miscellaneous writer, was born in Paris. At the age of twenty he
published a series of apologetic studies on the _Montagnards_. In later
years he regretted the youthful enthusiasm of these papers, and
endeavoured to destroy the copies. He joined the staff of the
_National_, and was praised by Theophile Gautier as the "tribune" of
romanticism. At that time he seemed to be destined to a political
career, and, indeed, after the revolution of the 24th of February 1848
was elected member of the National Assembly; but close contact with
revolutionary men and ideas gradually cooled his old ardour. Throughout
his life he was an enemy to innovators, not only in politics and
religion, but also in literature. This attitude sometimes led him to
form unjust estimates, but only on very rare occasions, for his
character was as just as his erudition was scrupulous. After the _coup
d'etat_ he resigned his position as director of the MS. department of
the Bibliotheque Nationale, to which he had been appointed in 1848, and
he refused to accept any administrative post until after the fall of the
empire. After having acted as director of the national printing press
from 1870 to 1881, he retired, but in 1893 accepted the post of director
of the Fondation Thiers. He was also a member of the council of
improvement of the Ecole des Chartes. He died on the 29th of April 1896.
For over half a century he was engaged in writing on the religious,
philosophical, and more particularly the literary history of the middle
ages. Appointed librarian of the town of Le Mans in 1838, he was first
attracted by the history of Maine, and in 1843 published the first
volume of his _Histoire litteraire du Maine_ (4 vols., 1843-1852), which
he subsequently recast on a new plan (10 vols., 1870-1877). In 1845 he
brought out an edition of vol. ii. of G. Menage's _Histoire de Sable_.
He then undertook the continuation of the _Gallia Christiana_, and
produced vol. xiv. (1856) for the province of Tours, vol. xv. (1862) for
the province of Besancon, and vol. xvi. (1865-1870) for the province of
Vienne. This important work gained him admission to the Academie des
Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (1862). In the _Notices et extraits des
manuscrits_ he inserted several papers which were afterwards published
separately, with additions and corrections, under the title _Notices et
extraits de quelques manuscrits de la Bibliotheque Nationale_ (6 vols.,
1890-1893). To the _Histoire litteraire de la France_ he contributed a
number of studies, among which must be mentioned that relating to the
sermon-writers (vol. xxvi., 1873), whose works, being often anonymous,
raise many problems of attribution, and, though deficient in originality
of thought and style, reflect the very spirit of the middle ages. Among
his other works mention must be made of his remarkable _Histoire de la
philosophie scolastique_ (1872-1880), extending from the time of
Charlemagne to the 13th century, which was expanded from a paper crowned
by the Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques in 1850; _Les
Melanges poetiques d'Hildebert de Lavardin_ (1882); an edition of the
_Works_ of Hugh of St Victor (1886); a critical study of the Latin poems
attributed to St Bernard (1890); and _Bernard Delicieux et l'inquisition
albigeoise_ (1877). To these must be added his contributions to the
_Dictionnaire des sciences philosophiques_, Didot's _Biographie
generale_, the _Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Chartes_, and the _Journal
des savants_. From the time of his appointment to the Bibliotheque
Nationale up to the last days of his life he was engaged in making
abstracts of all the medieval Latin writings (many anonymous or of
doubtful attribution) relating to philosophy, theology, grammar, canon
law, and poetry, carefully noting on cards the first words of each
passage. After his death this index of _incipits_, arranged
alphabetically, was presented to the Academie des Inscriptions, and a
copy was placed in the MS. department of the Bibliotheque Nationale.
See obituary notice read by Henri Wallon at a meeting of the Academie
des Inscriptions on the 12th of November 1897; and the notice by Paul
Meyer prefixed to vol. xxxiii. of the _Histoire litteraire de la
France_.
HAUSA, sometimes incorrectly written HAUSSA, HOUSSA or HAOUSSA, a people
inhabiting about half a million square miles in the western and central
Sudan from the river Niger in the west to Bornu in the east. Heinrich
Barth identifies them with the Atarantians of Herodotus. According to
their own traditions the earliest home of the race was the divide
between the Sokoto and Chad basins, and more particularly the eastern
watershed, whence they spread gradually westward. In the middle ages, to
which period the first authentic records refer, the Hausa, though never
a conquering race, attained great political power. They were then
divided into seven states known as "Hausa bokoy" ("the seven Hausa") and
named Biram, Daura, Gober, Kano, Rano, Katsena and Zegzeg, after the
sons of their legendary ancestor. This confederation extended its
authority over many of the neighbouring countries, and remained
paramount till the Fula under Sheikh Dan Fodio in 1810 conquered the
Hausa states and founded the Fula empire of Sokoto (see FULA).
The Hausa, who number upwards of 5,000,000, form the most important
nation of the central Sudan. They are undoubtedly nigritic, though in
places with a strong crossing of Fula and Arab blood. Morally and
intellectually they are, however, far superior to the typical Negro.
They are a powerful, heavily built race, with skin as black as most
Negroes, but with lips not so thick nor hair so woolly. They excel in
physical strength. The average Hausa will carry on his head a load of
ninety or a hundred pounds without showing the slightest signs of
fatigue during a long day's march. When carrying their own goods it is
by no means uncommon for them to take double this weight. They are a
peaceful and industrious people, living partly in farmsteads amid their
crops, partly in large trading centres such as Kano, Katsena and Yakoba
(Bauchi). They are extremely intelligent and even cultured, and have
exercised a civilizing effect upon their Fula conquerors to whose
oppressive rule they submitted. They are excellent agriculturists, and,
almost unaided by foreign influence, they have developed a variety of
industries, such as the making of cloth, mats, leather and glass. In
Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast territory they form the backbone of the
military police, and under English leadership have again and again shown
themselves to be admirable fighters and capable of a high degree of
discipline and good conduct. Their food consists chiefly of guinea corn
(_sorghum vulgare_), which is ground up and eaten as a sort of porridge
mixed with large quantities of red pepper. The Hausa attribute their
superiority in strength to the fact that they live on guinea corn
instead of yams and bananas, which form the staple food of the tribes on
the river Niger. The Hausa carried on agriculture chiefly by slave
labour; they are themselves born traders, and as such are to be met with
in almost every part of Africa north of the equator. Small colonies of
them are to be found in towns as far distant from one another as Lagos,
Tunis, Tripoli, Alexandria and Suakin.
_Language._--The Hausa language has a wider range over Africa north of
the equator, south of Barbary and west of the valley of the Nile, than
any other tongue. It is a rich sonorous language, with a vocabulary
containing perhaps 10,000 words. As an example of the richness of the
vocabulary Bishop Crowther mentions that there are eight names for
different parts of the day from cockcrow till after sunset. About a
third of the words are connected with Arabic roots, nor are these such
as the Hausa could well have borrowed in anything like recent times
from the Arabs. Many words representing ideas or things with which
the Hausa must have been familiar from the very earliest time are
obviously connected with Arabic or Semitic roots. There is a certain
amount of resemblance between the Hausa language and that spoken by
the Berbers to the south of Tripoli and Tunis. This language, again,
has several striking points of resemblance with Coptic. If, as seems
likely, the connexion between these three languages should be
demonstrated, such connexion would serve to corroborate the Hausa
tradition that their ancestors came from the very far east away beyond
Mecca. The Hausa language has been reduced to writing for at least a
century, possibly very much longer. It is the only language in
tropical Africa which has been reduced to writing by the natives
themselves, unless the Vai alphabet, introduced by a native inventor
in the interior of Liberia in the first half of the 19th century be
excepted; the character used is a modified form of Arabic. Some
fragments of literature exist, consisting of political and religious
poems, together with a limited amount of native history. A volume,
consisting of history and poems reproduced in facsimile, with
translations, has been published by the Cambridge University Press.
_Religion._--About one-third of the people are professed Mahommedans,
one-third are heathen, and the remainder have apparently no definite
form of religion. Their Mahommedanism dates from the 14th century, but
became more general when the Fula sheikh Dan Fodio initiated the
religious war which ended in the founding of the Fula empire. Ever
since then the ruler of Sokoto has been acknowledged as the religious
head of the whole country, and tribute has been paid to him as such.
The Hausa who profess Mahommedanism are extremely ignorant of their
own faith, and what little religious fanaticism exists is chiefly
confined to the Fula. Large numbers of the Hausa start every year on
the pilgrimage to Mecca, travelling sometimes across the Sahara desert
and by way of Tripoli and Alexandria, sometimes by way of Wadai,
Darfur, Khartum and Suakin. The journey often occupies five or six
years, and is undertaken quite as much from trading as from religious
motives. Mahommedanism is making very slow, if any, progress amongst
the Hausa. The greatest obstacle to its general acceptance is the
institution of the Ramadan fast. In a climate so hot as that of
Hausaland, the obligation to abstain from food and drink from sunrise
to sunset during one month in the year is a serious difficulty. Until
the last decade of the 19th century no important attempt had been made
to introduce Christianity, but the fact that the Hausa are fond of
reading, and that native schools exist in all parts of the country,
should greatly facilitate the work of Christian missionaries.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--El Hage Abd Salam Shabeeny, _Account of Timbuctoo and
Haussa Territories_ (1820); Norris, _Dialogues and part of the New
Testament in the English, Arabic, Haussa and Bornu Languages_ (1853);
Koelle, _Polyglotta Africana_ (1854); Schon, _Grammar of the Hausa
Language_ (London, 1862), _Hausa Reading Book_ (1877), and also _A
Dictionary of the Hausa Language_ (1877). Schon has also produced
Hausa translations of Gen. (1858), Matt. (1857) and Luke (1858).
Heinrich Barth, _Travels in North and Central Africa_ (2 vols.,
London, 1857); _Central-afrikanische Vokabularien_ (Gotha, 1867); C.
H. Robinson, _Hausaland, or Fifteen Hundred Miles through the Central
Soudan_ (1896); _Specimens of Hausa Literature_ (1896); _Hausa
Grammar_ (1897); _Hausa Dictionary_ (1899); P. L. Monteil, _De
St-Louis a Tripoli par le lac Tchad_ (Paris, 1895); Lt. Seymour
Vandeleur, _Campaigning on the Upper Nile and Niger_ (1898).
