FOOTNOTES:

[1] Freeman called this hill Senlac and introduced the fashion of

describing the battle as "the battle of Senlac." Mr J. H. Round,

however, proved conclusively that this name, being French

(Senlecque), could not have been in use at the time of the Conquest,

that the battlefield had in fact no name, pointing out that in

William of Malmesbury and in Domesday Book the battle is called "of

Hastings" (_Bellum Hastingense_), while only one writer, Ordericus

Vitalis, describes it two hundred years after the event as _Bellum

Senlacium_. See Round, _Feudal England_ (London, 1895), p. 333 et

seq.

[2] There is still a difference of opinion as to whether the English

were, or were not, defended by any other rampart than that of the

customary "shield-wall." Freeman, apparently as a result of a

misunderstanding of a passage in Henry of Huntingdon and the slightly

ambiguous verse of Wace in the _Roman du Rou_ (ll. 6991-6994 and ll.

7815-7826), affirms that Harold turned "the battle as far as possible

into the likeness of a siege," by building round his troops a

"palisade" of solid timber (_Norman Conquest_, iii. 444). This was

proved to be a fable by J. H. Round, in the course of a general

attack on Freeman's historical method, which provoked the professor's

defenders to take up the cudgels on his behalf in a very long and

lively controversy. The result of this was that Freeman's account was

wholly discredited, though Round's view--that there was no wall of

any kind save the shield-wall--is not generally accepted. Professor

Oman (_Academy_, June 9, 1894), for instance, holds that there was

"an _abattis_ of some sort" set to hamper the advance of cavalry (see

also ENGLISH HISTORY, vol. ix., p. 474). Mr Round sums up the

controversy, from his point of view, in his _Feudal England_, p. 340

et seq., where references to other monographs on the subject will be

found.

HASTINGS, a city and the county-seat of Adams county, Nebraska, U.S.A.,

about 95 m. W. by S. of Lincoln. Pop. (1890) 13,584; (1900) 7188 (1253

foreign-born); (1910) 9338. Hastings is served by the Chicago,

Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North-western, the Missouri Pacific

and the St Joseph & Grand Island railways. It is the seat of Hastings

College (Presbyterian, coeducational), opened in 1882, and having 286

students in 1908, and of the state asylum for the chronic insane. The

city carries on a considerable jobbing business for the farming region

of which it is the centre and produce market. There are a large foundry

and several large brickyards here. Hastings was settled in 1872, was

incorporated in 1874 and was chartered as a city in the same year.

HAT, a covering for the head worn by both sexes, and distinguished from

the cap or bonnet by the possession of a brim. The word in O.E. is

_hoet_, which is cognate with O. Frisian _hatt_, O.N. _hotte_, &c.,

meaning head-covering, hood; it is distantly related to the O.E. _hod_,

hood, which is cognate with the German for "hat," _Hut_. The history of

the hat as part of the apparel of both sexes, with the various changes

in shape which it has undergone, is treated in the article COSTUME.

Hats were originally made by the process of felting, and as tradition

ascribed the discovery of that very ancient operation to St Clement, he

was assumed as the patron saint of the craft. At the present day the

trade is divided into two distinct classes. The first and most ancient

is concerned with the manufacture of felt hats, and the second has to do

with the recent but now most extensive and important manufacture of silk

or dress hats. In addition to these there is the important manufacture

of straw or plaited hats (see STRAW AND STRAW MANUFACTURES); and hats

are occasionally manufactured of materials and by processes not included

under any of these heads, but such manufactures do not take a large or

permanent position in the industry.

_Felt Hats._--There is a great range in the quality of felt hats: the

finer and more expensive qualities are made entirely of fur; for

commoner qualities a mixture of fur and wool is used; and for the

cheapest kinds wool alone is employed. The processes and apparatus

necessary for making hats of fur differ also from those required in

the case of woollen bodies; and in large manufactories machinery is

now generally employed for operations which at no distant date were

entirely manual. An outline of the operations by which the old beaver

hat was made will give an idea of the manual processes in making a fur

napped hat, and the apparatus and mechanical processes employed in

making ordinary hard and soft felts will afterwards be noticed.

Hatters' fur consists principally of the hair of rabbits (technically

called coneys) and hares, with some proportion of nutria, musquash and

beavers' hair; and generally any parings and cuttings from furriers

are also used. Furs intended for felting are deprived of their long

coarse hairs, after which they are treated with a solution of nitrate

of mercury, an operation called carroting or _secretage_, whereby the

felting properties of the fur are greatly increased. The fur is then

cut by hand or machine from the skin, and in this state it is

delivered to the hat maker.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

The old process of making a beaver hat was as follows. The materials

of a proper beaver consisted, for the body or foundation, of rabbits'

fur, and for the nap, of beaver fur, although the beaver was often

mixed with or supplanted by a more common fur. In preparing the fur

plate, the hatter weighed out a sufficient quantity of rabbit fur for

a single hat, and spread it out and combined it by the operation of

bowing. The bow or stang ABC (fig. 1) was about 7 ft. long, and it

stretched a single cord of catgut D, which the workman vibrated by

means of a wooden pin E, furnished with a half knob at each end.

Holding the bow in his left hand, and the pin in his right, he caused

the vibrating string to come in contact with the heap of tangled fur,

which did not cover a space greater than that of the hand. At each

vibration some of the filaments started up to the height of a few

inches, and fell away from the mass, a little to the right of the bow,

their excursions being restrained by a concave frame of wicker work

called the basket. One half of the material was first operated on, and

by bowing and gathering, or a patting use of the basket, the stuff was

loosely matted into a triangular figure, about 50 by 36 in., called a

bat. In this formation care was taken to work about two-thirds of the

fur down towards what was intended for the brim, and this having been

effected, greater density was induced by gentle pressure with the

basket. It was then covered with a wettish linen cloth, upon which was

laid the hardening skin, a piece of dry half-tanned horse hide. On

this the workman pressed until the stuff adhered closely to the damp

cloth, in which it was then doubled up, freely pressed with the hand,

and laid aside. By this process, called basoning, the bat became

compactly felted and thinned toward the sides and point. The other

half of the fur was next subjected to precisely the same processes,

after which a cone-shaped slip of stiff paper was laid on its surface,

and the sides of the bat were folded over its edges to its form and

size. It was then laid paper-side downward upon the first bat, which

was now replaced on the hurdle, and its edges were transversely

doubled over the introverted side-lays of the second bat, thus giving

equal thickness to the whole body. In this condition it was

reintroduced between folds of damp linen cloth, and again hardened, so

as to unite the two halves, the knitting together of which was quickly

effected. The paper was then withdrawn, and the body in the form of a

large cone removed to the plank or battery room.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

The battery consisted of an open iron boiler or kettle A (fig. 2),

filled with scalding hot water, with shelves, B, C, partly of mahogany

and partly of lead, sloping down to it. Here the body was first dipped

in the water, and then withdrawn to the plank to cool and drain, when

it was unfolded, rolled gently with a pin tapering towards the ends,

turned, and worked in every direction, to toughen and shrink it, and

at the same time prevent adhesion of its sides. Stopping or thickening

any thin spots seen on looking through the body, was carefully

performed by dabbing on additional stuff in successive supplies from

the hot liquor with a brush frequently dipped into the kettle, until

the body was shrunk sufficiently (about one-half) and thoroughly

equalized. When quite dried, stiffening was effected with a brush

dipped into a thin varnish of shellac, and rubbed into the body, the

surface intended for the inside having much more laid on it than the

outer, while the brim was made to absorb many times the quantity

applied to any other part.

On being again dried, the body was ready to be covered with a nap of

beaver hair. For this, in inferior qualities, the hair of the otter,

nutria or other fine fur was sometimes substituted. The requisite

quantity of one or other of these was taken and mixed with a

proportion of cotton, and the whole was bowed up into a thin uniform

lap. The cotton merely served to give sufficient body to the material

to enable the workman to handle the lap. The body of the hat being

damped, the workman spread over it a covering of this lap, and by

moistening and gentle patting with a brush the cut ends of the hair

penetrated and fixed themselves in the felt body. The hat was then put

into a coarse hair cloth, dipped and rolled in the hot liquor until

the fur was quite worked in, the cotton being left on the surface

loose and ready for removal. The blocking, dyeing and finishing

processes in the case of beaver hats were similar to those employed

for ordinary felts, except that greater care and dexterity were

required on the part of the workmen, and further that the coarse hairs

or kemps which might be in the fur were cut off by shaving the surface

with a razor. The nap also had to be laid in one direction, smoothed

and rendered glossy by repeated wettings, ironings and brushings. A

hat so finished was very durable and much more light, cool and

easy-fitting to the head than the silk hat which has now so largely

superseded it.

The first efficient machinery for making felt hats was devised in

America, and from the United States the machine-making processes were

introduced into England about the year 1858; and now in all large

establishments machinery such as that alluded to below is employed.

