Commissioners on

Agriculture and Forestry, and of the Hawaii Promotion Committee; and

the _Papers of the Hawaiian Historical Society_.