HAUSER, KASPAR, a German youth whose life was remarkable from the
circumstances of apparently inexplicable mystery in which it was
involved. He appeared on the 26th of May 1828, in the streets of
Nuremberg, dressed in the garb of a peasant, and with such a helpless
and bewildered air that he attracted the attention of the passers-by. In
his possession was found a letter purporting to be written by a poor
labourer, stating that the boy was given into his custody on the 7th of
October 1812, and that according to agreement he had instructed him in
reading, writing, and the Christian religion, but that up to the time
fixed for relinquishing his custody he had kept him in close
confinement. Along with this letter was enclosed another purporting to
be written by the boy's mother, stating that he was born on the 30th of
April 1812, that his name was Kaspar, and that his father, formerly a
cavalry officer in the 6th regiment at Nuremberg, was dead. The
appearance, bearing, and professions of the youth corresponded closely
with these credentials. He showed a repugnance to all nourishment except
bread and water, was seemingly ignorant of outward objects, wrote his
name as Kaspar Hauser, and said that he wished to be a cavalry officer
like his father. For some time he was detained in prison at Nuremberg as
a vagrant, but on the 18th of July 1828 he was delivered over by the
town authorities to the care of a schoolmaster, Professor Daumer, who
undertook to be his guardian and to take the charge of his education.
Further mysteries accumulated about Kaspar's personality and conduct,
not altogether unconnected with the vogue in Germany, at that time, of
"animal magnetism," "somnambulism," and similar theories of the occult
and strange. People associated him with all sorts of possibilities. On
the 17th of October 1829 he was found to have received a wound in the
forehead, which, according to his own statement, had been inflicted on
him by a man with a blackened face. Having on this account been removed
to the house of a magistrate and placed under close surveillance, he was
visited by Earl Stanhope, who became so interested in his history that
he sent him in 1832 to Ansbach to be educated under a certain Dr Meyer.
After this he became clerk in the office of Paul John Anselm von
Feuerbach, president of the court of appeal, who had begun to pay
attention to his case in 1828; and his strange history was almost
forgotten by the public when the interest in it was suddenly revived by
his receiving a deep wound on his left breast, on the 14th of December
1833, and dying from it three or four days afterwards. He affirmed that
the wound was inflicted by a stranger, but many believed it to be the
work of his own hand, and that he did not intend it to be fatal, but
only so severe as to give a sufficient colouring of truth to his story.
The affair created a great sensation, and produced a long literary
agitation. But the whole story remains somewhat mysterious. Lord
Stanhope eventually became decidedly sceptical as to Kaspar's stories,
and ended by being accused of contriving his death!
In 1830 a pamphlet was published at Berlin, entitled _Kaspar Hauser
nicht unwahrscheinlich ein Betruger_; but the truthfulness of his
statements was defended by Daumer, who published _Mitteilungen uber
Kaspar Hauser_ (Nuremberg, 1832), and _Enthullungen uber Kaspar
Hauser_ (Frankfort, 1859); as well as _Kaspar Hauser, sein Wesen,
seine Unschuld_, &c. (Regensburg, 1873), in answer to Meyer's (a son
of Kaspar's tutor) _Authentische Mitteilungen uber Kaspar Hauser_
(Ansbach, 1872). Feuerbach awakened considerable psychological
interest in the case by his pamphlet _Kaspar Hauser, Beispiel eines
Verbrechens am Seelenleben_ (Ansbach, 1832), and Earl Stanhope also
took part in the discussion by publishing _Materialien zur Geschichte
K. Hausers_ (Heidelberg, 1836). The theory of Daumer and Feuerbach and
other pamphleteers (finally presented in 1892 by Miss Elizabeth E.
Evans in her _Story of Kaspar Hauser from Authentic Records_) was that
the youth was the crown prince of Baden, the legitimate son of the
grand-duke Charles of Baden, and that he had been kidnapped at
Karlsruhe in October 1812 by minions of the countess of Hochberg
(morganatic wife of the grand-duke) in order to secure the succession
to her offspring; but this theory was answered in 1875 by the
publication in the Augsburg _Allgemeine Zeitung_ of the official
record of the baptism, post-mortem examination and burial of the heir
supposed to have been kidnapped. See _Kaspar Hauser und sein badisches
Prinzentum_ (Heidelberg, 1876). In 1883 the story was again revived in
a Regensburg pamphlet attacking, among other people, Dr Meyer; and the
sons of the latter, who was dead, brought an action for libel, under
the German law, to which no defence was made; all the copies of the
pamphlet were ordered to be destroyed. The evidence has been subtly
analyzed by Andrew Lang in his _Historical Mysteries_ (1904), with
results unfavourable to the "romantic" version of the story. Lang's
view is that possibly Kaspar was a sort of "ambulatory automatist," an
instance of a phenomenon, known by other cases to students of
psychical abnormalities, of which the characteristics are a mania for
straying away and the persistence of delusions as to identity; but he
inclines to regard Kaspar as simply a "humbug." The "authentic
records" purporting to confirm the kidnapping story Lang stigmatizes
as "worthless and impudent rubbish." The evidence is in any case in
complete confusion.
HAUSMANN, JOHANN FRIEDRICH LUDWIG (1782-1859), German mineralogist, was
born at Hanover on the 22nd of February 1782. He was educated at
Gottingen, where he obtained the degree of Ph.D. After making a
geological tour in Denmark, Norway and Sweden in 1807, he was two years
later placed at the head of a government mining establishment in
Westphalia, and he established a school of mines at Clausthal in the
Harz mountains. In 1811 he was appointed professor of technology and
mining, and afterwards of geology and mineralogy in the university of
Gottingen, and this chair he occupied until a short time before his
death. He was also for many years secretary of the Royal Academy of
Sciences of Gottingen. He published observations on geology and
mineralogy in Spain and Italy as well as in central and northern Europe:
he wrote on gypsum, pyrites, felspar, tachylite, cordierite and on some
eruptive rocks, and he devoted much attention to the crystals developed
during metallurgical processes. He died at Hanover on the 26th of
December 1859.
PUBLICATIONS.--_Grundlinien einer Encyklopadie der
Bergwerkswissenschaften_ (1811); _Reise durch Skandinavien_ (5 vols.,
1811-1818); _Handbuch der Mineralogie_ (3 vols., 1813; 2nd ed.,
1828-1847).
HAUSRATH, ADOLPH (1837-1909), German theologian, was born at Karlsruhe
on the 13th of January 1837 and was educated at Jena, Gottingen, Berlin
and Heidelberg, where he became _Privatdozent_ in 1861, professor
extraordinary in 1867 and ordinary professor in 1872. He was a disciple
of the Tubingen school and a strong Protestant. Among other works he
wrote _Der Apostel Paulus_ (1865), _Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte_
(1868-1873, 4 vols.; Eng. trans.), _D. F. Strauss und die Theologie
seiner Zeit_ (1876-1878, 2 vols.), and lives of _Richard Rothe_ (2 vols.
1902), and _Luther_ (1904). His scholarship was sound and his style
vigorous. Under the pseudonym George Taylor he wrote several historical
romances, especially _Antinous_ (1880), which quickly ran through five
editions, and is the story of a soul "which courted death because the
objective restraints of faith had been lost." _Klytia_ (1883) was a
16th-century story, _Jetta_ (1884) a tale of the great immigrations, and
_Elfriede_ "a romance of the Rhine." He died on the 2nd of August 1909.
HAUSSER, LUDWIG (1818-1867), German historian, was born at Kleeburg, in
Alsace. Studying philology at Heidelberg in 1835, he was led by F. C.
Schlosser to give it up for history, and after continuing his historical
work at Jena and teaching in the gymnasium at Wertheim he made his mark
by his _Die teutschen Geschichtsschreiber vom Anfang des Frankenreichs
bis auf die Hohenstaufen_ (1839). Next year appeared his _Sage von
Tell_. After a short period of study in Paris on the French Revolution,
he spent some time working in the archives of Baden and Bavaria, and
published in 1845 _Die Geschichte der rheinischen Pfalz_, which won for
him a professorship _extraordinarius_ at Heidelberg. In 1850 he became
_professor ordinarius_. Hausser also interested himself in politics
while at Heidelberg, publishing in 1846 _Schleswig-Holstein, Danemark
und Deutschland_, and editing with Gervinus the _Deutsche Zeitung_. In
1848 he was elected to the lower legislative chamber of Baden, and in
1850 advocated the project of union with Prussia at the parliament held
at Erfurt. Another timely work was his edition of Friedrich List's
_Gesammelte Schriften_ (1850), accompanied with a life of the author.
His greatest achievement, and the one on which his fame as an historian
rests, is his _Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen bis
zur Grundung des deutschen Bundes_ (Leipzig, 1854-1857, 4 vols.). This
was the first work covering that period based on a scientific study of
the archival sources. In 1859 he again took part in politics, resuming
his place in the lower chamber, opposing in 1863 the project of Austria
for the reform of the Confederation brought forward in the assembly of
princes at Frankfort, in his book _Die Reform des deutschen
Bundestages_, and becoming one of the leaders of the "little German"
(_kleindeutsche_) party, which advocated the exclusion of Austria from
Germany. In addition to various essays (in his _Gesammelte Schriften_,
Berlin, 1869-1870, 2 vols.), Hausser's lectures have been edited by W.
Oncken in the _Geschichte des Zeitalters der Reformation_ (1869, 2nd ed.
1880), and _Geschichte der franzosischen Revolution_ (1869, 2nd ed.
1870). These lectures reveal all the charm of style and directness of
presentation which made Hausser's work as a professor so vital.
See W. Wattenbach, _Lud. Hausser, ein Vortrag_ (Heidelberg, 1867).