For the forming of hat bodies two kinds of machine are used, according

as the material employed is fur or wool. In the case of fur, the

essential portion of the apparatus is a "former," consisting of a

metal cone of the size and form of the body or bat to be made,

perforated all over with small holes. The cone is made to revolve on

its axis slowly over an orifice under which there is a powerful fan,

which maintains a strong inward draught of air through the holes in

the cone. At the side of the cone, and with an opening towards it, is

a trunk or box from which the fur to be made into a hat is thrown out

by the rapid revolution of a brushlike cylinder, and as the cloud of

separate hairs is expelled from the trunk, the current of air being

sucked through the cone carries the fibres to it and causes them to

cling closely to its surface. Thus a coating of loose fibres is

accumulated on the copper cone, and these are kept in position only by

the exhaust at work under it. When sufficient for a hat body has been

deposited, it is damped and a cloth is wrapped round it; then an outer

cone is slipped over it and the whole is removed for felting, while

another copper cone is placed in position for continuing the work. The

fur is next felted by being rolled and pressed, these operations being

performed partly by hand and partly by machine.

In the case of wool hats the hat or body is prepared by first carding

in a modified form of carding machine. The wool is divided into two

separate slivers as delivered from the cards, and these are wound

simultaneously on a double conical block of wood mounted and geared to

revolve slowly with a reciprocating horizontal motion, so that there

is a continual crossing and recrossing of the wool as the sliver is

wound around the cone. This diagonal arrangement of the sliver is an

essential feature in the apparatus, as thereby the strength of the

finished felt is made equal in every direction; and when strained in

the blocking the texture yields in a uniform manner without rupture.

The wool wound on the double block forms the material of two hats,

which are separated by cutting around the median or base line, and

slipping each half off at its own end. Into each cone of wool or bat

an "inlayer" is now placed to prevent the inside from matting, after

which they are folded in cloths, and placed over a perforated iron

plate through which steam is blown. When well moistened and heated,

they are placed between boards, and subjected to a rubbing action

sufficient to harden them for bearing the subsequent strong planking

or felting operations. The planking of wool hats is generally done by

machine, in some cases a form of fulling mill being used; but in all

forms the agencies are heat, moisture, pressure, rubbing and turning.

When by thorough felting the hat bodies of any kind have been reduced

to dense leathery cones about one-half the size of the original bat,

they are dried, and, if hard felts are to be made, the bodies are at

this stage hardened or stiffened with a varnish of shellac. Next

follows the operations of blocking, in which the felt for the first

time assumes approximately the form it is ultimately to possess. For

this purpose the conical body is softened in boiling water, and

forcibly drawn over and over a hat-shaped wooden block. The operation

of dyeing next follows, and the finishing processes include shaping on

a block, over which crown and brim receive ultimately their accurate

form, and pouncing or pumicing, which consists of smoothing the

surface with fine emery paper, the hat being for this purpose mounted

on a rapidly revolving block. The trimmer finally binds the outer brim

and inserts the lining, after which the brim may be given more or less

of a curl or turn over according to prevailing fashion.

_Silk Hats._--The silk hat, which has now become co-extensive with

civilization, is an article of comparatively recent introduction. It

was invented in Florence about 1760, but it was more than half a

century before it was worn to any great extent.

A silk hat consists of a light stiff body covered with a plush of

silk, the manufacture of which in a brilliant glossy condition is the

most important element in the industry. Originally the bodies were

made of felt and various other materials, but now calico is chiefly

used. The calico is first stiffened with a varnish of shellac, and

then cut into pieces sufficient for crown, side and brim. The

side-piece is wound round a wooden hat block, and its edges are

joined by hot ironing, and the crown-piece is put on and similarly

attached to the side. The brim, consisting of three thicknesses of

calico cemented together, is now slipped over and brought to its

position, and thereafter a second side-piece and another crown are

cemented on. The whole of the body, thus prepared, now receives a coat

of size, and subsequently it is varnished over, and thus it is ready

for the operation of covering. In covering this body, the under brim,

generally of merino, is first attached, then the upper brim, and

lastly the crown and side sewn together are drawn over. All these by

hot ironing and stretching are drawn smooth and tight, and as the

varnish of the body softens with the heat, body and cover adhere all

over to each other without wrinkle or pucker. Dressing and polishing

by means of damping, brushing and ironing, come next, after which the

hat is "velured" in a revolving machine by the application of

haircloth and velvet velures, which cleans the nap and gives it a

smooth and glossy surface. The brim has only then to be bound, the

linings inserted, and the brim finally curled, when the hat is ready

for use.

HATCH, EDWIN (1835-1889), English theologian, was born at Derby on the

14th of September 1835, and was educated at King Edward's school,

Birmingham, under James Prince Lee, afterwards bishop of Manchester. He

had many struggles to pass through in early life, which tended to

discipline his character and to form the habits of severe study and the

mental independence for which he came to be distinguished. Hatch became

scholar of Pembroke College, Oxford, took a second-class in classics in

1857, and won the Ellerton prize in 1858. He was professor of classics

in Trinity College, Toronto, from 1859 to 1862, when he became rector of

the high school at Quebec. In 1867 he returned to Oxford, and was made

vice-principal of St Mary Hall, a post which he held until 1885. In 1883

he was presented to the living of Purleigh in Essex, and in 1884 was

appointed university reader in ecclesiastical history. In 1880 he was

Bampton lecturer, and from 1880 to 1884 Grinfield lecturer on the

Septuagint. In 1883 the university of Edinburgh conferred on him the

D.D. degree. He was the first editor of the university official

_Gazette_ (1870), and of the _Student's Handbook to the University_. A

reputation acquired through certain contributions to the _Dictionary of

Christian Antiquities_ was confirmed by his treatises _On the

Organization of the Early Christian Churches_ (1881, his Bampton

lectures), and on _The Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages on the

Christian Church_ (the Hibbert lectures for 1888). These works provoked

no little criticism on account of the challenge they threw down to the

high-church party, but the research and fairness displayed were admitted

on all hands. The Bampton lectures were translated into German by

Harnack. Among his other works are _The Growth of Church Institutions_

(1887); _Essays in Biblical Greek_ (1889); _A Concordance to the

Septuagint_ (in collaboration with H. A. Redpath); _Towards Fields of

Light_ (verse, 1889); _The God of Hope_ (sermons with memoir, 1890).

Hatch died on the 10th of November 1889.

An appreciation by W. Sanday appeared in _The Expositor_ for February

1890.

HATCH. 1. (In Mid. Eng. _hacche_; the word is of obscure origin, but

cognate forms appear in Swed. _hacka_, and Dan. _hackke_; it has been

connected with "hatch," grating, with possible reference to a coop, and

with "hack" in the sense "to peck," of chickens coming out of the

shell), to bring out young from the egg, by incubation or other process,

natural or artificial. The word is also used as a substantive of a brood

of chickens brought out from the eggs. "Hatchery" is particularly

applied to a place for the hatching of fish spawn, where the natural

process is aided by artificial means. In a figurative sense "to hatch"

is often used of the development or contrivance of a plot or conspiracy.

2. (From the Fr. _hacher_, to cut, _hache_, hatchet), to engrave or draw

by means of cutting lines on wood, metal, &c., or to ornament by

inlaying with strips of some other substance as gold or silver. Engraved

lines, especially those used in shading, are called "hatches" or

"hachures" (see HACHURE).

3. (O.E. _haec_, a gate, rack in a stable; found in various Teutonic

languages; cf. Dutch _hek_, Dan. _hekke_; the ultimate origin is

obscure; Skeat suggests a connexion with the root seen in "hook"), the

name given to the lower half of a divided door, as in "buttery-hatch,"

the half-door leading from the buttery or kitchen, through which the

dishes could be passed into the dining-hall. It was used formerly as

another name for a ship's deck, and thus the phrase "under hatches"

meant properly below deck; the word is now applied to the doors of

grated framework covering the openings (the "hatchways") which lead from

one deck to another into the hold through which the cargo is lowered. In

Cornwall the word is used to denote certain dams or mounds used to

prevent the tin-washes and the water coming from the stream-works from

flowing into the fresh rivers.

HATCHET (adapted from the Fr. _hachette_, diminutive of _hache_, axe,

_hacher_, to cut, hack), a small, light form of axe with a short handle

(see TOOL); for the war-hatchet of the North American Indians and the

symbolical ceremonies connected with it see Tomahawk.

HATCHETTITE, sometimes termed _Mountain Tallow_, _Mineral Adipocire_, or

_Adipocerite_, a mineral hydrocarbon occurring in the Coal-measures of

Belgium and elsewhere, occupying in some cases the interior of hollow

concretions of iron-ore, but more generally the cavities of fossil

shells or crevices in the rocks. It is of yellow colour, and

translucent, but darkens and becomes opaque on exposure. It has no

odour, is greasy to the touch, and has a slightly glistening lustre. Its

hardness is that of soft wax. The melting point is 46 deg. to 47 deg.

C., and the composition is C. 85.55, H. 14.45.

HATCHMENT, properly, in heraldry, an escutcheon or armorial shield

granted for some act of distinction or "achievement," of which word it

is a corruption through such forms as _atcheament_, _achement_,

_hachement_, &c. "Achievement" is an adaptation of the Fr. _achevement_,

from _achever_, _a chef venir_, Lat. _ad caput venire_, to come to a

head, or conclusion, hence accomplish, achieve. The term "hatchment" is

now usually applied to funeral escutcheons or armorial shields enclosed

in a black lozenge-shaped frame suspended against the wall of a deceased

person's house. It is usually placed over the entrance at the level of

the second floor, and remains for from six to twelve months, when it is

removed to the parish church. This custom is falling into disuse, though

still not uncommon. It is usual to hang the hatchment of a deceased head

of a house at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge over the entrance

to his lodge or residence.

