FOOTNOTES:

[1] "Ignoscant mihi niveae animae, si, summarum injuriarum memor,

levem gemitum effudero. Doloris mihi haec causa est: cum, inter

nuperos nostros tumultus et bella plusquam civilia, serenissimum

regem (idque non solum senatus permissione sed et jussu) sequor,

rapaces quaedam manus non modo aedium mearum supellectilem omnem

expilarunt, sed etiam, quae mihi causa gravior querimoniae,

adversaria mea, multorum annorum laboribus parta, e museo meo

summoverunt. Quo factum est ut observationes plurimae, praesertim de

generatione insectorum, cum republicae literariae (ausim dicere)

detrimento, perierint."--_De gen._, Ex. lxviii. To this loss Cowley

refers--

"O cursed war! who can forgive thee this?

Houses and towns may rise again,

And ten times easier 'tis

To rebuild Paul's than any work of his."

[2] Indeed the same word, [Greek: periodos haimatos], occurs in the

Hippocratic writings, and was held by Van der Linden to prove that to

the father of medicine himself, and not to Columbus or Caesalpinus,

belonged the laurels of Harvey.

[3] Realdo Columbus (_De re anatomica_, 1559) formally denies the

muscularity of the heart, yet correctly teaches that blood and

spirits pass from the right to the left ventricle, not through the

septum but through the lungs, "quod nemo hactenus aut animadvertit

aut scriptum reliquit." The fact that Harvey quotes Columbus and not

Servetus is explained by the almost entire destruction of the

writings of the latter, which are now among the rarest curiosities.

The great anatomist Fabricius, Harvey's teacher at Padua, described

the valves of the veins more perfectly than had Sylvius. Carlo Ruini,

in his treatise on the _Anatomy and Diseases of the Horse_ (1590),

taught that the left ventricle sends blood and vital spirits to all

parts of the body except the lungs--the ordinary Galenical doctrine.

Yet on the strength of this phrase Professor J. B. Ercolani actually

put up a tablet in the veterinary school at Bologna to Ruini as the

discoverer of the circulation of the blood! The claims of

Caesalpinus, a more plausible claimant to Harvey's laurels, are

scarcely better founded. In his _Quaestiones peripateticae_ (1571) he

followed Servetus and Columbus in describing what we now know as the

pulmonary "circulation" under that name, and this is the only

foundation for the assertion (first made in Bayle's dictionary) that

Caesalpinus knew "the circulation of the blood." He is even behind

Servetus, for he only allows part of the blood of the right ventricle

to go round by this "circuit"; some, he conceives, passes through the

hypothetical pores in the septum, and the rest by the superior cava

to the head and arms, by the inferior to the rest of the body: "Hanc

esse venarum utilitatem ut omnes partes corporis sanguinem pro

nutrimento deferant. Ex dextro ventr deg. cordis vena cava sanguinem

crassiorem, in quo calor intensus est magis, ex altero autern ventr

deg., sanguinem temperatissimum ac sincerissimum habente, egreditur

aorta." Caesalpinus seems to have had no original views on the

subject; all that he writes is copied from Galen or from Servetus

except some erroneous observations of his own. His greatest merit was

as a botanist; and no claim to the "discovery of the circulation" was

made by him or by his contemporaries. When it was made, Haller

decided conclusively against it. The fact that an inscription has

been placed on the bust of Caesalpinus at Rome, which states that he

preceded others in recognizing and demonstrating "the general

circulation of the blood," is only a proof of the blindness of

misplaced national vanity.

[4] So in Exerc. liv.: "Superior itaque et divinior opifex, quam est

homo, videtur hominem fabricare et conservare, et nobilior artifex,

quam gallus, pullum ex ovo producere. Nempe agnoscimus Deum,

creatorem summum atque omnipotentem, in cunctorum animalium fabrica

ubique praesentem esse, et in operibus suis quasi digito monstrari:

cujus in procreatione pulli instrumenta sint gallus et gallina....

Nec cuiquam sane haec attributa conveniunt nisi omnipotenti rerum

Principio, quocunque demum nomine idipsum appellare libuerit: sive

Mentem divinam cum Aristotele, sive cum Platone Animam Mundi, aut cum

aliis Naturam naturantem, vel cum ethnicis Saturnum aut Iovem; vel

potius (ut nos decet) Creatorem ac Patrem omnium quae in coelis et

terris, a quo animalia eorumque origines dependent, cujusque nutu

sive effatu fiunt et generantur omnia."