HAUSSMANN, GEORGES EUGENE, BARON (1809-1891), whose name is associated
with the rebuilding of Paris, was born in that city on the 27th of March
1809 of a Protestant family, German in origin. He was educated at the
College Henri IV, and subsequently studied law, attending simultaneously
the classes at the Paris conservatoire of music, for he was a good
musician. He became sous-prefet of Nerac in 1830, and advanced rapidly
in the civil service until in 1853 he was chosen by Persigny prefect of
the Seine in succession to Jean Jacques Berger, who hesitated to incur
the vast expenses of the imperial schemes for the embellishment of
Paris. Haussmann laid out the Bois de Boulogne, and made extensive
improvements in the smaller parks. The gardens of the Luxembourg Palace
were cut down to allow of the formation of new streets, and the
Boulevard de Sebastopol, the southern half of which is now the Boulevard
St Michel, was driven through a populous district. A new water supply, a
gigantic system of sewers, new bridges, the opera, and other public
buildings, the inclusion of outlying districts--these were among the new
prefect's achievements, accomplished by the aid of a bold handling of
the public funds which called forth Jules Ferry's indictment, _Les
Comptes fantastiques de Haussmann_, in 1867. A loan of 250 million
francs was sanctioned for the city of Paris in 1865, and another of 260
million in 1869. These sums represented only part of his financial
schemes, which led to his dismissal by the government of Emile Ollivier.
After the fall of the Empire he spent about a year abroad, but he
re-entered public life in 1877, when he became Bonapartist deputy for
Ajaccio. He died in Paris on the 11th of January 1891. Haussmann had
been made senator in 1857, member of the Academy of Fine Arts in 1867,
and grand cross of the Legion of Honour in 1862. His name is preserved
in the Boulevard Haussmann. His later years were occupied with the
preparation of his _Memoires_ (3 vols., 1890-1893).
HAUSSONVILLE, JOSEPH OTHENIN BERNARD DE CLERON, COMTE D' (1809-1884),
French politician and historian, was born in Paris on the 27th of May
1809. His grandfather had been "grand louvetier" of France; his father
Charles Louis Bernard de Cleron, comte d'Haussonville (1770-1846), was
chamberlain at the court of Napoleon, a count of the French empire, and
under the Restoration a peer of France and an opponent of the Villele
ministry. Comte Joseph had filled a series of diplomatic appointments at
Brussels, Turin and Naples before he entered the chamber of deputies in
1842 for Provins. Under the Second Empire he published a liberal
anti-imperial paper at Brussels, _Le Bulletin francais_, and in 1863 he
actively supported the candidature of Prevost Paradol. He was elected to
the French Academy in 1869, in recognition of his historical writings,
_Histoire de la politique exterieure du gouvernement francais de 1830 a
1848_ (2 vols., 1850), _Histoire de la reunion de la Lorraine a la
France_ (4 vols., 1854-1859), _L'Eglise romaine et le premier empire
1800-1814_ (5 vols., 1864-1879). In 1870 he published a pamphlet
directed against the Prussian treatment of France, _La France et la
Prusse devant l'Europe_, the sale of which was prohibited in Belgium at
the request of King William of Prussia. He was the president of an
association formed to provide new homes in Algeria for the inhabitants
of Alsace-Lorraine who elected to retain their French nationality. In
1878 he was made a life-senator, in which capacity he allied himself
with the Right Centre in defence of the religious associations against
the anti-clericals. He died in Paris on the 28th of May 1884.
His wife Louise (1818-1882), a daughter of Duc Victor de Broglie,
published in 1858 a novel _Robert Emmet_, followed by _Marguerite de
Valois reine de Navarre_ (1870), _La Jeunesse de Lord Byron_ (1872), and
_Les Dernieres Annees de Lord Byron_ (1874).
His son, GABRIEL PAUL OTHERIN DE CLERON, comte d'Haussonville, was born
at Gurcy de Chatel (Seine-et-Marne) on the 21st of September 1843, and
married in 1865 Mlle Pauline d'Harcourt. He represented Seine-et-Marne
in the National Assembly (1871) and voted with the Right Centre. Though
he was not elected to the chamber of deputies he became the right-hand
man of his maternal uncle, the duc de Broglie, in the attempted coup of
the 16th of May. His _Etablissements penitentiaires en France et aux
colonies_ (1875) was crowned by the Academy, of which he was admitted a
member in 1888. In 1891 the resignation of Henri Edouard Bocher from the
administration of the Orleans estates led to the appointment of M
d'Haussonville as accredited representative of the comte de Paris in
France. He at once set to work to strengthen the Orleanist party by
recruiting from the smaller nobility the officials of the local
monarchical committees. He established new Orleanist organs, and sent
out lecturers with instructions to emphasize the modern and democratic
principles of the comte de Paris; but the prospects of the party were
dashed in 1894 by the death of the comte de Paris. In 1904 he was
admitted to the Academy of Moral and Political Science. The comte
d'Haussonville published:--_C. A. Sainte-Beuve, sa vie et ses oeuvres_
(1875), _Etudes biographiques et litteraires_, 2 series (1879 and 1888),
_Le Salon de Mme Necker_ (1882, 2 vols.), _Madame de La Fayette_ (1891),
_Madame Ackermann_ (1892), _Le Comte de Paris, souvenirs personnels_
(1895), _La Duchesse de Bourgogne et l'alliance savoyarde_ (1898-1903),
_Salaire et miseres de femme_ (1900), and, with G. Hanotaux, _Souvenirs
sur Madame de Maintenon_ (3 vols., 1902-1904).
HAUTE-GARONNE, a frontier department of south-western France, formed in
1790 from portions of the provinces of Languedoc (Toulousain and
Lauraguais) and Gascony (Comminges and Nebouzan). Pop. (1906), 442,065.
Area, 2458 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the department of Tarn-et-Garonne,
E. by Tarn, Aude and Ariege, S. by Spain and W. by Gers and
Hautes-Pyrenees. Long and narrow in shape, the department consists in the
north of an undulating stretch of country with continual interchange of
hill and valley nowhere thrown into striking relief; while towards the
south the land rises gradually to the Pyrenees, which on the Spanish
border attain heights of upwards of 10,000 ft. Two passes, the Port d'Oo,
near the beautiful lake and waterfall of Oo, and the Port de Venasque,
exceed 9800 and 7900 ft. in altitude respectively. Entering the
department in the south-east, the Garonne flows in a northerly direction
and traverses almost its entire length, receiving in its course the
Pique, the Salat, the Louge, the Ariege, the Touch and the Save. Except
in the mountainous region the climate is mild, the mean annual
temperature being rather higher than that of Paris. The rainfall, which
averages 24 in. at Toulouse, exceeds 40 in. in some parts of the
mountains; and sudden and destructive inundations of the Garonne--of
which that of 1875 is a celebrated example--are always to be feared. The
valley of the Garonne is also frequently visited by severe hail-storms.
Thick forests of oak, fir and pine exist in the mountains and furnish
timber for shipbuilding. The arable land of the plains and valleys is
well adapted for the cultivation of wheat, maize and other grain crops;
and the produce of cereals is generally much more than is required for
the local consumption. Market-gardening flourishes around Toulouse. A
large area is occupied by vineyards, though the wine is only of medium
quality; and chestnuts, apples and peaches are grown. As pasture land is
abundant a good deal of attention is given to the rearing of cattle and
sheep, and co-operative dairies are numerous in the mountains; but
deforestation has tended to reduce the area of pasture-land, because the
soil, unretained by the roots of trees, has been gradually washed away.
Haute-Garonne has deposits of zinc and lead, and salt-workings; there is
an ancient and active marble-working industry at St Beat. Mineral springs
are common, those of Bagneres-de-Luchon Encausse, Barbazan and
Salies-du-Salat being well known. The manufactures are various though not
individually extensive, and include iron and copper goods, woollen,
cotton and linen goods, leather, paper, boots and shoes, tobacco and
table delicacies. Flour-mills, iron-works and brick-works are numerous.
Railway communication is furnished by the Southern and the Orleans
railways, the main line of the former from Bordeaux to Cette passing
through Toulouse. The Canal du Midi traverses the department for 32 m.
and the lateral canal of the Garonne for 15 m. The Garonne is navigable
below its confluence with the Salat. There are four
arrondissements--Toulouse, Villefranche, Muret and St Gaudens, subdivided
into 39 cantons and 588 communes. The chief town is Toulouse, which is
the seat of a court of appeal and of an archbishop, the headquarters of
the XVIIth army corps and the centre of an academy; and St Gaudens,
Bagneres-de-Luchon and, from an architectural and historical standpoint,
St Bertrand-de-Comminges are of importance and receive separate
treatment. Other places of interest are St Aventin, Montsaunes and
Venerque, which possess ancient churches in the Romanesque style. The
church of St Just at Valcabrere is of still greater age, the choir dating
from the 8th or 9th century and part of the nave from the 11th century.
There are ruins of a celebrated Cistercian abbey at Bonnefont near St
Martory. Gallo-Roman remains and works of art have been discovered at
Martres. Near Revel is the fine reservoir of St Ferreol, constructed for
the canal du Midi in the 17th century.
HAUTE-LOIRE, a department of central France, formed in 1790 of Velay and
portions of Vivarais and Gevaudan, three districts formerly belonging to
the old province of Languedoc, of a portion of Forez formerly belonging
to Lyonnais, and a portion of lower Auvergne. Pop. (1906), 314,770.
Area, 1931 sq. m. It is bounded N. by Puy-de-Dome and Loire, E. by Loire
and Ardeche, S. by Ardeche and Lozere and W. by Lozere and Cantal.
Haute-Loire, which is situated on the central plateau of France, is
traversed from north to south by four mountain ranges. Its highest
point, the Mont Mezenc (5755 ft.), in the south-east of the department,
belongs to the mountains of Vivarais, which are continued along the
eastern border by the Boutieres chain. The Lignon divides the Boutieres
from the Massif du Megal, which is separated by the Loire itself from
the mountains of Velay, a granitic range overlaid with the eruptions of
more than one hundred and fifty craters. The Margeride mountains run
along the western border of the department. The Loire enters the
department at a point 16 m. distant from its source in Ardeche, and
first flowing northwards and then north-east, waters its eastern half.