[Illustration]

If for a bachelor the hatchment bears upon a shield his arms, crest, and

other appendages, the whole on a black ground. If for a single woman,

her arms are represented upon a lozenge, bordered with knotted ribbons,

also on a black ground. If the hatchment be for a married man (as in the

illustration), his arms upon a shield impale those of his surviving

wife; or if she be an heiress they are placed upon a scutcheon of

pretence, and crest and other appendages are added. The dexter half of

the ground is black, the sinister white. For a wife whose husband is

alive the same arrangement is used, but the sinister ground only is

black. For a widower the same is used as for a married man, but the

whole ground is black; for a widow the husband's arms are given with her

own, but upon a lozenge, with ribbons, without crest or appendages, and

the whole ground is black. When there have been two wives or two

husbands the ground is divided into three parts per pale, and the

division behind the arms of the survivor is white. Colours and military

or naval emblems are sometimes placed behind the arms of military or

naval officers. It is thus easy to discern from the hatchment the sex,

condition and quality, and possibly the name of the deceased.

In Scottish hatchments it is not unusual to place the arms of the father

and mother of the deceased in the two lateral angles of the lozenge, and

sometimes the 4, 8 or 16 genealogical escutcheons are ranged along the

margin.

HATFIELD, a town in the Mid or St Albans parliamentary division of

Hertfordshire, England, 17(1/2) m. N. of London by the Great Northern

railway. Pop. (1901), 4754. It lies picturesquely on the flank of a

wooded hill, and about its foot, past which runs the Great North Road.

The church of St Etheldreda, well situated towards the top of the hill,

contains an Early English round arch with the dog-tooth moulding, but

for the rest is Decorated and Perpendicular, and largely restored. The

chapel north of the chancel is known as the Salisbury chapel, and was

erected by Robert Cecil, first earl of Salisbury (d. 1612), who was

buried here. It is in a mixture of classic and Gothic styles. In a

private portion of the churchyard is buried, among others of the family,

the third marquess of Salisbury (d. 1903). In the vicinity is Hatfield

House, close to the site of a palace of the bishops of Ely, which was

erected about the beginning of the 12th century. From this palace comes

the proper form of the name of the town, Bishop's Hatfield. In 1538 the

manor was resigned to Henry VIII. by Bishop Thomas Goodrich of Ely, in

exchange for certain lands in Cambridge, Essex and Norfolk; and after

that monarch the palace was successively the residence of Edward VI.

immediately before his accession, of Queen Elizabeth during the reign of

her sister Mary, and of James I. The last-named exchanged it in 1607 for

Theobalds, near Cheshunt, in the same county, an estate of Robert Cecil,

earl of Salisbury, in whose family Hatfield House has since remained.

The west wing of the present mansion, built for Cecil in 1608-1611, was

destroyed by fire in November 1835, the dowager marchioness of

Salisbury, widow of the 1st marquess, perishing in the flames. Hatfield

House was built, and has been restored and maintained, in the richest

style of its period, both without and within. The buildings of mellowed

red brick now used as stables and offices are, however, of a period far

anterior to Cecil's time, and are probably part of the erection of John

Morton, bishop of Ely in 1478-1486. The park measures some 10 m. in

circumference. From the eminence on which the mansion stands the ground

falls towards the river Lea, which here expands into a small lake.

Beyond this is a rare example of a monks' walled vineyard. In the park

is also an ancient oak under which Elizabeth is said to have been seated

when the news of her sister's death was brought to her. Brocket Park is

another fine demesne, at the neighbouring village of Lemsford, and the

Brocket chapel in Hatfield church contains memorials of the families who

have held this seat.

HATHERLEY, WILLIAM PAGE WOOD, 1ST BARON (1801-1881), lord chancellor of

Great Britain, son of Sir Matthew Wood, a London alderman and lord mayor

who became famous for befriending Queen Caroline and braving George IV.,

was born in London on the 29th of November 1801. He was educated at

Winchester, Geneva University, and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he

became a fellow after being 24th wrangler in 1824. He entered Lincoln's

Inn, and was called to the bar in 1824, studying conveyancing in Mr John

Tyrrell's chambers. He soon obtained a good practice as an equity

draughtsman and before parliamentary committees, and in 1830 married

Miss Charlotte Moor. In 1845 he became Q.C., and in 1847 was elected to

parliament for the city of Oxford as a Liberal. In 1849 he was appointed

vice-chancellor of the county palatine of Lancaster, and in 1851 was

made solicitor-general and knighted, vacating that position in 1852.

When his party returned to power in 1853, he was raised to the bench as

a vice-chancellor. In 1868 he was made a lord justice of appeal, but

before the end of the year was selected by Mr Gladstone to be lord

chancellor, and was raised to the peerage as Lord Hatherley of Down

Hatherley. He retired in 1872 owing to failing eyesight, but sat

occasionally as a law lord. His wife's death in 1878 was a great blow,

from which he never recovered, and he died in London on the 10th of July

1881. Dean Hook said that Lord Hatherley--who was a sound and benevolent

supporter of the Church of England--was the best man he had ever known.

He was a particularly clear-headed lawyer, and his judgments--always

delivered extempore--commanded the greatest confidence both with the

public and the legal profession. He left no issue and the title became

extinct on his death.

HATHERTON, EDWARD JOHN LITTLETON, 1ST BARON (1791-1863), was born on the

18th of March 1791 and was educated at Rugby school and at Brasenose

College, Oxford. He was the only son of Moreton Walhouse of Hatherton,

Staffordshire; but in 1812, in accordance with the will of his

great-uncle Sir Edward Littleton, Bart. (d. 1812), he took the name of

Littleton. From 1812 to 1832 he was member of parliament for

Staffordshire and from 1832 to 1835 for the southern division of that

county, being specially prominent in the House of Commons as an advocate

of Roman Catholic emancipation. In January 1833, against his own wish,

he was put forward by the Radicals as a candidate for the office of

speaker, but he was not elected and in May 1833 he became chief

secretary to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland in the ministry of Earl

Grey. His duties in this capacity brought him frequently into conflict

with O'Connell, but he was obviously unequal to the great Irishman,

although he told his colleagues to "leave me to manage Dan." He had to

deal with the vexed and difficult question of the Irish tithes on which

the government was divided, and with his colleagues had to face the

problem of a new coercion act. Rather hastily he made a compact with

O'Connell on the assumption that the new act could not contain certain

clauses which were part of the old act. The clauses, however, were

inserted; O'Connell charged Littleton with deception; and in July 1834

Grey, Althorp (afterwards Earl Spencer) and the Irish secretary

resigned. The two latter were induced to serve under the new premier,

Lord Melbourne, and they remained in office until Melbourne was

dismissed in November 1834. In 1835 Littleton was created Baron

Hatherton, and he died at his Staffordshire residence, Teddesley Hall,

on the 4th of May 1863. In 1888 his grandson, Edward George Littleton

(b. 1842), became 3rd Baron Hatherton.

See Hatherton's _Memoirs and Correspondence relating to Political

Occurrences, June-July 1834_, edited by H. Reeve (1872); and Sir S.

Walpole, _History of England_, vol. iii. (1890).

HATHRAS, a town of British India, in the Aligarh district of the United

Provinces, 29 m. N. of Agra. Pop. (1901), 42,578. At the end of the 18th

century it was held by a Jat chieftain, whose ruined fort still stands

at the east end of the town, and was annexed by the British in 1803, but

insubordination on the part of the chief necessitated the siege of the

fort in 1817. Since it came under British rule, Hathras has rapidly

risen to commercial importance, and now ranks second to Cawnpore among

the trading centres of the Doab. The chief articles of commerce are

sugar and grain, there are also factories for ginning and pressing

cotton, and a cotton spinning-mill. Hathras is connected by a light

railway with Muttra, and by a branch with Hathras junction, on the East

Indian main line.

HATTIESBURG, a city and the county-seat of Forrest county, Mississippi,

U.S.A., on the Hastahatchee (or Leaf) river, about 90 m. S.E. of

Jackson. Pop. (1890) 1172; (1900) 4175 (1687 negroes); (1910) 11,733.

Hattiesburg is served by the Gulf & Ship Island, the Mississippi

Central, the New Orleans, Mobile & Chicago and the New Orleans & North

Eastern railways. The officers and employees of the Gulf & Ship Island

railway own and maintain a hospital here. The city is in a rich farming,

truck-gardening and lumbering country. Among its manufactures are lumber

(especially yellow-pine), wood-alcohol, turpentine, paper and pulp,

fertilizers, wagons, mattresses and machine-shop products. Hattiesburg

was founded about 1882 and was named in honour of the wife of W. H.

Hardy, a railway official, who planned a town at the intersection of the

New Orleans & North-Eastern (which built a round house and repair shops

here in 1885) and the Gulf & Ship Island railways. The latter railway

was opened from Gulfport to Hattiesburg in January 1897, and from

Hattiesburg to Jackson in September 1900. Hattiesburg was incorporated

as a town in 1884 and was chartered as a city in 1899. Formerly the

"court house" of the second judicial district of Perry county,

Hattiesburg became on the 1st of January 1908 the county-seat of Forrest

county, erected from the W. part of Perry county.

HATTINGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, on

the river Ruhr, 21 m. N.E. of Dusseldorf. Pop. (1900), 8975. It has two

Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church. The manufactures include

tobacco, and iron and steel goods. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of

the Isenburg, demolished in 1226. Hattingen, which received communal

rights in 1396, was one of the Hanse towns.

HATTO I. (c. 850-913), archbishop of Mainz, belonged to a Swabian

family, and was probably educated at the monastery of Reichenau, of

which he became abbot in 888. He soon became known to the German king,

Arnulf, who appointed him archbishop of Mainz in 891; and he became such

a trustworthy and confidential counsellor that he was popularly called

"the heart of the king." He presided over the important synod at Tribur

in 895, and accompanied the king to Italy in 894 and 895, where he was

received with great favour by Pope Formosus. In 899, when Arnulf died,

Hatto became regent of Germany, and guardian of the young king, Louis

the Child, whose authority he compelled Zwentibold, king of Lorraine, an

illegitimate son of Arnulf, to recognize. During these years he did not

neglect his own interests, for in 896 he secured for himself the abbey

of Ellwangen and in 898 that of Lorsch. He assisted the Franconian

family of the Conradines in its feud with the Babenbergs, and was

accused of betraying Adalbert, count of Babenberg, to death. He retained

his influence during the whole of the reign of Louis; and on the king's

death in 911 was prominent in securing the election of Conrad, duke of

Franconia, to the vacant throne. When trouble arose between Conrad and

Henry, duke of Saxony, afterwards King Henry the Fowler, the attitude of

Conrad was ascribed by the Saxons to the influence of Hatto, who wished

to prevent Henry from securing authority in Thuringia, where the see of

Mainz had extensive possessions. He was accused of complicity in a plot

to murder Duke Henry, who in return ravaged the archiepiscopal lands in

Saxony and Thuringia. He died on the 15th of May 913, one tradition

saying he was struck by lightning, and another that he was thrown alive

by the devil into the crater of Mount Etna. His memory was long regarded

in Saxony with great abhorrence, and stories of cruelty and treachery

gathered round his name. The legend of the Mouse Tower at Bingen is

connected with Hatto II., who was archbishop of Mainz from 968 to 970.

This Hatto built the church of St George on the island of Reichenau, was

generous to the see of Mainz and to the abbeys of Fulda and Reichenau,

and was a patron of the chronicler Regino, abbot of Prum.

See E. Dummler, _Geschichte des ostfrankischen Reichs_ (Leipzig,

1887-1888); G. Phillips, _Die grosse Synode von Tribur_ (Vienna,

1865); J. Heidemann, _Hatto I., Erzbischof von Mainz_ (Berlin, 1865);

G. Waitz, _Jahrbucher der deutschen Geschichte unter Heinrich I._

(Berlin and Leipzig, 1863); and J. F. Bohmer, _Regesta

archiepiscoporum Maguntinensium_, edited by C. Will (Innsbruck,

1877-1886).

HATTON, SIR CHRISTOPHER (1540-1591), lord chancellor of England and

favourite of Queen Elizabeth, was a son of William Hatton (d. 1546) of

Holdenby, Northamptonshire, and was educated at St Mary Hall, Oxford. A

handsome and accomplished man, being especially distinguished for bis

elegant dancing, he soon attracted the notice of Queen Elizabeth, became

one of her gentlemen pensioners in 1564, and captain of her bodyguard in

1572. He received numerous estates and many positions of trust and

profit from the queen, and suspicion was not slow to assert that he was

Elizabeth's lover, a charge which was definitely made by Mary queen of

Scots in 1584. Hatton, who was probably innocent in this matter, had

been made vice-chamberlain of the royal household and a member of the

privy council in 1578, and had been a member of parliament since 1571,

first representing the borough of Higham Ferrers and afterwards the

county of Northampton. In 1578 he was knighted, and was now regarded as

the queen's spokesman in the House of Commons, being an active agent in

the prosecutions of John Stubbs and William Parry. He was one of those

who were appointed to arrange a marriage between Elizabeth and Francis,

duke of Alencon, in 1581; was a member of the court which tried Anthony

Babington in 1586; and was one of the commissioners who found Mary queen

of Scots guilty. He besought Elizabeth not to marry the French prince;

and according to one account repeatedly assured Mary that he would fetch

her to London if the English queen died. Whether or no this story be

true, Hatton's loyalty was not questioned; and he was the foremost

figure in that striking scene in the House of Commons in December 1584,

when four hundred kneeling members repeated after him a prayer for

Elizabeth's safety. Having been the constant recipient of substantial

marks of the queen's favour, he vigorously denounced Mary Stuart in

parliament, and advised William Davison to forward the warrant for her

execution to Fotheringay. In the same year (1587) Hatton was made lord

chancellor, and although he had no great knowledge of the law, he

appears to have acted with sound sense and good judgment in his new

position. He is said to have been a Roman Catholic in all but name, yet

he treated religious questions in a moderate and tolerant way. He died

in London on the 20th of November 1591, and was buried in St Paul's

cathedral. Although mention has been made of a secret marriage, Hatton

appears to have remained single, and his large and valuable estates

descended to his nephew, Sir William Newport, who took the name of

Hatton. Sir Christopher was a knight of the Garter and chancellor of the

university of Oxford. Elizabeth frequently showed her affection for her

favourite in an extravagant and ostentatious manner. She called him her

_mouton_, and forced the bishop of Ely to give him the freehold of Ely

Place, Holborn, which became his residence, his name being perpetuated

in the neighbouring Hatton Garden. Hatton is reported to have been a

very mean man, but he patronized men of letters, and among his friends

was Edmund Spenser. He wrote the fourth act of a tragedy, _Tancred and

Gismund_, and his death occasioned several panegyrics in both prose and

verse.

When Hatton's nephew, Sir William Hatton, died without sons in 1597, his

estates passed to a kinsman, another Sir Christopher Hatton (d. 1619),

whose son and successor, Christopher (c. 1605-1670), was elected a

member of the Long Parliament in 1640, and during the Civil War was a

partisan of Charles I. In 1643 he was created Baron Hatton of Kirby;

and, acting as comptroller of the royal household, he represented the

king during the negotiations at Uxbridge in 1645. Later he lived for

some years in France, and after the Restoration was made a privy

councillor and governor of Guernsey. He died at Kirby on the 4th of July

1670, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. By his wife Elizabeth (d.

1672), daughter of Sir Charles Montagu of Boughton, he had two sons and

three daughters. His eldest son Christopher (1632-1706), succeeded his

father as Baron Hatton and also as governor of Guernsey in 1670. In 1683

he was created Viscount Hatton of Grendon. He was married three times,

and left two sons: William (1690-1760), who succeeded to his father's

titles and estates, and Henry Charles (c. 1700-1762), who enjoyed the

same dignities for a short time after his brother's death. When Henry

Charles died, the titles became extinct, and the family is now

represented by the Finch-Hattons, earls of Winchilsea and Nottingham,

whose ancestor, Daniel Finch, 2nd earl of Nottingham, married Anne (d.

1743), daughter of the 1st Viscount Hatton.

See Sir N. H. Nicolas, _Life and Times of Sir Christopher Hatton_

(London, 1847); and _Correspondence of the Family of Hatton, being

chiefly Letters addressed to Christopher, first Viscount Hatton_,

1601-1704, edited with introduction by E. M. Thompson (London, 1878).

HATTON, JOHN LIPTROT (1809-1886), English musical composer, was born at

Liverpool on the 12th of October 1809. He was virtually a self-taught

musician, and besides holding several appointments as organist in

Liverpool, appeared as an actor on the Liverpool stage, subsequently

finding his way to London as a member of Macready's company at Drury

Lane in 1832. Ten years after this he was appointed conductor at the

same theatre for a series of English operas, and in 1843 his own first

operetta, _Queen of the Thames_, was given with success. Staudigl, the

eminent German bass, was a member of the company, and at his suggestion

Hatton wrote a more ambitious work, _Pascal Bruno_, which, in a German

translation, was presented at Vienna, with Staudigl in the principal

part; the opera contained a song, "Revenge," which the basso made very

popular in England, though the piece as a whole was not successful

enough to be produced here. Hatton's excellent pianoforte playing

attracted much attention in Vienna; he took the opportunity of studying

counterpoint under Sechter, and wrote a number of songs, obviously

modelled on the style of German classics. In 1846 he appeared at the

Hereford festival as a singer, and also played a pianoforte concerto of

Mozart. He undertook concert tours about this time with Sivori,

Vieuxtemps and others. From 1848 to 1850 he was in America; on his

return he became conductor of the Glee and Madrigal Union, and from

about 1853 was engaged at the Princess's theatre to provide and conduct

the music for Charles Kean's Shakespearean revivals. He seems to have

kept this appointment for about five years. In 1856 a cantata, _Robin

Hood_, was given at the Bradford festival, and a third opera, _Rose, or

Love's Ransom_, at Covent Garden in 1864, without much success. In 1866

he went again to America, and from this year Hatton held the post of

accompanist at the Ballad Concerts, St James's Hall, for nine seasons.