HARVEY, a city of Cook county, Illinois, U.S.A., about 18 m. S. of the

Chicago Court House. Pop. (1900) 5395 (982 foreign-born); (1910) 7227.

It is served by the Chicago Terminal Transfer, the Grand Trunk and the

Illinois Central railways. Harvey is a manufacturing and residence

suburb of Chicago. Among its manufactures are railway, foundry and

machine-shop supplies, mining and ditching machinery, stone crushers,

street-making and street-cleaning machinery, stoves and motor-vehicles.

It was named in honour of Turlington W. Harvey, a Chicago capitalist,

founded in 1890, incorporated as a village in 1891 and chartered as a

city in 1895.

HARWICH, a municipal borough and seaport in the Harwich parliamentary

division of Essex, England, on the extremity of a small peninsula

projecting into the estuary of the Stour and Orwell, 70 m. N.E. by E. of

London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 10,070. It occupies an

elevated situation, and a wide view is obtained from Beacon Hill at the

southern end of the esplanade. The church of St Nicholas was built of

brick in 1821; and there are a town hall and a custom-house. The harbour

is one of the best on the east coast of England, and in stormy weather

is largely used for shelter. A breakwater and sea-wall prevent the

blocking of the harbour entrance and encroachments of the sea; and there

is another breakwater at Landguard Point on the opposite (Suffolk) shore

of the estuary. The principal imports are grain and agricultural

produce, timber and coal, and the exports cement and fish. Harwich is

one of the principal English ports for continental passenger traffic,

steamers regularly serving the Hook of Holland, Amsterdam, Rotterdam,

Antwerp, Esbjerg, Copenhagen and Hamburg. The continental trains of the

Great Eastern railway run to Parkeston Quay, 1 m. from Harwich up the

Stour, where the passenger steamers start. The fisheries are important,

principally those for shrimps and lobsters. There are cement and

shipbuilding works. The port is the headquarters of the Royal Harwich

Yacht Club. There are batteries at and opposite Harwich, and modern

works on Shotley Point, at the fork of the two estuaries. There are also

several of the Martello towers of the Napoleonic era. At Landguard Fort

there are important defence works with heavy modern guns commanding the

main channel. This has been a point of coast defence since the time of

James I. Between the Parkeston Quay and Town railway stations is that of

Dovercourt, an adjoining parish and popular watering-place. Harwich is

under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 1541 acres.

Harwich (Herewica, Herewyck) cannot be shown to have been inhabited very

early, although in the 18th century remains of a camp, possibly Roman,

existed there. Harwich formed part of the manor of Dovercourt. It became

a borough in 1319 by a charter of Edward II., which was confirmed in

1342 and 1378, and by each of the Lancastrian kings. The exact nature

and degree of its self-government is not clear. Harwich received

charters in 1547, 1553 and 1560. In 1604 James I. gave it a charter

which amounted to a new constitution, and from this charter begins the

regular parliamentary representation. Two burgesses had attended

parliament in 1343, but none had been summoned since. Until 1867 Harwich

returned two members; it then lost one, and in 1885 it was merged in the

county. Included in the manor of Dovercourt, Harwich from 1086 was for

long held by the de Vere family. In 1252 Henry III. granted to Roger

Bigod a market here every Tuesday, and a fair on Ascension day, and

eight days after. In 1320 a grant occurs of a Tuesday market, but no

fair is mentioned. James I. granted a Friday market, and two fairs, at

the feast of St Philip and St James, and on St Luke's day. The fair has

died out, but markets are still held on Tuesday and Friday. Harwich has

always had a considerable trade; in the 14th century merchants came even

from Spain, and there was much trade in wheat and wool with Flanders.

But the passenger traffic appears to have been as important at Harwich

in the 14th century as it is now. Shipbuilding was a considerable

industry at Harwich in the 17th century.

HARZBURG, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Brunswick, beautifully

situated in a deep and well-wooded vale at the north foot of the Harz

Mountains, at the terminus of the Brunswick-Harzburg railway, 5 m.

E.S.E. from Goslar and 18 m. S. from Wolfenbuttel. Pop. (1905), 4396.