The Allier, which joins the Loire at Nevers, traverses the western
portion of Haute-Loire in a northerly direction. The chief affluents of
the Loire within the limits of the department are the Borne on the left,
joining it near Le Puy, and the Lignon, which descends from the Mezenc,
between the Boutieres and Megal ranges, on the right. The climate, owing
to the altitude, the northward direction of the valleys, and the winds
from the Cevennes, is cold, the winters being long and rigorous. Storms
and violent rains are frequent on the higher grounds, and would give
rise to serious inundations were not the rivers for the most part
confined within deep rocky channels. Cereals, chiefly rye, oats, barley
and wheat, are cultivated in the lowlands and on the plateaus, on which
aromatic and medicinal plants are abundant. Lentils, peas,
mangel-wurzels and other forage and potatoes are also grown. Horned
cattle belong principally to the Mezenc breed; goats are numerous. The
woods yield pine, fir, oak and beech. Lace-making, which employs about
90,000 women, and coal-mining are main industries; the coal basins are
those of Brassac and Langeac. There are also mines of antimony and
stone-quarries. Silk-milling, caoutchouc-making, various kinds of
smith's work, paper-making, glass-blowing, brewing, wood-sawing and
flour-milling are also carried on. The principal imports are flour,
brandy, wine, live-stock, lace-thread and agricultural implements.
Exports include fat stock, wool, aromatic plants, coal, lace. The
department is served chiefly by the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee company.
There are three arrondissements--Le Puy, Brioude and Yssingeaux, with 28
cantons and 265 communes.
Haute-Loire forms the diocese of Le Puy and part of the ecclesiastical
province of Bourges, and belongs to the academie (educational division)
of Clermont-Ferrand. Its court of appeal is at Riom. Le Puy the capital,
Brioude and La Chaise-Dieu the principal towns of the department,
receive separate treatment. It has some notable churches, of which those
of Chamalieres, St Paulien and Sainte-Marie-des-Chazes are Romanesque in
style; Le Monastier preserves the church, in part Romanesque, and the
buildings of the abbey to which it owes its origin. Arlempdes and
Bouzols (near Coubon) have the ruins of large feudal chateaus. The rocky
plateau overlooking Polignac is occupied by the ruins of the imposing
stronghold of the ancient family of Polignac, including a square donjon
of the 14th century. Interesting Gallo-Roman remains have been found on
the site.
HAUTE-MARNE, a department of north-eastern France, made up for the most
part of districts belonging to the former province of Champagne
(Bassigny, Perthois, Vallage), with smaller portions of Lorraine and
Burgundy, and some fragments of Franche-Comte. Area, 2415 sq. m. Pop.
(1906), 221,724. It is bounded N.E. by Meuse, E. by Vosges, S.E. by
Haute-Saone, S. and S.W. by Cote d'Or, W. by Aube, and N.W. by Marne.
Its greatest elevation (1693 ft.) is in the plateau of Langres in the
south between the sources of the Marne and those of the Aube; the
watershed between the basin of the Rhone on the south and those of the
Seine and Meuse on the north, which is formed by the plateau of Langres
continued north-east by the Monts Faucilles, has an average height of
1500 or 1600 ft. The country descends rapidly towards the south, but in
very gentle slopes northwards. To the north is Bassigny (the paybas or
low country, as distinguished from the highlands), a district
characterized by monotonous flats of little fertility and extensive
wooded tracts. The lowest level of the department is 361 ft.
Hydrographically Haute-Marne belongs for the most part to the basin of
the Seine, the remainder to those of the Rhone and the Meuse. The
principal river is the Marne, which rises here, and has a course of 75
m. within the department. Among its more important affluents are, on the
right the Rognon, and on the left the Blaise. The Saulx, another
tributary of the Marne on the right, also rises in Haute-Marne. Westward
the department is watered by the Aube and its tributary the Aujon, both
of which have their sources on the plateau of Langres. The Meuse also
rises in the Monts Faucilles, and has a course of 31 m. within the
department. On the Mediterranean side the department sends to the Saone
the Apance, the Amance, the Salon and the Vingeanne. The climate is
partly that of the Seine region, partly that of the Vosges, and partly
that of the Rhone; the mean temperature is 51 deg. F., nearly that of
Paris; the rainfall is slightly below the average for France.
The agriculture of the department is carried on chiefly by small
proprietors. The chief crops are wheat and oats, which are more than
sufficient for the needs of the inhabitants; potatoes, lucerne and
mangel-wurzels are next in importance. Natural pasture is abundant,
especially in Bassigny, where horse and cattle-raising flourish. The
vineyards produce some fair wines, notably the white wine of Soyers.
More than a quarter of the territory is under wood. The department is
rich in iron and building and other varieties of stone are quarried. The
warm springs of Bourbonne-les-Bains are among the earliest known and
most frequented in France. The leading industry is the metallurgical;
its establishments include blast furnaces, foundries, forges,
plate-rolling works, and shops for nailmaking and smith's work of
various descriptions. St Dizier is the chief centre of manufacture and
distribution. The cutlery trade occupies thousands of hands at
Nogent-en-Bassigny and in the neighbourhood of Langres. Val d'Osne is
well known for its production of fountains, statues, &c., in metal-work.
Flour-milling, glove-making (at Chaumont), basket-making, brewing,
tanning and other industries are also carried on. The principal import
is coal, while manufactured goods, iron, stone, wood and cereals are
exported. The department is served by the Eastern railway, of which the
line from Paris to Belfort passes through Chaumont and Langres. The
canal from the Marne to the Saone and the canal of the Haute-Marne,
which accompany the Marne, together cover 99 m.; there is a canal 14 m.
long from St Dizier to Wassy. There are three arrondissements (Chaumont,
Langres and Wassy), with 28 cantons and 550 communes. Chaumont is the
capital. The department forms the diocese of Langres; it belongs to the
VII. military region and to the educational circumscription (academie)
of Dijon, where also is its court of appeal. The principal
towns--Chaumont, Langres, St Dizier and Bourbonne-les-Bains--receive
separate notice. At Montier-en-Der the remains of an abbey founded in
the 7th century include a fine church with nave and aisles of the 10th,
and choir of the 13th century. Wassy, the scene in 1562 of the
celebrated massacre of Protestants by the troops of Francis, duke of
Guise, has among its old buildings a church much of which dates from the
Romanesque period. Vignory has a church of the 11th century. Joinville,
a metallurgical centre, preserves a chateau of the dukes of Guise in the
Renaissance style. Pailly, near Langres, has a fine chateau of the last
half of the 16th century.
HAUTERIVE, ALEXANDRE MAURICE BLANC DE LANAUTTE, COMTE D' (1754-1830),
French statesman and diplomatist, was born at Aspres (Hautes-Alpes) on
the 14th of April 1754, and was educated at Grenoble, where he became a
professor. Later he held a similar position at Tours, and there he
attracted the attention of the duc de Choiseul, who invited him to visit
him at Chanteloup. Hauterive thus came in contact with the great men who
visited the duke, and one of these, the comte de Choiseul-Goiffier, on
his appointment as ambassador to Constantinople in 1784 took him with
him. Hauterive was enriched for a time by his marriage with a widow,
Madame de Marchais, but was ruined by the Revolution. In 1790 he applied
for and received the post of consul at New York. Under the Consulate,
however, he was accused of embezzlement and recalled; and, though the
charge was proved to be false, was not reinstated. In 1798, after trying
his hand at farming in America, Hauterive was appointed to a post in the
French foreign office. In this capacity he made a sensation by his
_L'Etat de la France a la fin de l'an VIII_ (1800), which he had been
commissioned by Bonaparte to draw up, as a manifesto to foreign nations,
after the _coup d'etat_ of the 18th Brumaire. This won him the
confidence of Bonaparte, and he was henceforth employed in drawing up
many of the more important documents. In 1805 he was made a councillor
of state and member of the Legion of Honour, and between 1805 and 1813
he was more than once temporarily minister of foreign affairs. He
attempted, though vainly, to use his influence to moderate Napoleon's
policy, especially in the matter of Spain and the treatment of the pope.
In 1805 a difference of opinion with Talleyrand on the question of the
Austrian alliance, which Hauterive favoured, led to his withdrawal from
the political side of the ministry of foreign affairs, and he was
appointed keeper of the archives of the same department. In this
capacity he did very useful work, and after the Restoration continued in
this post at the request of the duc de Richelieu, his work being
recognized by his election as a member of the Academie des Inscriptions
et Belles-Lettres in 1820. He died at Paris on the 28th of July 1830.
There is a detailed account of Hauterive, with considerable extracts
from his correspondence with Talleyrand, in the _Biographie
universelle_ by A. F. Artand de Montor, who published a separate life
in 1831. Criticisms of his _Etat de la France_ appeared in Germany and
England by F. von Gentz (_Von dem politischen Zustande_, 1801), and by
T. B. Clarke (_A Hist. and Pol. View ..._, 1803).
HAUTES ALPES, a department in S.E. France, formed in 1790 out of the
south-eastern portion of the old province of Dauphine, together with a
small part of N. Provence. It is bounded N. by the department of Savoie,
E. by Italy and the department of the Basses Alpes, S. by the last-named
department and that of the Drome, and W. by the departments of the Drome
and of the Isere. Its area is 2178 sq. m., its greatest length is 85 m.
and its greatest breadth 62 m. It is very mountainous, and includes the
Pointe des Ecrins (13,462 ft.), the loftiest summit in France before the
annexation of Savoy in 1860, as well as the Meije (13,081 ft.), the
Ailefroide (12,989 ft.) and the Mont Pelvoux (12,973 ft.), though Monte
Viso (12,609 ft.) is wholly in Italy, rising just over the border. The
department is to a large extent made up of the basins of the upper
Durance (with its tributaries, the Guisane, the Gyronde and the Guil),
of the upper Drac and of the Buech--all being to a very large extent
wild mountain torrents in their upper course. The department is divided
into three arrondissements (Gap, Briancon and Embrun), 24 cantons and
186 communes. In 1906 its population was 107,498. It is a very poor
department owing to its great elevation above the sea-level. There are
no industries of any extent, and its commerce is almost wholly of local
importance. The prolonged winter greatly hinders agricultural
development, while the pastoral region has been greatly damaged and the
forests destroyed by the ravages of the Provencal sheep, vast flocks of
which are driven up here in the summer, as the pastures are leased out
to a large extent, and but little utilized by the inhabitants. It now
forms the diocese of Gap (this see is first certainly mentioned in the
6th century), which is in the ecclesiastical province of Aix en
Provence; in 1791 there was annexed to it the archiepiscopal see of
Embrun, which was then suppressed. There are 114 m. of railway in the
department. This includes the main line from Briancon past Gap towards
Grenoble. About 16(1/2) m. W. of Gap is the important railway junction of
Veynes, whence branch off the lines to Grenoble, to Valence by Die and
Livron, and to Sisteron for Marseilles. The chief town is Gap, while
Briancon and Embrun are the only other important places.