In 1875 he went to Stuttgart, and wrote an oratorio, _Hezekiah_, given

at the Crystal Palace in 1877; like all his larger works it met with

very moderate success. Hatton excelled in the lyrical forms of music,

and, in spite of his distinct skill in the severer styles of the

madrigal, &c., he won popularity by such songs as "To Anthea,"

"Good-bye, Sweetheart," and "Simon the Cellarer," the first of which may

be called a classic in its own way. His glees and part-songs, such as

"When Evening's Twilight," are still reckoned among the best of their

class; and he might have gained a place of higher distinction among

English composers had it not been for his irresistible animal spirits

and a want of artistic reverence, which made it uncertain in his younger

days whether, when he appeared at a concert, he would play a fugue of

Bach or sing a comic song. He died at Margate on the 20th of September

1886.

HAUCH, JOHANNES CARSTEN (1790-1872), Danish poet, was born of Danish

parents residing at Frederikshald in Norway, on the 12th of May 1790. In

1802 he lost his mother, and in 1803 returned with his father to

Denmark. In 1807 he fought as a volunteer against the English invasion.

He entered the university of Copenhagen in 1808, and in 1821 took his

doctor's degree. He became the friend and associate of Steffens and

Oehlenschlager, warmly adopting the romantic views about poetry and

philosophy. His first two dramatic poems, _The Journey to Ginistan_ and

_The Power of Fancy_, appeared in 1816, and were followed by a lyrical

drama, _Rosaura_ (1817); but these works attracted little or no

attention. Hauch therefore gave up all hope of fame as a poet, and

resigned himself entirely to the study of science. He took his doctor's

degree in zoology in 1821, and went abroad to pursue his studies. At

Nice he had an accident which obliged him to submit to the amputation of

one foot. He returned to literature, publishing a dramatized fairy tale,

the _Hamadryad_, and the tragedies of _Bajazet_, _Tiberius_, _Gregory

VII._, in 1828-1829, _The Death of Charles V._ (1831), and _The Siege of

Maestricht_ (1832). These plays were violently attacked and enjoyed no

success. Hauch then turned to novel-writing, and published in succession

five romances--_Vilhelm Zabern_ (1834); _The Alchemist_ (1836); _A

Polish Family_ (1839); _The Castle on the Rhine_ (1845); and _Robert

Fulton_ (1853). In 1842 he collected his shorter _Poems_. In 1846 he was

appointed professor of the Scandinavian languages in Kiel, but returned

to Copenhagen when the war broke out in 1848. About this time his

dramatic talent was at its height, and he produced one admirable tragedy

after another; among these may be mentioned _Svend Grathe_ (1841); _The

Sisters at Kinnekulle_ (1849); _Marshal Stig_ (1850); _Honour Lost and

Won_ (1851); and _Tycho Brahe's Youth_ (1852). From 1858 to 1860 Hauch

was director of the Danish National Theatre; he produced three more

tragedies--_The King's Favourite_ (1859); _Henry of Navarre_ (1863); and

_Julian the Apostate_ (1866). In 1861 he published another collection

of _Lyrical Poems and Romances_; and in 1862 the historical epic of

_Valdemar Seir_, volumes which contain his best work. From 1851, when he

succeeded Oehlenschlager, to his death, he held the honorary post of

professor of aesthetics at the university of Copenhagen. He died in Rome

in 1872. Hauch was one of the most prolific of the Danish poets, though

his writings are unequal in value. His lyrics and romances in verse are

always fine in form and often strongly imaginative. In all his writings,

but especially in his tragedies, he displays a strong bias in favour of

what is mystical and supernatural. Of his dramas _Marshal Stig_ is

perhaps the best, and of his novels the patriotic tale of _Vilhelm

Zabern_ is admired the most.

See G. Brandes, "Carsten Hauch" (1873) in _Danske Digtere_ (1877); F.

Ronning, _J. C. Hauch_ (1890), and in _Dansk Biografisk-Lexicon_,

(vol. vii. Copenhagen, 1893). Hauch's novels were collected

(1873-1874) and his dramatic works (3 vols., 2nd ed., 1852-1859).

HAUER, FRANZ, RITTER VON (1822-1899), Austrian geologist, born in Vienna

on the 30th of January 1822, was son of Joseph von Hauer (1778-1863),

who was equally distinguished as a high Austrian official and authority

on finance and as a palaeontologist. He was educated in Vienna,

afterwards studied geology at the mining academy of Schemnitz

(1839-1843), and for a time was engaged in official mining work in

Styria. In 1846 he became assistant to W. von Haidinger at the

mineralogical museum in Vienna; three years later he joined the imperial

geological institute, and in 1866 he was appointed director. In 1886 he

became superintendent of the imperial natural history museum in Vienna.

Among his special geological works are those on the Cephalopoda of the

Triassic and Jurassic formations of Alpine regions (1855-1856). His most

important general work was that of the _Geological Map of

Austro-Hungary_, in twelve sheets (1867-1871; 4th ed., 1884, including

Bosnia and Montenegro). This map was accompanied by a series of

explanatory pamphlets. In 1882 he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the

Geological Society of London. In 1892 von Hauer became a life-member of

the upper house of the Austrian parliament. He died on the 20th of March

1899.

PUBLICATIONS.--_Beitrage zur Palaontolographie von Osterreich_

(1858-1859); _Die Geologie und ihre Anwendung auf die Kenntnis der

Bodenbeschaffenheit der osterr.-ungar. Monarchie_ (1875; ed. 2, 1878).

_Memoir_ by Dr E. Tietze; _Jahrbuch der K. K. geolog. Reichsanstalt_

(1899, reprinted 1900, with portrait).

HAUFF, WILHELM (1802-1827), German poet and novelist, was born at

Stuttgart on the 29th of November 1802, the son of a secretary in the

ministry of foreign affairs. Young Hauff lost his father when he was but

seven years of age, and his early education was practically self-gained

in the library of his maternal grandfather at Tubingen, to which place

his mother had removed. In 1818 he was sent to the Klosterschule at

Blaubeuren, whence he passed in 1820 to the university of Tubingen. In

four years he completed his philosophical and theological studies, and

on leaving the university became tutor to the children of the famous

Wurttemberg minister of war, General Baron Ernst Eugen von Hugel

(1774-1849), and for them wrote his _Marchen_, which he published in his

_Marchenalmanach auf das Jahr_ 1826. He also wrote there the first part

of the _Mitteilungen aus den Memoiren des Satan_ (1826) and _Der Mann im

Monde_ (1825). The latter, a parody of the sentimental and sensual

novels of H. Clauren (pseudonym of Karl Gottlieb Samuel Heun

[1771-1854]), became, in course of composition, a close imitation of

that author's style and was actually published under his name. Clauren,

in consequence, brought an action for damages against Hauff and gained

his case. Whereupon Hauff followed up the attack in his witty and

sarcastic _Kontroverspredigt uber H. Clauren und den Mann im Monde_

(1826) and attained his original object--the moral annihilation of the

mawkish and unhealthy literature with which Clauren was flooding the

country. Meanwhile, animated by Sir Walter Scott's novels, Hauff wrote

the historical romance _Lichtenstein_ (1826), which acquired great

popularity in Germany and especially in Swabia, treating as it did the

most interesting period in the history of that country, the reign of

Duke Ulrich (1487-1550). While on a journey to France, the Netherlands

and north Germany he wrote the second part of the _Memoiren des Satan_

and some short novels, among them the charming _Bettlerin vom Pont des

Arts_ and his masterpiece, the _Phantasien im Bremer Ratskeller_ (1827).

He also published some short poems which have passed into _Volkslieder_,

among them _Morgenrot, Morgenrot, leuchtest mir zum fruhen Tod_; and

_Steh' ich in finstrer Mitternacht_. In January 1827, Hauff undertook

the editorship of the Stuttgart _Morgenblatt_ and in the following month

married, but his happiness was prematurely cut short by his death from

fever on the 18th of November 1827.

Considering his brief life, Hauff was an extraordinarily prolific

writer. The freshness and originality of his talent, his inventiveness,

and his genial humour have won him a high place among the south German

prose writers of the early nineteenth century.

His _Samtliche Werke_ were published, with a biography, by G. Schwab

(3 vols., 1830-1834; 5 vols., 18th ed., 1882), and by F. Bobertag

(1891-1897), and a selection by M. Mendheim (3 vols., 1891). For his

life cf. J. Klaiber, _Wilhelm Hauff, ein Lebensbild_ (1881); M.

Mendheim, _Hauffs Leben und Werke_ (1894); and H. Hofmann, _W. Hauff_

(1902).

HAUG, MARTIN (1827-1876), German Orientalist, was born at Ostdorf near

Balingen, Wurttemberg, on the 30th of January 1827. He became a pupil in

the gymnasium at Stuttgart at a comparatively late age, and in 1848 he

entered the university of Tubingen, where he studied Oriental languages,

especially Sanskrit. He afterwards attended lectures in Gottingen, and

in 1854 settled as _Privatdozent_ at Bonn. In 1856 he removed to

Heidelberg, where he assisted Bunsen in his literary undertakings; and

in 1859 he accepted an invitation to India, where he became

superintendent of Sanskrit studies and professor of Sanskrit in Poona.

Here his acquaintance with the Zend language and literature afforded him

excellent opportunities for extending his knowledge of this branch of

literature. The result of his researches was a volume of _Essays on the

sacred language, writings and religion of the Parsees_ (Bombay, 1862).