The Radau, a mountain stream, descending from the Brocken, waters the

valley and adds much to its picturesque charm. The town is much

frequented as a summer residence. It possesses brine and carbonated

springs, the Juliushall saline baths being about a mile to the south of

the town, and a hydropathic establishment. A mile and a half south from

the town lies the Burgberg, 1500 ft. above sea-level, on whose summit,

according to tradition, was once an altar to the heathen idol Krodo,

still to be seen in the Ulrich chapel at Goslar. There are on the summit

of the hill the remains of an old castle, and a monument erected in 1875

to Prince Bismarck, with an inscription taken from one of his speeches

against the Ultramontane claims of Rome--"_Nach Canossa gehen wir

nicht_."

The castle on the Burgberg called the Harzburg is famous in German

history. It was built between 1065 and 1069, but was laid in ruins by

the Saxons in 1074; again it was built and again destroyed during the

struggle between the emperor Henry IV. and the Saxons. By Frederick I.

it was granted to Henry the Lion, who caused it to be rebuilt about

1180. It was a frequent residence of Otto IV., who died therein, and

after being frequently besieged and taken, it passed to the house of

Brunswick. It ceased to be of importance as a fortress after the Thirty

Years' War, and gradually fell into ruins.

See Delius, _Untersuchungen uber die Geschichte der Harzburg_

(Halberstadt, 1826); Dommes, _Harzburg und seine Umgebung_ (Goslar,

1862); Jacobs, _Die Harzburg und ihre Geschichte_ (1885); and Stolle,

_Fuhrer von Bad Harzburg_ (1899).

HARZ MOUNTAINS (also spelt HARTZ, Ger. _Harzgebirge_, anc. _Silva

Hercynia_), the most northerly mountain-system of Germany, situated

between the rivers Weser and Elbe, occupy an area of 784 sq. m., of

which 455 belong to Prussia, 286 to Brunswick and 43 to Anhalt. Their

greatest length extends in a S.E. and N.W. direction for 57 m., and

their maximum breadth is about 20 m. The group is made up of an

irregular series of terraced plateaus, rising here and there into

rounded summits, and intersected in various directions by narrow, deep

valleys. The north-western and higher part of the mass is called the

Ober or Upper Harz; the south-eastern and more extensive part, the Unter

or Lower Harz; while the N.W. and S.W. slopes of the Upper Harz form the

Vorharz. The Brocken group, which divides the Upper and Lower Harz, is

generally regarded as belonging to the first. The highest summits of the

Upper Harz are the Brocken (3747 ft.), the Heinrichshohe (3425 ft.), the

Konigsberg (3376 ft.) and the Wurmberg (3176 ft.); of the Lower Harz,

the Josephshohe in the Auerberg group and the Viktorhohe in the Ramberg,

each 1887 ft. Of these the Brocken (q.v.) is celebrated for the legends

connected with it, immortalized in Goethe's _Faust_. Streams are

numerous, but all small. While rendered extensively useful, by various

skilful artifices, in working the numerous mines of the district, at

other parts of their course they present the most picturesque scenery in

the Harz. Perhaps the finest valley is the rocky Bodethal, with the

Rosstrappe, the Hexentanzplatz, the Baumannshohle and the Bielshohle.

The Harz is a mass of Palaeozoic rock rising through the Mesozoic

strata of north Germany, and bounded on all sides by faults. Slates,

schists, quartzites and limestones form the greater part of the hills,

but the Brocken and Victorshohe are masses of intrusive granite, and

diabases and diabase tuffs are interstratified with the sedimentary

deposits. The Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous systems are

represented--the Silurian and Devonian forming the greater part of the

hills S.E. of a line drawn from Lauterberg to Wernigerode, while N.W.

of this line the Lower Carboniferous predominates. A few patches of

Upper Carboniferous are found on the borders of the hills near Ilfeld,

Ballenstedt, &c., lying unconformably upon the Devonian. The structure

of the Harz is very complicated, but the general strike of the folds,

especially in the Oberharz plateau, is N.E. or N.N.E. The whole mass

evidently belongs to the ancient Hercynian chain of North Europe

(which, indeed, derives its name from the Harz), and is the

north-easterly continuation of the rocks of the Ardennes and the

Eifel. The folding of the old rocks took place towards the close of

the Palaeozoic era; but the faulting to which they owe their present

position was probably Tertiary. Metalliferous veins are common,

amongst the best-known being the silver-bearing lead veins of

Klausthal, which occur in the Culm or Lower Carboniferous.