See J. Roman, _Dictionnaire topographique du dep. des Htes-Alpes_
(Paris, 1884), _Tableau historique du dep. des Htes-Alpes_ (Paris,
1887-1890, 2 vols.), and _Repertoire archeologique du dep. des
Htes-Alpes_(Paris, 1888); J. C. F. Ladoucette, _Histoire, topographie,
&c., des Hautes-Alpes_ (3rd ed., Paris, 1848). (W. A. B. C.)
HAUTE-SAONE, a department of eastern France, formed in 1790 from the
northern portion of Franche Comte. It is traversed by the river Saone,
bounded N. by the department of the Vosges, E. by the territory of
Belfort, S. by Doubs and Jura, and W. by Cote-d'Or and Haute-Marne. Pop.
(1906), 263,890; area, 2075 sq. m. On the north-east, where they are
formed by the Vosges, and to the south along the course of the Ognon the
limits are natural. The highest point of the department is the Ballon de
Servance (3970 ft.), and the lowest the confluence of the Saone and
Ognon (610 ft.). The general slope is from north-east to south-west, the
direction followed by those two streams. In the north-east the
department belongs to the Vosgian formation, consisting of forest-clad
mountains of sandstone and granite, and is of a marshy nature; but
throughout the greater part of its extent it is composed of limestone
plateaus 800 to 1000 ft. high pierced with crevasses and subterranean
caves, into which the rain water disappears to issue again as springs in
the valleys 200 ft. lower down. In its passage through the department
the Saone receives from the right the Amance and the Salon from the
Langres plateau, and from the left the Coney, the Lanterne (augmented by
the Breuchin which passes by Luxeuil), the Durgeon (passing Vesoul), and
the Ognon. The north-eastern districts are cold and have an annual
rainfall ranging from 36 to 48 in. Towards the south-west the climate
becomes more temperate. At Vesoul and Gray the rainfall only reaches 24
in. per annum.
Haute-Saone is primarily agricultural. Of its total area nearly half is
arable land; wheat, oats, meslin and rye are the chief cereals and
potatoes are largely grown. The vine flourishes mainly in the
arrondissement of Gray. Apples, plums and cherries (from which the
kirsch, for which the department is famous, is distilled) are the chief
fruits. The woods which cover a quarter of the department are composed
mainly of firs in the Vosges and of oak, beech, hornbeam and aspen in
the other districts. The river-valleys furnish good pasture for the
rearing of horses and of horned cattle. The department possesses mines
of coal (at Ronchamp) and rock-salt (at Gouhenans) and stone quarries
are worked. Of the many mineral waters of Haute-Saone the best known are
the hot springs of Luxeuil (q.v.). Besides iron-working establishments
(smelting furnaces, foundries and wire-drawing mills), Haute-Saone
possesses copper-foundries, engineering works, steel-foundries and
factories at Plancher-les-Mines and elsewhere for producing ironmongery,
nails, pins, files, saws, screws, shot, chains, agricultural implements,
locks, spinning machinery, edge tools. Window-glass and glass wares,
pottery and earthenware are manufactured; there are also brick and
tile-works. The spinning and weaving of cotton, of which Hericourt (pop.
in 1906, 5194) is the chief centre, stand next in importance to metal
working, and there are numerous paper-mills. Print-works, fulling mills,
hosiery factories and straw-hat factories are also of some account; as
well as sugar works, distilleries, dye-works, saw-mills, starch-works,
the chemical works at Gouhenans, oil-mills, tanyards and flour-mills.
The department exports wheat, cattle, cheese, butter, iron, wood,
pottery, kirschwasser, plaster, leather, glass, &c. The Saone provides a
navigable channel of about 70 m., which is connected with the Moselle
and the Meuse at Corre by the Canal de l'Est along the valley of the
Coney. Gray is the chief emporium of the water-borne trade of the Saone.
Haute-Saone is served chiefly by the Eastern railway. There are three
arrondissements--Vesoul, Gray, Lure--comprising 28 cantons, 583
communes. Haute-Saone is in the district of the VII. army corps, and in
its legal, ecclesiastical and educational relations depends on Besancon.
Vesoul, the capital of the department, Gray and Luxeuil are the
principal towns. There is an important school of agriculture at St Remy
in the arrondissement of Vesoul. The Roman ruins and mosaics at Membrey
in the arrondissement of Gray and the church (13th and 15th centuries)
and abbey buildings at Faverney, in the arrondissement of Vesoul, are of
antiquarian interest.
HAUTE-SAVOIE, a frontier department of France, formed in 1860 of the old
provinces of the Genevois, the Chablais and the Faucigny, which
constituted the northern portion of the duchy of Savoy. It is bounded N.
by the canton and Lake of Geneva, E. by the Swiss canton of the Valais,
S. by Italy and the department of Savoie, and W. by the department of
the Ain. It is mainly made up of the river-basins of the Arve (flowing
along the northern foot of the Mont Blanc range, and receiving the
Giffre, on the right, and the Borne and Foron, on the left--the Arve
joins the Rhone, close to Geneva), of the Dranse (with several branches,
all flowing into the Lake of Geneva), of the Usses and of the Fier (both
flowing direct into the Rhone, the latter after forming the Lake of
Annecy). The upper course of the Arly is also in the department, but the
river then leaves it to fall into the Isere. The whole of the department
is mountainous. But the hills attain no very great height, save at its
south-east end, where rises the snowclad chain of Mont Blanc, with many
high peaks (culminating in Mont Blanc, 15,782 ft.) and many glaciers.
That portion of the department is alone frequented by travellers, whose
centre is Chamonix in the upper Arve valley. The lowest point (945 ft.)
in the department is at the junction of the Fier with the Rhone. The
whole of the department is included in that portion of the duchy of
Savoy which was neutralized in 1815. In 1906 the population of the
department was 260,617. Its area is 1775 sq. m., and it is divided into
four arrondissements (Annecy, the chief town, Bonneville, St Julien and
Thonon), 28 cantons and 314 communes. It forms the diocese of Annecy.
There are in the department 176 m. of broad-gauge railways, and 70 m. of
narrow-gauge lines. There are also a number of mineral springs, only
three of which are known to foreigners--the chalybeate waters of Evian
and Amphion, close to each other on the south shore of the Lake of
Geneva, and the chalybeate and sulphurous waters of St Gervais, at the
north-west end of the chain of Mont Blanc. Anthracite and asphalte mines
are numerous, as well as stone quarries. Cotton is manufactured at
Annecy, while Cluses is the centre of the clock-making industry. There
is a well-known bell foundry at Annecy le Vieux. Thonon (the old capital
of the Chablais) is the most important town on the southern shore of the
Lake of Geneva and, after Annecy, the most populous place in the
department. (W. A. B. C.)
HAUTES-PYRENEES, a department of south-western France, on the Spanish
frontier, formed in 1790, half of it being taken from Bigorre and the
remainder from Armagnac, Nebouzan, Astarac and Quatre Vallees, districts
which all belonged to the province of Gascony. Pop. (1906), 209,397.
Area, 1750 sq. m. Hautes-Pyrenees is bounded S. by Spain, W. by the
department of Basses-Pyrenees (which encloses on its eastern border five
communes belonging to Hautes-Pyrenees), N. by Gers and E. by
Haute-Garonne. Except on the south its boundaries are conventional. The
south of the department, comprising two-thirds of its area, is occupied
by the central Pyrenees. Some of the peaks reach or exceed the height of
10,000 ft., the Vignemale (10,820 ft.) being the highest in the French
Pyrenees. The imposing _cirques_ (Cirques de Troumouse, Gavarnie and
Estaube), with their glaciers and waterfalls, and the pleasant valleys
attract a large number of tourists, the most noted point being the
Cirque de Gavarnie. The northern portion of the department is a region
of plains and undulating hills clothed with cornfields, vineyards and
meadows. To the north-east, however, the cold and wind-swept plateau of
Lannemezan (about 2000 ft.), the watershed of the streams that come down
on the French side of the Pyrenees, presents in its bleakness and
barrenness a striking contrast to the plain that lies below. The
department is drained by three principal streams, the Gave de Pau, the
Adour and the Neste, an affluent of the Garonne. The sources of the
first and third lie close together in the Cirque of Gavarnie and on the
slopes of Troumouse, whence they flow respectively to the north-west and
north-east. An important section of the Pyrenees, which carries the
Massif Neouvielle and the Pic du Midi de Bigorre (with its
meteorological observatory), runs northward between these two valleys.
From the Pic du Midi descends the Adour, which, after watering the
pleasant valley of Campan, leaves the mountains at Bagneres and then
divides into a multitude of channels, to irrigate the rich plain of
Tarbes. The chief of these is the Canal d'Alaric with a length of 36 m.
Beyond Hautes-Pyrenees it receives on the right the Arros, which flows
through the department from south to north-northwest; on the left it
receives the Gave de Pau. This latter stream, rising in Gavarnie, is
joined at Luz by the Gave de Bastan from Neouvielle, and at Pierrefitte
by the Gave de Cauterets, fed by streams from the Vignemale. The Gave de
Pau, after passing Argeles, a well-known centre for excursions, and
Lourdes, leaves the mountains and turns sharply from north to west; it
has a greater volume of water than the Adour, but, being more of a
mountain torrent, is regarded as a tributary of the Adour, which is
navigable in the latter part of its course. The Neste d'Aure, descending
from the peaks of Neouvielle and Troumouse, receives at Arreau the Neste
de Louron from the pass of Clarabide and flows northwards through a
beautiful valley as far as La Barthe, where it turns east; it is
important as furnishing the plateau of Lannemezan with a canal, the
Canal de la Neste, the waters of which are partly used for irrigation
and partly for supplying the streams that rise there and are dried up in
summer--the Gers and the Baise, affluents of the Garonne. This latter
only touches the department. The climate of Hautes-Pyrenees, though very
cold on the highlands, is warm and moist in the plains, where there are
hot summers, fine autumns, mild winters and rainy springs. On the
plateau of Lannemezan, while the summers are dry and scorching, the
winters are very severe. The average annual rainfall at Tarbes, in the
north of the department, is about 34 in.; at the higher altitudes it is
much greater. The mean annual temperature at Tarbes is 59 deg. Fahr.