Having returned to Stuttgart in 1866, he was called to Munich as

professor of Sanskrit and comparative philology in 1868. He died on the

3rd of June 1876.

Besides the _Essays on the Parsees_, of which a new edition, by E. W.

West, greatly enriched from the posthumous papers of the author,

appeared in 1878, Haug published a number of works of considerable

importance to the student of the literatures of ancient India and

Persia. They include _Die Pehlewisprache und der Bundehesch_ (1854);

_Die Schrift und Sprache der zweiten Keilschriftgattung_ (1855); _Die

funf Gathas_, edited, translated and expounded (1858-1860); an

edition, with translation and explanation, of the _Aitareya Brahmana

of the Rigveda_ (Bombay, 1863), which is accounted his best work in

the province of ancient Indian literature; _A Lecture on an original

Speech of Zoroaster_ (1865); _An old Zend-Pahlavi Glossary_ (1867);

_Uber den Charakter der Pehlewisprache_ (1869); _Das 18. Kapitel des

Wendidad_ (1869); _Uber das Ardai-Virafnameh_ (1870); _An old

Pahlavi-Pazand Glossary_ (1870); and _Vedische Ratselfragen und

Ratselspruche_ (1875).

For particulars of Haug's life and work, see A. Bezzenberger,

_Beitrage zur Kunde der indogermanischen Sprachen_, vol. i. pp. 70

seq.

HAUGE, HANS NIELSEN (1771-1824), Norwegian Lutheran divine, was born in

the parish of Thuno, Norway, on the 3rd of April 1771, the son of a

peasant. With the aid of various religious works which he found in his

father's house, he laboured to supplement his scanty education. In his

twenty-sixth year, believing himself to be a divinely-commissioned

prophet, he began to preach in his native parish and afterwards

throughout Norway, calling people to repentance and attacking

rationalism. In 1800 he passed to Denmark, where, as at home, he gained

many followers and assistants, chiefly among the lower orders.

Proceeding to Christiansand in 1804, Hauge set up a printing-press to

disseminate his views more widely, but was almost immediately arrested

for holding illegal religious meetings, and for insulting the regular

clergy in his books, all of which were confiscated; he was also heavily

fined. After being in confinement for some years, he was released in

1814 on payment of a fine, and retiring to an estate at Breddwill, near

Christiania, he died there on the 29th of March 1824. His adherents, who

did not formally break with the church, were called _Haugianer or Leser_

(i.e. Readers). He unquestionably did much to revive the spiritual life

of the northern Lutheran Church. His views were of a pietistic nature.

Though he cannot be said to have rejected any article of the Lutheran

creed, the peculiar emphasis which he laid upon the evangelical

doctrines of faith and grace involved considerable antagonism to the

rationalistic or sacerdotal views commonly held by the established

clergy.

Hauge's principal writings are _Forsog til Afhandeling om Guds Visdom_

(1796); _Anvisning til nogle morkelige Sprog i Bibelen_ (1798);

_Forklaring over Loven og Evangelium_ (1803). For an account of his

life and doctrines see C. Bang's _Hans Nielsen Hauge og hans Samtid_

(Christiania; 2nd ed., 1875); O. Rost, _Nogle Bemaerkninger om Hans

Nielsen Hauge og hans Retning_ (1883), and the article in

Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_.

HAUGESUND, a seaport of Norway in Stavanger _amt_ (county), on the west

coast, 34 m. N. by W. of Stavanger. Pop. (1900), 7935. It is an

important fishing centre. Herrings are exported to the annual value of

L100,000 to L200,000, also mackerel and lobsters. The principal imports

are coal and salt. There are factories for woollen goods and a margarine

factory. Haugesund is the reputed death-place of Harald Haarfager, to

whom an obelisk of red granite was erected in 1872 on the thousandth

anniversary of his victory at the Hafsfjord (near Stavanger) whereby he

won the sovereignty of Norway. The memorial stands 1(1/4) m. north of

the town, on the Haraldshaug, where the hero's supposed tombstone is

shown.

HAUGHTON, SAMUEL (1821-1897), Irish scientific writer, the son of James

Haughton (1795-1873), was born at Carlow on the 21st of December 1821.

His father, the son of a Quaker, but himself a Unitarian, was an active

philanthropist, a strong supporter of Father Theobald Mathew, a

vegetarian, and an anti-slavery worker and writer. After a distinguished

career in Trinity College, Dublin, Samuel was elected a fellow in 1844.

He was ordained priest in 1847, but seldom preached. In 1851 he was

appointed professor of geology in Trinity College, and this post he held

for thirty years. He began the study of medicine in 1859, and in 1862

took the degree of M.D. in the university of Dublin. He was then made

registrar of the Medical School, the status of which he did much to

improve, and he represented the university on the General Medical

Council from 1878 to 1896. He was elected F.R.S. in 1858, and in course

of time Oxford conferred upon him the hon. degree of D.C.L., and

Cambridge and Edinburgh that of LL.D. He was a man of remarkable

knowledge and ability, and he communicated papers on widely different

subjects to various learned societies and scientific journals in London

and Dublin. He wrote on the laws of equilibrium and motion of solid and

fluid bodies (1846), on sun-heat, terrestrial radiation, geological

climates and on tides. He wrote also on the granites of Leinster and

Donegal, and on the cleavage and joint-planes in the Old Red Sandstone

of Waterford (1857-1858). He was president of the Royal Irish Academy

from 1886 to 1891, and for twenty years he was secretary of the Royal

Zoological Society of Ireland. He died in Dublin on the 31st of October

1897.

PUBLICATIONS.--_Manual of Geology_ (1865); _Principles of Animal

Mechanics_ (1873); _Six Lectures on Physical Geography_ (1880). In

conjunction with his friend, Professor J. Galbraith, he issued a

series of Manuals of Mathematical and Physical Science.

HAUGHTON, WILLIAM (fl. 1598), English playwright. He collaborated in

many plays with Henry Chettle, Thomas Dekker, John Day and Richard

Hathway. The only certain biographical information about him is derived

from Philip Henslowe, who on the 10th of March 1600 lent him ten

shillings "to release him out of the Clink." Mr Fleay credits him with a

considerable share in _The Patient Grissill_ (1599), and a merry comedy

entitled _English-Men for my Money, or A Woman will have her Will_

(1598) is ascribed to his sole authorship. _The Devil and his Dame_,

mentioned as a forthcoming play by Henslowe in March 1600, is identified

by Mr Fleay as _Grim, the Collier of Croydon_, which was printed in

1662. In this play an emissary is sent from the infernal regions to

report on the conditions of married life on earth.

_Grim_ is reprinted in vol. viii., and _English-Men for my Money_ in

vol. x., of W. C. Hazlitt's edition of Dodsley's _Old Plays_.

HAUGWITZ, CHRISTIAN AUGUST HEINRICH KURT, COUNT VON, FREIHERR VON

KRAPPITZ (1752-1831), Prussian statesman, was born on the 11th of June

1752, at Peucke near Ols. He belonged to the Silesian (Protestant)

branch of the ancient family of Haugwitz, of which the Catholic branch

is established in Moravia. He studied law, spent some time in Italy,

returned to settle on his estates in Silesia, and in 1791 was elected by

the Silesian estates general director of the province. At the urgent

instance of King Frederick William II. he entered the Prussian service,

became ambassador at Vienna in 1792 and at the end of the same year a

member of the cabinet at Berlin.

Haugwitz, who had attended the young emperor Francis II. at his

coronation and been present at the conferences held at Mainz to consider

the attitude of the German powers towards the Revolution, was opposed to

the exaggerated attitude of the French _emigres_ and to any interference

in the internal affairs of France. After the war broke out, however, the

defiant temper of the Committee of Public Safety made an honourable

peace impossible, while the strained relations between Austria and

Prussia on the question of territorial "compensations" crippled the

power of the Allies to carry the war to a successful conclusion. It was

in these circumstances that Haugwitz entered on the negotiations that

resulted in the subsidy treaty between Great Britain and Prussia, and

Great Britain and Holland, signed at the Hague on the 19th of April

1794. Haugwitz, however, was not the man to direct a strong and

aggressive policy; the failure of Prussia to make any effective use of

the money supplied broke the patience of Pitt, and in October the

denunciation by Great Britain of the Hague treaty broke the last tie

that bound Prussia to the Coalition. The separate treaty with France,

signed at Basel on the 5th of April 1795, was mainly due to the

influence of Haugwitz.

His object was now to save the provinces on the left bank of the Rhine

from being lost to the Empire. No guarantee of their maintenance had

been inserted in the Basel treaty; but Haugwitz and the king hoped to

preserve them by establishing the armed neutrality of North Germany and

securing its recognition by the French Republic. This policy was

rendered futile by the victories of Napoleon Bonaparte and the virtual

conquest of South Germany by the French. Haugwitz, who had continued to

enjoy the confidence of the new king, Frederick William III., recognized

this fact, and urged his master to join the new Coalition in 1798. But

the king clung blindly to the illusion of neutrality, and Haugwitz

allowed himself to be made the instrument of a policy of which he

increasingly disapproved. It was not till 1803, when the king refused

his urgent advice to demand the evacuation of Hanover by the French,

that he tendered his resignation. In August 1804 he was definitely

replaced by Hardenberg, and retired to his estates.