Owing to its position as the first range which the northerly winds

strike after crossing the north German plain, the climate on the summit

of the Harz is generally raw and damp, even in summer. In 1895 an

observatory was opened on the top of the Brocken, and the results of the

first five years (1806-1900) showed a July mean of 50 deg. Fahr., a

February mean of 24.7 deg., and a yearly mean of 36.6 deg. During the

same five years the rainfall averaged 64(1/3) ins. annually. But while

the summer is thus relatively ungenial on the top of the Harz, the usual

summer heat of the lower-lying valleys is greatly tempered and cooled;

so that, adding this to the natural attractions of the scenery, the deep

forests, and the legendary and romantic associations attaching to every

fantastic rock and ruined castle, the Harz is a favourite summer resort

of the German people. Among the more popular places of resort are

Harzburg, Thale and the Bodethal; Blankenburg, with the Teufelsmauer and

the Hermannshohle; Wernigerode, Ilsenburg, Grund, Lauterberg,

Hubertusbad, Alexisbad and Suderode. Some of these, and other places not

named, add to their natural attractions the advantage of mineral springs

and baths, pine-needle baths, whey cures, &c. The Harz is penetrated by

several railways, among them a rack-railway up the Brocken, opened in

1898. The district is traversed by excellent roads in all directions.

The northern summits are destitute of trees, but the lower slopes of the

Upper Harz are heavily wooded with pines and firs. Between the forests

of these stretch numerous peat-mosses, which contain in their spongy

reservoirs the sources of many small streams. On the Brocken are found

one or two arctic and several alpine, plants. In the Lower Harz the

forests contain a great variety of timber. The oak, elm and birch are

common, while the beech especially attains an unusual size and beauty.

The walnut-tree grows in the eastern districts.

The last bear was killed in the Harz in 1705, and the last lynx in 1817,

and since that time the wolf too has become extinct; but deer, foxes,

wild cats and badgers are still found in the forests.

The Harz is one of the richest mineral storehouses in Germany, and the

chief industry is mining, which has been carried on since the middle of

the 10th century. The most important mineral is a peculiarly rich

argentiferous lead, but gold in small quantities, copper, iron, sulphur,

alum and arsenic are also found. Mining is carried on principally at

Klausthal and St Andreasberg in the Upper Harz. Near the latter is one

of the deepest mining shafts in Europe, namely the Samson, which goes

down 2790 ft. or 720 ft. below sea-level. For the purpose of getting rid

of the water, and obviating the flooding of such deep workings, it has

been found necessary to construct drainage works of some magnitude. As

far back as 1777-1799 the Georgsstollen was cut through the mountains

from the east of Klausthal westward to Grund, a distance of 4 m.; but

this proving insufficient, another sewer, the Ernst-Auguststollen, no

less than 14 m. in length, was made from the same neighbourhood to

Gittelde, at the west side of the Harz, in 1851-1864. Marble, granite

and gypsum are worked; and large quantities of vitriol are manufactured.

The vast forests that cover the mountain slopes supply the materials for

a considerable trade in timber. Much wood is exported for building and

other purposes, and in the Harz itself is used as fuel. The sawdust of

the numerous mills is collected for use in the manufacture of paper.

Turf-cutting, coarse lace-making and the breeding of canaries and native

song-birds also occupy many of the people. Agriculture is carried on

chiefly on the plateaus of the Lower Harz; but there is excellent

pasturage both in the north and in the south. In the Lower Harz, as in

Switzerland, the cows, which carry bells harmoniously tuned, are driven

up into the heights in early summer, returning to the sheltered regions

in late autumn.

The inhabitants are descended from various stocks. The Upper and Lower

Saxon, the Thuringian and the Frankish races have all contributed to

form the present people, and their respective influences are still to be

traced in the varieties of dialect. The boundary line between High and

Low German passes through the Harz. The Harz was the last stronghold of

paganism in Germany, and to that fact are due the legends, in which no

district is richer, and the fanciful names given by the people to

peculiar objects and appearances of nature.