Hautes-Pyrenees is agricultural in the plains, pastoral in the
highlands. The more important cereals are wheat and maize, which is much
used for the feeding of pigs and poultry, especially geese; rye, oats
and barley are grown in the mountain districts. The wines of Madiran and
Peyriguere are well known and tobacco is also cultivated; chestnut trees
and fruit trees are grown on the lower slopes. In the neighbourhood of
Tarbes and Bagneres-de-Bigorre horse-breeding is the principal
occupation and there is a famous stud at Tarbes. The horse of the region
is the result of a fusion of Arab, English and Navarrese blood and is
well fitted for saddle and harness; it is largely used by light cavalry
regiments. Cattle raising is important; the milch-cows of Lourdes and
the oxen of Tarbes and the valley of the Aure are highly esteemed. Sheep
and goats are also reared. The forests, which occur chiefly in the
highlands, contain bears, boars, wolves and other wild animals. There
are at Campan and Sarrancolin quarries of fine marble, which is sawn and
worked at Bagneres. There is a group of slate quarries at Labassere.
Deposits of lignite, lead, manganese and zinc are found. The mineral
springs of Hautes-Pyrenees are numerous and much visited. The principal
in the valley of the Gave de Pau are Cauterets (hot springs containing
sulphur and sodium), St Sauveur (springs with sulphur and sodium), and
Bareges (hot springs with sulphur and sodium), and in the valley of the
Adour Bagneres (hot or cold springs containing calcium sulphates, iron,
sulphur and sodium) and Capvern near Lannemezan (springs containing
calcium sulphates).
The department has flour-mills and saw-mills, a large military arsenal
at Tarbes, paper-mills, tanneries and manufactories of agricultural
implements and looms. The spinning and weaving of wool and the
manufacture of knitted goods are carried on; Bagneres-de-Bigorre is the
chief centre of the textile industry.
Of the passes (_ports_) into Spain, even the chief, Gavarnie (7398 ft.),
is not accessible to carriages. The department is served by the Southern
railway and is traversed from west to east by the main line from Bayonne
to Toulouse. There are three arrondissements, those of Tarbes, Argeles
and Bagneres-de-Bigorre, 26 cantons and 480 communes. Tarbes is the
capital of Hautes-Pyrenees, which constitutes the diocese of Tarbes, and
is attached to the appeal court of Pau; it forms part of the region of
the XVIII. army corps. In educational matters it falls within the
circumscription of the academie of Toulouse. Tarbes, Lourdes,
Bagneres-de-Bigorre and Luz-St Sauveur are the principal towns. St
Savin, in the valley of the Gave de Pau, and Sarrancolin have
interesting Romanesque churches. The church of Maubourguet built by the
Templars in the 12th century is also remarkable.
HAUTE-VIENNE, a department of central France, formed in 1790 of
Haut-Limousin and of portions of Marche, Poitou and Berry. Pop. (1906),
385,732. Area, 2144 sq. m. It is bounded N. by Indre, E. by Creuse, S.E.
by Correze, S.W. by Dordogne, W. by Charente and N.W. by Vienne.
Haute-Vienne belongs to the central plateau of France, and drains partly
to the Loire and partly to the Garonne. The highest altitude (2549 ft.)
is in the extreme south-east, and belongs to the treeless but
well-watered plateau of Millevaches, formed of granite, gneiss and mica.
From that point the department slopes towards the west, south-west and
north. To the north-west of the Millevaches are the Ambazac and Blond
Hills, both separating the valley of the Vienne from that of the
Gartempe, a tributary of the Creuse. The Vienne traverses the department
from east to west, passing Eymoutiers, St Leonard, Limoges and St
Junien, and receiving on the right the Maude and the Taurion. The Isle,
which flows into the Dordogne, with its tributaries the Auvezere and the
Dronne, and the Tardoire and the Bandiat, tributaries of the Charente,
all rise in the south of the department. The altitude and inland
position of Haute-Vienne, its geological character, and the northern
exposure of its valleys make the winters long and severe; but the
climate is milder in the west and north-west. The annual rainfall often
reaches 36 or 37 in. and even more in the mountains. Haute-Vienne is on
the whole unproductive. Rye, wheat, buckwheat and oats are the cereals
most grown, but the chestnut, which is a characteristic product of the
department, still forms the staple food of large numbers of the
population. Potatoes, mangolds, hemp and colza are cultivated. After the
chestnut, walnuts and cider-apples are the principal fruits. Good breeds
of horned cattle and sheep are reared and find a ready market in Paris.
Horses for remount purposes are also raised. The quarries furnish
granite and large quantities of kaolin, which is both exported and used
in the porcelain works of the department. Amianthus, emeralds and
garnets are found. Limoges is the centre of the porcelain industry and
has important liqueur distilleries. Woollen goods, starch, paper and
pasteboard, wooden and leather shoes, gloves, agricultural implements
and hats are other industrial products, and there are flour-mills,
breweries, dye-works, tanneries, iron foundries and printing works. Wine
and alcohol for the liqueur-manufacture, coal, raw materials for textile
industries, hops, skins and various manufactured articles are among the
imports.
The department is served almost entirely by the Orleans Railway. It is
divided into the arrondissements of Limoges, Bellac, Rochechouart and St
Yrieix (29 cantons and 205 communes), and belongs to the academie
(educational division) of Poitiers and the ecclesiastical province of
Bourges. Limoges, the capital, is the seat of a bishopric and of a court
of appeal, and is the headquarters of the XII. army corps. The other
principal towns are St Yrieix and St Junien. Solignac, St Leonard and Le
Dorat have fine Romanesque churches. The remains of the chateau of
Chalusset (S.S.E. of Limoges), the most remarkable feudal ruins in
Limousin, and the chateau of Rochechouart, which dates from the 13th,
15th and 16th centuries, are also of interest.
HAUT-RHIN, before 1871 a department of eastern France, formed in 1790
from the southern portion of Alsace. The name "Haut-Rhin" is sometimes
used of the territory of Belfort (q.v.).
HAUY, RENE JUST (1743-1822), French mineralogist, commonly styled the
Abbe Hauy, from being an honorary canon of Notre Dame, was born at St
Just, in the department of Oise, on the 28th of February 1743. His
parents were in a humble rank of life, and were only enabled by the
kindness of friends to send their son to the college of Navarre and
afterwards to that of Lemoine. Becoming one of the teachers at the
latter, he began to devote his leisure hours to the study of botany; but
an accident directed his attention to another field in natural history.
Happening to let fall a specimen of calcareous spar belonging to a
friend, he was led by examination of the fragments to make experiments
which resulted in the statement of the geometrical law of
crystallization associated with his name (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY). The
value of this discovery, the mathematical theory of which is given by
Hauy in his _Traite de mineralogie_, was immediately recognized, and
when communicated to the Academy, it secured for its author a place in
that society. Hauy's name is also known for the observations he made in
pyro-electricity. When the Revolution broke out, he was thrown into
prison, and his life was even in danger, when he was saved by the
intercession of E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. In 1802, under Napoleon, he
became professor of mineralogy at the museum of natural history, but
after 1814 he was deprived of his appointments by the government of the
Restoration. His latter days were consequently clouded by poverty, but
the courage and high moral qualities which had helped him forward in his
youth did not desert him in his old age; and he lived cheerful and
respected till his death at Paris on the 3rd of June 1822.
The following are his principal works: _Essai d'une theorie sur la
structure des cristaux_ (1784); _Exposition raisonnee de la theorie de
l'electricite et du magnetisme, d'apres les principes d'Aepinus_
(1787); _De la structure consideree comme caractere distinctif des
mineraux_ (1793); _Exposition abregee de la theorie de la structure
des cristaux_ (1793); _Extrait d'un traite elementaire de mineralogie_
(1797); _Traite de mineralogie_ (4 vols., 1801); _Traite elementaire
de physique_ (2 vols., 1803, 1806); _Tableau comparatif des resultats
de la cristallographie, et de l'analyse chimique relativement a la
classification des mineraux_ (1809); _Traite des pierres precieuses_
(1817); _Traite de cristallographie_ (2 vols., 1822). He also
contributed papers, of which 100 are enumerated in the Royal Society's
catalogue, to various scientific journals, especially the _Journal de
physique_ and the _Annals du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle_.
HAVANA (the name is of aboriginal origin; Span. Habana or, more fully,
San Cristobal de la Habana), the capital of Cuba, the largest city of
the West Indies, and one of the principal seats of commerce in the New
World, situated on the northern coast of the island in 23 deg. 9' N.
lat. and 82 deg. 22' W. long. Pop. (1899), 235,981; (1907), 297,159. The
city occupies a peninsula to the W. of the harbour, between its waters
and those of the sea. Several small streams, of which the Almendares
river is the largest, empty into the harbour. The pouch-shaped,
landlocked bay is spacious and easy of access. Large merchantmen and
men-of-war can come up and unload along at least a considerable part of
the water-front. The entrance, which is encumbered by neither bar nor
rock, averages about 260 yds. in width and is about 1400 yds. long.
Within, the bay breaks up into three distinct arms, Marimalena or Regla
Bay, Guanabacoa Bay and the Bay of Atares. On the left hand of the
entrance stands the lofty lighthouse tower of the Morro. The sewage of
the city and other impurities were for centuries allowed to pollute the
bay, but the extent to which the harbour was thereby filled up has been
exaggerated. Though certainly very much smaller than it once was, there
is a difference of opinion as to whether the harbour has grown smaller
since the end of the 18th century.