In his retirement Haugwitz was still consulted, and he used all his

influence against Hardenberg's policy of a _rapprochement_ with France.

His representations had little weight, however, until Napoleon's

high-handed action in violating Prussian territory by marching troops

through Ansbach, roused the anger of the king. Haugwitz was now once

more appointed foreign minister, as Hardenberg's colleague, and it was

he who was charged to carry to Napoleon the Prussian ultimatum which was

the outcome of the visit of the tsar Alexander I. to Berlin in November.

But in this crisis his courage failed him; his nature was one that ever

let "I dare not wait upon I will"; he delayed his journey pending some

turn in events and to give time for the mobilization of the duke of

Brunswick's army; he was frightened by reports of separate negotiations

between Austria and Napoleon, not realizing that a bold declaration by

Prussia would nip them in the bud. Napoleon, when at last they met, read

him like a book and humoured his diplomatic weakness until the whole

issue was decided at Austerlitz. On the 15th of December, instead of

delivering an ultimatum, Haugwitz signed at Schonbrunn the treaty which

gave Hanover to Prussia in return for Ansbach, Cleves and Neuchatel.

The humiliation of Prussia and her minister was, however, not yet

complete. In February 1806 Haugwitz went to Paris to ratify the treaty

of Schonbrunn and to attempt to secure some modifications in favour of

Prussia. He was received with a storm of abuse by Napoleon, who insisted

on tearing up the treaty and drawing up a fresh one, which doubled the

amount of territory to be ceded by Prussia and forced her to a breach

with Great Britain by binding her to close the Hanoverian ports to

British commerce. The treaty, signed on the 15th of February, left

Prussia wholly isolated in Europe. What followed belongs to the history

of Europe rather than to the biography of Haugwitz. He remained, indeed,

at the head of the Prussian ministry of foreign affairs, but the course

of Prussian policy it was beyond his power to control. The Prussian

ultimatum to Napoleon was forced upon him by overwhelming circumstances,

and with the battle of Jena, on the 14th of October, his political

career came to an end. He accompanied the flight of the king into East

Prussia, there took leave of him and retired to his Silesian estates. In

1811 he was appointed _Curator_ of the university of Breslau; in 1820,

owing to failing health, he went to live in Italy, where he remained

till his death at Venice in 1831.

Haugwitz was a man of great intellectual gifts, of dignified presence

and a charming address which endeared him to his sovereigns and his

colleagues; but as a statesman he failed, not through want of

perspicacity, but through lack of will power and a fatal habit of

procrastination. During his retirement in Italy he wrote memoirs in

justification of his policy, a fragment of which dealing with the

episode of the treaty of Schonbrunn was published at Jena in 1837.

See J. von Minutoli, _Der Graf von Haugwitz und Job von Witzleben_

(Berlin, 1844); L. von Ranke, _Hardenberg u. d. Gesch. des preuss.

Staates_ (Leipzig, 1879-1881), note on Haugwitz's memoirs in vol. ii.;

_Denkwurdigkeiten des Staatskanzlers Fursten von Hardenberg_, ed.

Ranke (5 vols., Leipzig, 1877); A. Sorel, _L'Europe et la Revol.

Franc., passim_.

HAUNTINGS (from "to haunt," Fr. _hanter_, of uncertain origin, but

possibly from Lat. _ambitare_, _ambire_, to go about, frequent), the

supposed manifestations of existence by spirits of the dead in houses or

places familiar to them in life. The savage practice of tying up the

corpse before burying it is clearly intended to prevent the dead from

"walking"; and cremation, whether in savage lands or in classical times,

may have originally had the same motive. The "spirit" manifests himself,

as a rule, either in his bodily form, as when he lived, or in the shape

of some animal, or by disturbing noises, as in the case of the

poltergeist (q.v.). Classical examples occur in Plautus (_Mostellaria_),

Lucian (_Philopseudes_), Pliny, Suetonius, St Augustine, St Gregory,

Plutarch and elsewhere, while Lucretius has his theory of apparitions of

the dead. He does not deny the fact; he explains it by "films" diffused

from the living body and persisting in the atmosphere.

A somewhat similar hypothesis, to account for certain alleged phenomena,

was invented by Mr Edmund Gurney. Some visionary appearances in haunted

houses do not suggest the idea of an ambulatory spirit, but rather of

the photograph of a past event, impressed we know not how on we know not

what. In this theory there is no room for the agency of spirits of the

dead. The belief in hauntings was naturally persistent through the

middle ages, and example and theory abound in the _Loca infesta_

(Cologne, 1598) of Petrus Thyraeus, S.J.; Wierius (c. 1560), in _De

praestigiis daemonum_, is in the same tale. According to Thyraeus,

hauntings appeal to the senses of sight, hearing and touch. The auditory

phenomena are mainly thumping noises, sounds of footsteps, laughing and

moaning. Rackets in general are caused by _lares domestici_ ("brownies")

or the Poltergeist. In the tactile way ghosts _push_ the living; "I have

been thrice pushed by an invisible power," writes the Rev. Samuel

Wesley, in 1717, in his narrative of the disturbances at his rectory at

Epworth. Once he was pushed against the corner of his desk in the study;

once up against the door of the matted chamber; and thirdly, "against

the right-hand side of the frame of my study door, as I was going in."

We have thus Protestant corroboration of the statement of the learned

Jesuit.

Thyraeus raises the question, Are the experiences hallucinatory? Did Mr

Wesley (to take his case) receive a mere hallucinatory set of pushes?

Was the hair of a friend of the writer's, who occupied a haunted house,

only pulled in a subjective way? Thyraeus remarks that, in cases of

noisy phenomena, not all persons present hear them; and, rather

curiously, Mr Wesley records the same experience; he sometimes did not

hear sounds that seemed violently loud to his wife and family, who were

with him at prayers. Thyraeus says that, as collective hallucinations of

sight are rare--all present not usually seeing the apparition--so

audible phenomena are not always experienced by all persons present. In

such cases, he thinks that the sights and sounds have no external cause,

he regards the sights and sounds as delusions--caused by spirits. This

is a difficult question. He mentions that we hear all the furniture

being tossed about (as Sir Walter and Lady Scott heard it at Abbotsford;

see Lockhart's _Life_, v. 311-315). Yet, on inspection, we find all the

furniture in its proper place. There is abundant evidence to experience

of this phenomenon, which remains as inexplicable as it was in the days

of Thyraeus. When the sounds are heard, has the atmosphere vibrated, or

has the impression only been made on "the inner ear"? In reply, Mr.

Procter, who for sixteen years (1831-1847) endured the unexplained

disturbances at Willington Mill, avers that the material objects on

which the knocks appeared to be struck did certainly vibrate (see

POLTERGEIST). Is then the felt vibration part of the hallucination?

As for visual phenomena, "ghosts," Thyraeus does not regard them as

space-filling entities, but as hallucinations imposed by spirits on the

human senses; the spirit, in each case, not being necessarily the soul

of the dead man or woman whom the phantasm represents.

In the matter of alleged hauntings, the symptoms, the phenomena, to-day,

are exactly the same as those recorded by Thyraeus. The belief in them

is so far a living thing that it greatly lowers the letting value of a

house when it is reported to be haunted. (An action for libelling a

house as haunted was reported in the London newspapers of the 7th of

March 1907). It is true that ancient family legends of haunts are

gloried in by the inheritors of stately homes in England, or castles in

Scotland, and to discredit the traditional ghost--in the days of Sir

Walter Scott--was to come within measurable distance of a duel. But the

time-honoured phantasms of old houses usually survive only in the memory

of "the oldest aunt telling the saddest tale." Their historical basis

can no more endure criticism than does the family portrait of Queen

Mary,--signed by Medina about 1750-1770, and described by the family as

"given to our ancestor by the Queen herself." After many years'

experience of a baronial dwelling credited with seven distinct and

separate phantasms, not one of which was ever seen by hosts, guests or

domestics, scepticism as regards traditional ghosts is excusable. Legend

reports that they punctually appear on the anniversaries of their

misfortunes, but no evidence of such punctuality has been produced.

The Society for Psychical Research has investigated hundreds of cases of

the alleged haunting of houses, and the reports are in the archives of

the society. But, as the mere rumour of a haunt greatly lowers the value

of a house, it is seldom possible to publish the names of the witnesses,

and hardly ever permitted to publish the name of the house. From the

point of view of science this is unfortunate (see _Proceedings S.P.R._

vol. viii. pp. 311-332 and _Proceedings_ of 1882-1883, 1883-1884). As

far as inquiry had any results, they were to the following effect. The

spectres were of the most shy and fugitive kind, seen now by one person,

now by another, crossing a room, walking along a corridor, and entering

chambers in which, on inspection, they were not found. There was almost

never any story to account for the appearances, as in magazine

ghost-stories, and, if story there were, it lacked evidence.