See _Zeitschrift des Harzvereins_ (Wernigerode, annually since 1868);

Gunther, _Der Harz in Geschichts- Kultur- und Landschaftsbildern_

(Hanover, 1885), and "Der Harz" in Scobel's _Monographien zur

Erdkunde_ (Bielefeld, 1901); H. Hoffmann and others, _Der Harz_

(Leipzig, 1899), _Harzwanderungen_ (Leipzig, 1902); Hampe, _Flora

Hercynica_ (Halle, 1873); von Groddeck, _Abriss der Geognosie des

Harzes_ (2nd ed., Klausthal, 1883); Prohle, _Harzsagen_ (2nd ed.,

Leipzig, 1886); Hautzinger, _Der Kupfer- und Silbersegen des Harzes_

(Berlin, 1877); Hoppe, _Die Bergwerke im Ober- und Unterharz_

(Klausthal, 1883); Schulze, _Lithia Hercynica_ (Leipzig, 1895);

Ludecke, _Die Minerale des Harzes_ (Berlin, 1896).

HASA, EL (_Ahsa_, _Al Hasa_), a district in the east of Arabia

stretching along the shore of the Persian Gulf from Kuwet in 29 deg. 20'

N. to the south point of the Gulf of Bahrein in 25 deg. 10' N., a length

of about 360 m. On the W. it is bounded by Nejd, and on the S.E. by the

peninsula of El Katr which forms part of Oman. The coast is low and flat

and has no deep-water port along its whole length with the exception of

Kuwet; from that place to El Katif the country is barren and without

villages or permanent settlements, and is only occupied by nomad

tribes, of which the principal are the Bani Hajar, Ajman and Khalid. The

interior consists of low stony ridges rising gradually to the inner

plateau. The oases of Hofuf and Katif, however, form a strong contrast

to the barren wastes that cover the greater part of the district. Here

an inexhaustible supply of underground water (to which the province owes

its name Hasa) issues in strong springs, marking, according to Arab

geographers, the course of a great subterranean river draining the Nejd

highlands. Hofuf the capital, a town of 15,000 to 20,000 inhabitants,

with its neighbour Mubariz scarcely less populous, forms the centre of a

thriving district 50 m. long by 15 m. in breadth, containing numerous

villages each with richly cultivated fields and gardens. The town walls

enclose a space of 1(1/2) by 1 m., at the north-west angle of which is a

remarkable citadel attributed to the Carmathian princes. Mubariz is

celebrated for its hot spring, known as Um Saba or "mother of seven,"

from the seven channels by which its water is distributed. Beyond the

present limits of the oasis much of the country is well supplied with

water, and ruined sites and half-obliterated canals show that it has

only relapsed into waste in recent times. Cultivation reappears at

Katif, a town situated on a small bay some 35 m. north-west of Bahrein.

Date groves extend for several miles along the coast, which is low and

muddy. The district is fertile but the climate is hot and unhealthy;

still, owing to its convenient position, the town has a considerable

trade with Bahrein and the gulf ports on one side and the interior of

Nejd on the other. The fort is a strongly built enclosure attributed,

like that at Hofuf, to the Carmathian prince Abu Tahir.

'Uker or 'Ujer is the nearest port to Hofuf, from which it is distant

about 40 m.; large quantities of rice and piece goods transhipped at

Bahrein are landed here and sent on by caravan to Hofuf, the great

entrepot for the trade between southern Nejd and the coast. It also

shares in the valuable pearl fishery of Bahrein and the adjacent coast.

Politically El Hasa is a dependency of Turkey, and its capital Hofuf is

the headquarters of the sanjak or district of Nejd. Hofuf, Katif and El

Katr were occupied by Turkish garrisons in 1871, and the occupation has

been continued in spite of British protest as to El Katr, which

according to the agreement made in 1867, when Bahrein was taken under

British protection, was tributary to the latter. Turkish claims to Kuwet

have not been admitted by Great Britain.

AUTHORITIES.--W. G. Palgrave, _Central and Eastern Arabia_ (London,

1865); L. Pelly, _Journal R.G.S._ (1866); S. M. Zwemer, _Geog.

Journal_ (1902); G. F. Sadlier, _Diary of a Journey across Arabia_

(Bombay, 1866); V. Chirol, _The Middle East_ (London, 1904).

(R. A. W.)