From the sea the city presents a picturesque appearance. The Havana
side of the bay has a sea-wall and an excellent drive. The city walls,
begun in 1671 and completed about 1740, were almost entirely demolished
between 1863 and 1880, only a few insignificant remnants having survived
the American military occupation of 1899-1902; but it is still usual to
speak of the "intramural" and the "extramural" city. The former, the old
city, lying close to the harbour front, has streets as narrow as is
consistent with wheel traffic. Obispo (Pi y Margall in the new
republican nomenclature), O'Reilly and San Rafael are the finest retail
business streets, and the Prado and the Cerro the handsomest residential
streets in the city proper. The new city, including the suburbs to the
W. overlooking the sea, has been laid out on a somewhat more spacious
plan, with isolated dwellings and wide thoroughfares, some planted with
trees. Most of the houses, and especially those of the planter
aristocracy, are massively built of stone, with large grated windows,
flat roofs with heavy parapets and inner courts. As the erection of
wooden buildings was illegal long after 1772, it is only in the suburban
districts that they are to be seen. The limestone which underlies almost
all the island affords excellent building stone. The poorer houses are
built of brick with plaster fronts. Three-fourths of all the buildings
of the city are of one very high storey; there are but a few dozen
buildings as high as four storeys. Under Spanish rule, Havana was
reputed to be a city of noises and smells. There was no satisfactory
cleaning of the streets or draining of the subsoil, and the harbour was
rendered visibly foul by the impurities of the town. A revolution was
worked in this respect during the United States military occupation of
the city, and the republic continued the work.
_Climate._--The general characteristics of the climate of Havana are
described in the article Cuba. A temperature as low as 40 deg. F. is
extraordinary; and freezing point is only reached on extremely rare
occasions, such as during hurricanes or electric storms. The mean
annual temperature is about 25.7 deg. C. (78 deg. F.); that of the
hottest month is about 28.8 deg. C. (84 deg. F.), and that of the
coldest, 21 deg. C. (70 deg. F.). The means of the four seasons are
approximately--for December, January, February and successive
quarters--23 deg., 27 deg., 28 deg. and 26 deg. C. (73.4 deg., 80.6
deg., 82.4 deg. and 78.8 deg. F.). The mean relative humidity is
between 75 and 80 for all seasons save spring, when it is least and
may be from 65 upward. A difference of 30 deg. C. (54 deg. F.) at
mid-day in the temperature of two spots close together, one in sun and
one in shade, is not unusual. The daily variation of temperature is
also considerable. The depressing effect of the heat and humidity is
greatly relieved by afternoon breezes from the sea, and the nights are
invariably comfortable and generally cool.
_Defences._--The principal defences of Havana under Spanish rule, when
the city was maintained as a military stronghold of the first rank,
were (to use the original and unabbreviated form of the names) the
Castillo de San Salvador de la Punta, to the W. of the harbour
entrance; the Castillo de Los Tres Reyes del Morro and San Carlos de
la Cabana, to the E.; the Santo Domingo de Atares, at the head of the
western arm of the bay, commanding the city and its vicinity; and the
Castillo del Principe (1767-1780), situated inland on an eminence to
the W. El Morro, as it is popularly called, was first erected in
1590-1640, and La Punta, a much smaller fort, is of the same period;
both were reconstructed after the evacuation of the city by the
English in 1763, from which time also date the castles of Principe,
Atares and the Cabana. The Cabana, which alone can accommodate some
6000 men, fronts the bay for a distance of more than 800 yds., and was
long supposed, at least by Spaniards, to be the strongest fortress of
America. Here is the "laurel ditch" or "dead-line"--commemorated by a
handsome bronze relief set in the wall of the fortress--where scores
of Cuban patriots were shot. To the E. and W. inland are several small
forts. The military establishment of the republic is very small.
_Churches._--Of the many old churches in the city, the most noteworthy
is the cathedral. The original building was abandoned in 1762. The
present one, originally the church of the Jesuits, was erected in
1656-1724. The interior decoration dates largely from the last decade
of the 18th century and the first two decades of the 19th. In the wall
of the chancel, a medallion and inscription long distinguished the
tomb of Columbus, whose remains were removed hither from Santo Domingo
in 1796. In 1898 they were taken to Spain. Mention may also be made of
the churches of Santo Domingo (begun in 1578), Santa Catalina (1700),
San Agustin (1608), Santa Clara (1644), La Merced (1744, with a
collection of oil paintings) and San Felipe (1693). Monasteries and
nunneries were very numerous until the suppression of the religious
orders in 1842, when many became simple churches. Some of the convents
were successful in conserving their wealth. The former monastery of
the Jesuits, now the Jesuit church of Belen (1704), at the corner of
Luz and Compostela Streets, is one of the most elegant and richly
ornamented in Cuba.
_Public Buildings._--The Palace, which served as a residence for the
captains-general during the Spanish rule, is the home of the city
government and the residence of the president of the republic. It is a
large and handsome stone structure (tinted in white and yellow), and
stands on the site of the original parish church, facing the Plaza de
Armas from the east. It was erected in 1773-1792 and radically altered
in 1835 and 1851. A large municipal gaol (1834-1837), capable of
receiving 500 inmates, with barracks for a regiment, is a striking
object on the Prado. The Castillo del Principe now serves as the state
penitentiary. Among other public buildings are the exchange (El
Muelle), the custom-house (formerly the church of San Francisco; begun
about 1575, rebuilt in 1731-1737), and the Maestranza (c. 1723), once
the navy yard and the headquarters of the artillery and now the home
of the national library. All these are in the old city. Some of the
older structures--notably the church of Santo Domingo and the
Maestranza--are built of grey limestone. In the old city also are the
Plaza Vieja, dating from the middle of the 16th century (with the
modern Mercado de Cristina, of 1837--destroyed 1908), the old
stronghold La Fuerza, erected by Hernando de Soto in 1538, once the
treasury of the flotas and galleons, and residence of the governors,
with its old watch-tower (La Vigia); and the Plaza de Armas, with the
palace, the Senate building, a statue of Fernando VII. (1833), and a
commemorative chapel (El Templete, 1828) to mark the supposed spot
where mass was first said at the establishment of the city. Mention
must be made of the large and interesting markets, especially those of
Colon and Tacon. Of the theatres, which until the end of the Spanish
period had to compete with the bull-ring and the cockpit, the most
important is the Tacon (now "Nacional") erected in 1838.
Havana is famous for its promenades, drives and public gardens. On the
city's E. harbour front runs the Paseo (Alameda) de Paula (1772-1775,
improved 1844-1845), an embanked drive, continued by the Paseo de
Rocali and the Cortina de Valdes, with fine views of the forts and the
harbour. On the N., along the sea, beginning at the Punta fortress and
running W. for several miles along the sea-wall, is a speedway and
pleasure-drive, known--from the wall--as the Malecon. Beginning at the
Punta fortress--where a park was laid out in 1899 in the place of an
ugly quarter, with a memorial to the students judicially murdered by
the Spanish volunteers in 1871--and running along the line of the
former city walls, past the Parque Central, through the Parque de
Isabel II. and the Parque de la India (these two names are now
practically abandoned) to the Parque de Colon or Campo de Marte, is
the Prado,[1] a wide and handsome promenade and drive, shaded with
laurels and lined with fine houses and clubs. In 1907 a hurricane
destroyed the greater part of the laurels of the Prado and the royal
palms of the Parque de Colon. Central Park is surrounded by hotels,
theatres, cafes and clubs, the last including the Centro Asturiano and
Casino Espanol. In the centre is a monument to Jose Marti (1853-1895),
"the apostle of independence," and in an adjoining square is the
city's fine monument to the Cuban engineer Francisco de Albear, to
whom she owes her water system. From the Parque de Colon the Calle (or
Calzada) de la Reina--an ordinary business street, once a promenade
and known as the Alameda de Isabel II.--with its continuations, the
Paseo de Carlos III. and Paseo de Tacon, runs westward through the
city past the botanical gardens and the Quinta de los Molinos to the
citadel of El Principe (1774-1794). A statue of Charles III. by Canova
(1803), fountains, pavilions and four rows of trees adorn the Paseo de
Carlos III. The gardens of Los Molinos, where the captains-general
formerly maintained their summer residence, and the adjoining
botanical gardens of the university, contain beautiful avenues of palm
trees. Near El Principe is the Columbus cemetery, with a fine gateway,
a handsome monument (1888) to the students shot in 1871, and another
(1897; 75 ft. high) to the firemen lost in a great fire in 1890,
besides many smaller memorials. The Calzada de la Infanta is a fine
street at the W. end of the new city; the Cerro, in the S.W., is lined
with massive residences, once the homes of Cuban aristocracy.
_Suburbs._--In the coral rock of the coast sea-baths are excavated, so
that bathers may run no risk from sharks. On the S. and W. the city is
backed by an amphitheatre of hills, which are crowned in the W. by the
conspicuous fortifications of Castillo del Principe. On the lower
heights near the city lie Vedado, Jesus del Monte, Luyano and other
healthy suburbs. Chorrera, Puentes Grandes, Marianao (founded 1830;
pop. 1907, 9332) and Guanabacoa (with mineral springs), are attractive
places of resort. Regla, just across the bay (now part of the
_municipio_), has large business interests.
_Charities and Education._--Among the numerous charitable institutions
the most important hospital is the Casa de Beneficencia y Maternidad
(Charity and Maternity Asylum), opened in 1794, and containing an
orphan asylum, a maternity ward, a home for vagrants, a lunatic asylum
and an infirmary. There is also in the city an immense lazaretto for
lepers. The Centro Asturiano, a club with a membership of some ten or
fifteen thousand (not limited to Asturians), maintains for the
benefit of its members a large and well-managed sanatorium in spacious
grounds in the midst of the city.
Of the schools of the city the most noteworthy is the university (581
regular students, 1907), founded in 1728. Its quarters were in the old
convent of Santo Domingo until 1900, when the American military
government prepared better quarters for it in the former Pirotecnica
Militar, near El Principe. There are various laboratories in the city.
Other schools are the provincial Institute of Secondary Education (490
regular students in 1907; library of 12,863 vols.), a provincial
school of arts and trades (opened 1882), a theological seminary, a
boys' technical school, a school of painting and sculpture, a
conservatory of music, normal school, mercantile school and a military
academy. The Jesuit church (Belen) has a large college for boys,
laboratories, an observatory, a museum of natural history, and an
historical library. Great progress has been made in education, which
was extremely backward until after the end of Spanish rule. The
Sociedad Economica de Amigos del Pais, established in 1792, has always
had considerable influence. It has a library of some 42,000 volumes,
rich in material for Cuban history. Among other similar organizations
are an Academy of Medical, Physical and Natural Sciences (1863); a
national library, established in 1901, and having in 1908 about 40,000
volumes, including the finest collection in the world of materials for
Cuban history; an anthropological society; various medical societies;
and a Bar association. An association of sugar planters is a very
important factor in the economic development of the island.