Recognitions of known dead persons were infrequent; occasionally there

was recognition of a portrait in the house. The apparitions spoke in

only one or two recorded cases, and, as a rule, seemed to have no motive

for appearing. The "ghost" resembles nothing so much as a somnambulist,

or the dream-walk of one living person made visible, telepathically, to

another living person. Almost the only sign of consciousness given by

the appearances is their shyness; on being spoken to or approached they

generally vanish. Not infrequently they are taken, at first sight, for

living human beings. In darkness they are often luminous, otherwise they

would be invisible! Unexplained noises often, but not always, occur in

houses where these phenomena are perceived. Evidence is only good,

approximately, when a series of persons, in the same house, behold the

same appearance, without being aware that it has previously been seen by

others. Naturally it is almost impossible to prove this ignorance.

When inquirers believe that the appearances are due to the agency of

spirits of the dead, they usually suppose the method to be a telepathic

impact on the mind of the living by some "mere automatic projection from

a consciousness which has its centre elsewhere" (Myers, _Proceedings

S.P.R._ vol. xv. p. 64). Myers, in _Human Personality_, fell back on

"palaeolithic psychology," and a theory of a phantasmogenetic agency

producing a phantasm which had some actual relation to space. But space

forbids us to give examples of modern experiences in haunted houses,

endured by persons sane, healthy and well educated. The cases,

abundantly offered in _Proceedings S.P.R._, suggest that certain

localities, more than others, are "centres of permanent possibilities of

being hallucinated in a manner more or less uniform." The causes of this

fact (if causes there be, beyond a casual hallucination or illusion of

A, which, when reported, begets by suggestion, or, when not reported, by

telepathy, hallucinations in B, C, D and E), remain unknown

(_Proceedings S.P.R._ vol. viii. p. 133 et seq.). Mr Podmore proposed

this hypothesis of causation, which was not accepted by Myers; he

thought that the theory laid too heavy a burden on telepathy and

suggestion. Neither cause, nor any other cause of similar results, ever

affects members of the S.P.R. who may be sent to dwell in haunted

houses. They have no weird experiences, except when they are visionaries

who see phantoms wherever they go. (A. L.)

HAUPT, MORITZ (1808-1874), German philologist, was born at Zittau, in

Lusatia, on the 27th of July 1808. His early education was mainly

conducted by his father, Ernst Friedrich Haupt, burgomaster of Zittau, a

man of good scholarly attainment, who used to take pleasure in turning

German hymns or Goethe's poems into Latin, and whose memoranda were

employed by G. Freytag in the 4th volume of his _Bilder aus der

deutschen Vergangenheit_. From the Zittau gymnasium, where he spent the

five years 1821-1826, Haupt removed to the university of Leipzig with

the intention of studying theology; but the natural bent of his mind and

the influence of Professor G. Hermann soon turned all his energies in

the direction of philosophy. On the close of his university course

(1830) he returned to his father's house, and the next seven years were

devoted to quiet work, not only at Greek, Latin and German, but at Old

French, Provencal and Bohemian. He formed with Lachmann at Berlin a

friendship which had great effect on his intellectual development. In

September 1837 he "habilitated" at Leipzig as _Privatdozent_, and his

first lectures, dealing with such diverse subjects as Catullus and the

_Nibelungenlied_, indicated the twofold direction of his labours. A new

chair of German language and literature being founded for his benefit,

he became professor extraordinarius (1841) and then professor ordinarius

(1843); and in 1842 he married Louise Hermann, the daughter of his

master and colleague. But the peaceful and prosperous course opening out

before him at the university of Leipzig was brought to a sudden close.

Having taken part in 1849 with Otto Jahn and Theodor Mommsen in a

political agitation for the maintenance of the imperial constitution,

Haupt was deprived of his professorship by a decree of the 22nd of April

1851. Two years later, however, he was called to succeed Lachmann at the

university of Berlin; and at the same time the Berlin academy, which had

made him a corresponding member in 1841, elected him an ordinary member.

For twenty-one years he continued to hold a prominent place among the

scholars of the Prussian capital, making his presence felt, not only by

the prestige of his erudition and the clearness of his intellect, but by

the tirelessness of his energy and the ardent fearlessness of his

temperament. He died, of heart disease, on the 5th of February 1874.

Haupt's critical work is distinguished by a happy union of the most

painstaking investigation with intrepidity of conjecture, and while in

his lectures and addresses he was frequently carried away by the

excitement of the moment, and made sharp and questionable attacks on

his opponents, in his writings he exhibits great self-control. The

results of many of his researches are altogether lost, because he

could not be prevailed upon to publish what fell much short of his own

high ideal of excellence. To the progress of classical scholarship he

contributed by _Quaestiones Catullianae_ (1837), _Observationes

criticae_ (1841), and editions of Ovid's _Halieutica_ and the

_Cynegetica_ of Gratius and Nemesianus (1838), of Catullus, Tibullus

and Propertius (3rd ed., 1868), of Horace (3rd ed., 1871) and of

Virgil (2nd ed., 1873). As early as 1836, with Hoffmann von

Fallersleben, he started the _Altdeutsche Blatter_, which in 1841 gave

place to the _Zeitschrift fur deutsches Altertum_, of which he

continued editor till his death. Hartmann von Aue's _Erec_ (1839) and

his _Lieder_, _Buchlein_ and _Der arme Heinrich_ (1842), Rudolf von

Ems's _Guter Gerhard_ (1840) and Conrad von Wurzburg's _Engelhard_

(1844) are the principal German works which he edited. To form a

collection of the French songs of the 16th century was one of his

favourite schemes, but a little volume published after his death,

_Franzosische Volkslieder_ (1877), is the only monument of his labours

in that direction. Three volumes of his _Opuscula_ were published at

Leipzig (1875-1877).

See Kirchhoff, "Gedachtnisrede," in _Abhandl. der Konigl. Akad. der

Wissenschaften zu Berlin_ (1875); Otto Belger, _Moritz Haupt als

Lehrer_ (1879); Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ iii. (1908).

HAUPTMANN, GERHART (1862- ), German dramatist, was born on the 15th of

November 1862 at Obersalzbrunn in Silesia, the son of an hotel-keeper.

From the village school of his native place he passed to the Realschule

in Breslau, and was then sent to learn agriculture on his uncle's farm

at Jauer. Having, however, no taste for country life, he soon returned

to Breslau and entered the art school, intending to become a sculptor.

He then studied at Jena, and spent the greater part of the years 1883

and 1884 in Italy. In May 1885 Hauptmann married and settled in Berlin,

and, devoting himself henceforth entirely to literary work, soon

attained a great reputation as one of the chief representatives of the

modern drama. In 1891 he retired to Schreiberhau in Silesia. Hauptmann's

first drama, _Vor Sonnenaufgang_ (1889) inaugurated the realistic

movement in modern German literature; it was followed by _Das

Friedensfest_ (1890), _Einsame Menschen_ (1891) and _Die Weber_ (1892),

a powerful drama depicting the rising of the Silesian weavers in 1844.

Of Hauptmann's subsequent work mention may be made of the comedies

_Kollege Crampton_ (1892), Der Biberpelz (1893) and _Der rote Hahn_

(1901), a "dream poem," _Hannele_ (1893), and an historical drama

_Florian Geyer_ (1895). He also wrote two tragedies of Silesian peasant

life, _Fuhrmann Henschel_ (1898) and _Rose Berndt_ (1903), and the

"dramatic fairy-tales" _Die versunkene Glocke_ (1897) and _Und Pippa

tanzt_ (1905). Several of his works have been translated into English.

Biographies of Hauptmann and critical studies of his dramas have been

published by A. Bartels (1897); P. Schlenther (1898); and U. C.

Woerner (2nd ed., 1900). See also L. Benoist-Hanappier, _Le Drame

naturaliste en Allemagne_ (1905).

HAUPTMANN, MORITZ (1792-1868), German musical composer and writer, was

born at Dresden, on the 13th of October 1792, and studied music under

Scholz, Lanska, Grosse and Morlacchi, the rival of Weber. Afterwards he

completed his education as a violinist and composer under Spohr, and

till 1820 held various appointments in private families, varying his

musical occupations with mathematical and other studies bearing chiefly

on acoustics and kindred subjects. For a time also Hauptmann was

employed as an architect, but all other pursuits gave place to music,

and a grand tragic opera, _Mathilde_, belongs to the period just

referred to. In 1822 he entered the orchestra of Cassel, again under

Spohr's direction, and it was then that he first taught composition and

musical theory to such men as Ferdinand David, Burgmuller, Kiel and

others. His compositions at this time chiefly consisted of motets,

masses, cantatas and songs. His opera _Mathilde_ was performed at Cassel

with great success. In 1842 Hauptmann obtained the position of cantor

at the Thomas-school of Leipzig (long previously occupied by the great

Johann Sebastian Bach) together with that of professor at the

conservatoire, and it was in this capacity that his unique gift as a

teacher developed itself and was acknowledged by a crowd of enthusiastic

and more or less distinguished pupils. He died on the 3rd of January

1868, and the universal regret felt at his death at Leipzig is said to

have been all but equal to that caused by the loss of his friend

Medelssohn many years before. Hauptmann's compositions are marked by

symmetry and perfection of workmanship rather than by spontaneous

invention.

Amongst his vocal compositions--by far the most important portion of

his work--may be mentioned two masses, choral songs for mixed voices

(_Op._ 32, 47), and numerous part songs. The results of his scientific

research were embodied in his book _Die Natur der Harmonik und Metrik_

(1853), a standard work of its kind, in which a philosophic

explanation of the forms of music is attempted.