HASAN AND HOSAIN (or HUSEIN), sons of the fourth Mahommedan caliph Ali

by his wife Fatima, daughter of Mahomet. On Ali's death Hasan was

proclaimed caliph, but the strength of Moawiya who had rebelled against

Ali was such that he resigned his claim on condition that he should have

the disposal of the treasure stored at Kufa, with the revenues of

Darabjird. This secret negotiation came to the ears of Hasan's

supporters, a mutiny broke out and Hasan was wounded. He retired to

Medina where he died about 669. The story that he was poisoned at

Moawiya's instigation is generally discredited (see CALIPHATE, sect. B,

S 1). Subsequently his brother Hosain was invited by partisans in Kufa

to revolt against Moawiya's successor Yazid. He was, however, defeated

and killed at Kerbela on the 10th of October (Muharram) 680 (see

CALIPHATE, sect. B, S _2 ad init._). Hosain is the hero of the Passion

Play which is performed annually (e.g. at Kerbela) on the anniversary of

his death by the Shi'ites of Persia and India, to whom from the earliest

times the family of Ali are the only true descendants of Mahomet. The

play lasts for several days and concludes with the carrying out of the

coffins (_tabut_) of the martyrs to an open place in the neighbourhood.

See Sir Wm. Muir, _The Caliphate_ (1883); Sir Lewis Pelly, _The

Miracle Play of Hasan and Hosein_ (1879).

HASAN UL-BASRI [Abu Sa'ud ul-Hasan ibn Abi-l-Hasan Yassar ul-Basri],

(642-728 or 737), Arabian theologian, was born at Medina. His father

was a freedman of Zaid ibn Thabit, one of the _Ansar_ (Helpers of the

Prophet), his mother a client of Umm Salama, a wife of Mahomet.

Tradition says that Umm Salama often nursed Hasan in his infancy. He was

thus one of the _Tabi'un_ (i.e. of the generation that succeeded the

Helpers). He became a teacher of Basra and founded a school there. Among

his pupils was Wasil ibn 'Ata, the founder of the Mo'tazilites. He

himself was a great supporter of orthodoxy and the most important

representative of asceticism in the time of its first development. With

him fear is the basis of morality, and sadness the characteristic of his

religion. Life is only a pilgrimage, and comfort must be denied to

subdue the passions. Many writers testify to the purity of his life and

to his excelling in the virtues of Mahomet's own companions. He was "as

if he were in the other world." In politics, too, he adhered to the

earliest principles of Islam, being strictly opposed to the inherited

caliphate of the Omayyads and a believer in the election of the caliph.

His life is given in Nawawi's _Biographical Dictionary_ (ed. F.

Wustenfeld, Gottingen, 1842-1847). Cf. R. Dozy, _Essai sur l'histoire

de l'islamisme_, pp. 201 sqq. (Leiden and Paris, 1879); A. von Kremer,

_Culturgeschichtliche Streifzuge_, p. 5 seq.; R. A. Nicholson, _A

Literary History of the Arabs_, pp. 225-227 (London, 1907).

(G. W. T.)

HASBEYA, or HASBEIYA, a town of the Druses, about 36 m. W. of Damascus,

situated at the foot of Mt. Hermon in Syria, overlooking a deep

amphitheatre from which a brook flows to the Hasbani. The population is

about 5000 (4000 Christians). Both sides of the valley are planted in

terraces with olives, vines and other fruit trees. The grapes are either

dried or made into a kind of syrup. In 1846 an American Protestant

mission was established in the town. This little community suffered much

persecution at first from the Greek Church, and afterwards from the

Druses, by whom in 1860 nearly 1000 Christians were massacred, while

others escaped to Tyre or Sidon. The castle in Hasbeya was held by the

crusaders under Count Oran; but in 1171 the Druse emirs of the great

Shehab family (see DRUSES) recaptured it. In 1205 this family was

confirmed in the lordship of the town and district, which they held till

the Turkish authorities took possession of the castle in the 19th

century. Near Hasbeya are bitumen pits let by the government; and to the

north, at the source of the Hasbani, the ground is volcanic. Some

travellers have attempted to identify Hasbeya with the biblical Baal-Gad

or Baal-Hermon.