Of the newspapers of Havana the most notable is the _El Diario de la
Marina_ (established in 1838; under its present name, 1844; morning
and evening), which was almost from its foundation an official organ
of the Spanish government, and generally the mouthpiece of the most
intransigent peninsular opinion in all that concerned the politics of
the island. _El Ansador Comercial_ (1868; evening) is devoted almost
exclusively to commercial and financial news. Of the other newspapers
the leading ones in 1909 were _La Discusion_ (1888; evening), _La
Luchu_ (1884; evening) and _El Mundo_ (1902; morning).
_Trade._--Havana commands the wholesale trade of all the western half
of the island, and is the centre of commercial and banking interests.
Its foreign trade in the five calendar years 1902-1906 (average
imports $57,201,276; exports, $40,563,637) amounted to 68.9% of the
imports and 44.6% of the exports of the island. The average number of
vessels entering the port annually in the ten years from 1864 to 1873
was 1981 (771,196 tons), and the average entries in the five years
1902-1906 were 3698 of 3,904,906 gross tons (coast trade alone, 2162
of 333,795 tons).
In spite of high tariffs and civil wars, and the competition of
Matanzas, Cardenas, Cienfuegos and other Cuban ports opened to foreign
trade in modern times, the commerce of Havana has steadily increased.
The chief foreign customers are Great Britain and the United States.
The two staple articles of export are sugar and tobacco-wares. Other
exports of importance are rum, wax and honey; and of less primary
importance, fruits, fine cabinet woods, oils and starch. The leading
imports are grains, flour, lard and various other foodstuffs, coal,
lumber, petroleum and machinery, all mainly from the United States;
wines and olive oil from Spain; jerked beef from South America;
fabrics and other staples from varied sources. Rice is a principal
food of the people; it was formerly taken from the East Indies, but is
now mostly raised in the island.
The chief manufacturing industry of Havana is that of tobacco. Of the
cigar factories, some of which are in former public and private
palaces, more than a hundred may be reckoned as of the first class.
Besides the making of boxes and barrels and other articles necessarily
involved in its sugar and tobacco trade, Havana also, to some extent,
builds carriages and small ships, and manufactures iron and machinery;
but the weight of taxation during the Spanish period was always a
heavy deterrent on the development of any business requiring great
capital. There are minor manufacturing interests in tanneries, and in
the manufacture of sweetmeats, malt and distilled liquors, especially
rum, besides soaps, candles, starch, perfume, &c. There is one large
and complete petroleum refinery (1905).
Havana has frequent steam-boat communication with New York, Baltimore,
Philadelphia, Tampa, Mobile, New Orleans and other ports of the United
States; and about as frequent with several ports in England, Spain and
France. It is the starting-point of a railway system which reaches the
six provincial capitals between Pinar del Rio and Santiago, Cardenas,
Cienfuegos and other ports. Telegraphs radiate to all parts of the
island; a submarine cable to Key West forms part of the line of
communication between Colon and New York, and by other cables the
island has connexion with various parts of the West Indies and with
South America.
_Population and Health._--The population of Havana was reported as
51,307 in 1791; 96,304 in 1811; 94,023 in 1817; 184,508 in 1841. In
1899 the American census showed 235,981, of whom about 25% were
foreign (20% Spanish); and the census of 1907 showed 297,159 (not
including the attached country districts) and 302,526 (including these
country districts), the last being for the "municipio" of Havana. The
industrial population is very densely crowded. Owing to this, as well
as to the entire lack of proper sanitary customs among the people, the
horrible condition of sewerage and the prevalence of yellow fever
(first brought to Havana, it is thought, in 1761, from Vera Cruz), the
reputation of the city as regards health was long very bad. The
practical extermination of yellow fever during the U.S. military
occupation following 1899 was a remarkable achievement. In 1895-1899,
owing to the war, there were few non-immune persons in the city, and
there was no trouble with the fever, but from the autumn of 1899 a
heavy immigration from Spain began, and a fever epidemic was raging in
1900. The American military authorities found that the most
extraordinary measures for cleansing the city--involving repeated
house-to-house inspection, enforced cleanliness, improved drainage and
sewerage, the destruction of various public buildings, and thorough
cleansing of the streets--although decidedly effective in reducing the
general death-rate of the city (average, 1890-1899, 45.83; 1900,
24.40; 1901, 22.11; 1902, 20.63; general death-rate of U.S. soldiers
in 1898, 67.94; in 1901-1902, 7.00), apparently did not affect yellow
fever at all. In 1900-1901 Major Walter Reed (1851-1902), a surgeon in
the United States army, proved by experiments on voluntary human
subjects that the infection was spread by the _Stegomyia_ mosquito,[2]
and the prevention of the disease was then undertaken by Major William
C. Gorgas--all patients being screened and mosquitoes practically
exterminated.[3] The number of subsequent deaths from yellow fever has
depended solely on the degree to which the necessary precautionary
measures were taken.
The entire administrative system of the island, when a Spanish colony,
was centred at Havana. Under the republic this remains the capital and
the residence of the president, the supreme court, Congress when in
session and the chief administrative officers. None of the public
services was good in the Spanish period, except the water-supply,
which was excellent. The water is derived from the Vento springs, 9 m.
from Havana, and is conducted through aqueducts constructed between
1859 and 1894 at a cost of some $5,000,000. About 40,000,000 gallons
are supplied daily. The system is owned by the municipality. The older
Fernando VII. aqueduct (1831-1835) is still usable in case of need;
its supply was the Almendares river (until long after the construction
of this, a still older aqueduct, opened at the end of the 16th
century, was in use). The sewerage system and conditions of house
sanitation were found extremely inadequate when the American army
occupied the city in 1899. Several public buildings were so foul that
they were demolished and burned. The improvement since the end of
Spanish rule has been steady.
_History._--Havana, originally founded by Diego Velasquez in 1514 on an
unhealthy site near the present Batabano (pop. in 1907, 15,435,
including attached country districts), on the south coast, was soon
removed to its present position, was granted an ayuntamiento (town
council), and shortly came to be considered one of the most important
places in the New World. Its commanding position gained it in 1634, by
royal decree, the title of "Llave del Nuevo Mundo y Antemural de las
Indias Occidentales" (Key of the New World and Bulwark of the West
Indies), in reference to which it bears on its coat of arms a symbolic
key and representations of the Morro, Punta and Fuerza. In the history
of the place in the 16th century few things stand out except the
investments by buccaneers: in 1537 it was sacked and burned, and in 1555
plundered by French buccaneers, and in 1586 it was threatened by Drake.
In 1589 Philip II. of Spain ordered the erection of the Punta and the
Morro. In the same year the residence of the governor of the island was
moved from Santiago de Cuba to Havana. Philip II. granted Havana the
title of "ciudad" in 1592. Sugar plantations in the environs appeared
before the end of the 16th century. The population of the city, probably
about 3000 at the beginning of the 17th century, was doubled in the
years following 1655 by the coming of Spaniards from Jamaica. In the
course of the 17th century the port became the great rendezvous for the
royal merchant and treasure fleets that monopolized trade with America,
and the commercial centre of the Spanish-American possessions. It was
blockaded four times by the Dutch (who were continually molesting the
treasure fleets) in the first half of the 17th century. In 1671 the city
walls were begun; they were completed in 1702. The European wars of the
17th and 18th centuries were marked by various incidents in local
history. After the end of the Spanish War of Succession (1713) came a
period of comparative prosperity in slave-trading and general commerce.
The creation in 1740 of a monopolistic trading-company was an event of
importance in the history of the island. English squadrons threatened
the city several times in the first half of the 18th century, but it was
not until 1762 that an investment, made by Admiral Sir George Pocock and
the earl of Albemarle, was successful. The siege lasted from June to
August and was attended by heavy loss to both besiegers and besieged.
The British commanders wrung great sums from the church and the city as
prize of war and price of good order. By the treaty of the 10th of
February 1763, at the close of the Seven Years' War, Havana was restored
to Spain in exchange for the Floridas. The English turned over the
control of the city on the 6th of July. Their occupation greatly
stimulated commerce, and from it dates the modern history of the city
and of the island (see CUBA). The gradual removal of obstacles from the
commerce of the island from 1766 to 1818 particularly benefited Havana.
At the end of the 18th century the city was one of the seven or eight
great commercial centres of the world, and in the first quarter of the
19th century was a rival in population and in trade of Rio Janeiro,
Buenos Aires and New York. In 1789 a bishopric was created at Havana
suffragan to the archbishopric at Santiago. From the end of the 18th
century Havana, as the centre of government, was the centre of movement
and interest. During the administration of Miguel Tacon Havana was
improved by many important public works; his name is frequent in the
nomenclature of the city. The railway from Havana to Guines was built
between 1835 and 1838. Fifty Americans under Lieut. Crittenden, members
of the Bahia Honda filibustering expedition of Narciso Lopez, were shot
at Fort Atares in 1851. Like the rest of Cuba, Havana has frequently
suffered severely from hurricanes, the most violent being those of 1768
(St Theresa's), 1810 and 1846. The destruction of the U.S. battleship
"Maine" in the harbour of Havana on the 15th of February 1898 was an
influential factor in causing the outbreak of the Spanish-American War,
and during the war the city was blockaded by a United States fleet.
See J. de la Pezuela, _Diccionario de la Isla de Cuba_, vol. iii.
(Madrid, 1863), for minute details of history, administration and
economic conditions down to 1862; J. M. de la Torre, _Lo que fuimos y
lo que somos, o la Habana antigua y moderna_ (Habana, 1857); P.J.
Guiteras, _Historia de la conquista de la Habana 1762_ (Philadelphia,
1856); J. de la Pezuela, _Sitio y rendicion de la Habana en 1762_
(Madrid, 1859); A. Bachiller y Morales, _Monografia historica_
(Habana, 1883), minutely covering the English occupation (the best
account) of 1762-1763; Maria de los Mercedes, comtesse de Merlin, _La
Havana_ (3 vols., Paris, 1844); and the works cited under Cuba.