HASDAI IBN SHAPRUT, the founder of the new culture of the Jews in

Moorish Spain in the 10th century. He was both physician and minister to

Caliph Abd ar-Rahman III. in Cordova. A man of wide learning and

culture, he encouraged the settlement of Jewish scholars in Andalusia,

and his patronage of literature, science and art promoted the Jewish

renaissance in Europe. Poetry, philology, philosophy all flourished

under his encouragement, and his name was handed down to posterity as

the first of the many Spanish Jews who combined diplomatic skill with

artistic culture. This type was the creation of the Moors in Andalusia,

and the Jews ably seconded the Mahommedans in the effort to make life at

once broad and deep. (I. A.)

HASDEU, or HAJDEU, BOGDAN PETRICEICU (1836-1907), Rumanian philologist,

was born at Khotin in Bessarabia in 1836, and studied at the university

of Kharkov. In 1858 he first settled in Jassy as professor of the high

school and librarian. He may be considered as the pioneer in many

branches of Rumanian philology and history. At Jassy he started his

_Archiva historica a Romaniei_ (1865-1867), in which a large number of

old documents in Slavonic and Rumanian were published for the first

time. In 1870 he inaugurated _Columna lui Traian_, the best philological

review of the time in Rumania. In his _Cuvente den Batrani_ (2 vols.,

1878-1881) he was the first to contribute to the history of apocryphal

literature in Rumania. His _Historia critica a Romanilor_ (1875), though

incomplete, marks the beginning of critical investigation into the

history of Rumania. Hasdeu edited the ancient Psalter of Coresi of 1577

(_Psaltirea lui Coresi_, 1881). His _Etymologicum magnum Romaniae_

(1886, &c.) is the beginning of an encyclopaedic dictionary of the

Rumanian language, though never finished beyond the letter B. In 1876

he was appointed director of the state archives in Bucharest and in 1878

professor of philology at the university of Bucharest. His works, which

include one drama, _Rasvan si Vidra_, bear the impress of great

originality of thought, and the author is often carried away by his

profound erudition and vast imagination. Hasdeu was a keen politician.

After the death of his only child Julia in 1888 he became a mystic and a

strong believer in spiritism. He died at Campina on the 7th of September

1907. (M. G.)

HASDRUBAL, the name of several Carthaginian generals, among whom the

following are the most important:--

1. The son-in-law of Hamilcar Barca (q.v.), who followed the latter in

his campaign against the governing aristocracy at Carthage at the close

of the First Punic War, and in his subsequent career of conquest in

Spain. After Hamilcar's death (228) Hasdrubal, who succeeded him in the

command, extended the newly acquired empire by skilful diplomacy, and

consolidated it by the foundation of New Carthage (Cartagena) as the

capital of the new province, and by a treaty with Rome which fixed the

Ebro as the boundary between the two powers. In 221 he was killed by an

assassin.

Polybius ii. 1; Livy xxi. 1; Appian, _Hispanica_, 4-8.

2. The second son of Hamilcar Barca, and younger brother of Hannibal.

Left in command of Spain when Hannibal departed to Italy (218), he

fought for six years against the brothers Gnaeus and Publius Scipio. He

had on the whole the worst of the conflict, and a defeat in 216

prevented him from joining Hannibal in Italy at a critical moment; but

in 212 he completely routed his opponents, both the Scipios being

killed. He was subsequently outgeneralled by Publius Scipio the Younger,

who in 209 captured New Carthage and gained other advantages. In the

same year he was summoned to join his brother in Italy. He eluded Scipio

by crossing the Pyrenees at their western extremity, and, making his way

thence through Gaul and the Alps in safety, penetrated far into Central

Italy (207). He was ultimately checked by two Roman armies, and being

forced to give battle was decisively defeated on the banks of the

Metaurus. Hasdrubal himself fell in the fight; his head was cut off and

thrown into Hannibal's camp as a sign of his utter defeat.

Polybius x. 34-xi. 3; Livy xxvii. 1-51; Appian, _Bellum Hannibalicum_,

ch. lii. sqq.; R. Oehler, _Der letzte Feldzug des Barkiden Hasdrubals_

(Berlin, 1897); C. Lehmann, _Die Angriffe der drei Barkiden auf

Italien_ (Leipzig, 1905). See also PUNIC WARS.

HASE, CARL BENEDICT (1780-1864), French Hellenist, of German extraction,

was born at Sulza near Naumburg on the 11th of May 1780. Having studied

at Jena and Helmstedt, in 1801 he made his way on foot to Paris, where

he was commissioned by the comte de Choiseul-Gouffier, late ambassador

to Constantinople, to edit the works of Johannes Lydus from a MS. given

to Choiseul by Prince Mourousi. Hase thereupon decided to devote himself

to Byzantine history and literature, on which he became the acknowledged

authority. In 1805 he obtained an appointment in the MSS. department of

the royal library; in 1816 became professor of palaeography and modern

Greek at the Ecole Royale, and in 1852 professor of comparative grammar

in the university. In 1812 he was selected to superintend the studies of

Louis Napoleon (afterwards Napoleon III.) and his brother. He died on

the 21st of March 1864. His most important works are the editions of Leo

Diaconus and other Byzantine writers (1819), and of Johannes Lydus, _De

ostentis_ (1823), a masterpiece of textual restoration, the difficulties

of which were aggravated by the fact that the MS. had for a long time

been stowed away in a wine-barrel in a monastery. He also edited part of

the Greek authors in the collection of the Historians of the Crusades

and contributed many additions (from the fathers, medical and technical

writers, scholiasts and other sources) to the new edition of Stephanus's

_Thesaurus_.

See J. D. Guigniaut, _Notice historique sur la vie et les travaux de

Carl Benedict Hase_ (Paris, 1867); articles in _Nouvelle Biographie

generale_ and _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_; and a collection of

autobiographical letters, _Briefe von der Wanderung und aus Paris_,

edited by O. Heine (1894), containing a vivid account of Hase's

journey, his enthusiastic impressions of Paris and the hardships of

his early life.

HASE, KARL AUGUST VON (1800-1890), German Protestant theologian and

Church historian, was born at Steinbach in Saxony on the 25th of August

1800. He studied at Leipzig and Erlangen, and in 1829 was called to Jena

as professor of theology. He retired in 1883 and was made a baron. He

died at Jena on the 3rd of January 1890. Hase's aim was to reconcile

modern culture with historical Christianity in a scientific way. But

though a liberal theologian, he was no dry rationalist. Indeed, he

vigorously attacked rationalism, as distinguished from the rational

principle, charging it with being unscientific inasmuch as it ignored

the historical significance of Christianity, shut its eyes to

individuality and failed to give religious feeling its due. His views

are presented scientifically in his _Evangelisch-protestantische

Dogmatik_ (1826; 6th ed., 1870), the value of which "lies partly in the

full and judiciously chosen historical materials prefixed to each dogma,

and partly in the skill, caution and tact with which the permanent

religious significance of various dogmas is discussed" (Otto

Pfleiderer). More popular in style is his _Gnosis oder prot.-evang.

Glaubenslehre_ (3 vols., 1827-1829; 2nd ed. in 2 vols., 1869-1870). But

his reputation rests chiefly on his treatment of Church history in his

_Kirchengeschichte, Lehrbuch zunachst fur akademische Vorlesungen_

(1834, 12th ed., 1900).

His biographical studies, Franz von Assisi (1856; 2nd ed., 1892),

_Katerina von Siena_ (1864; 2nd ed., 1892), _Neue Propheten_ (Die

Jungfrau von Orleans, Savonarola, Thomas Munzer) are judicious and

sympathetic. Other works are: _Hutterus redivivus oder Dogmatik der

evang.-luth. Kirche_ (1827; 12th ed., 1883), in which he sought to

present the teaching of the Protestant church in such a way as Hutter

would have reconstructed it, had he still been alive; _Leben Jesu_

(1829; 5th ed., 1865; Eng. trans., 1860); in an enlarged form,

_Geschichte Jesu_ (2nd ed., 1891); and _Handbuch der prot. Polemik

gegen die rom.-kath. Kirche_ (1862; 7th ed., 1900; Eng. trans., 1906).

For his life see his _Ideale und Irrtumer_ (1872; 5th ed., 1894) and

_Annalen meines Lebens_ (1891); and cf. generally Otto Pfleiderer,

_Development of Theology_ (1890); F. Lichtenberger, _Hist. of German

Theology_ (1889).

HASHISH, or HASHEESH, the Arabic name, meaning literally "dried herb,"

for the various preparations of the Indian hemp plant (_Cannabis

indica_), used as a narcotic or intoxicant in the East, and either

smoked, chewed or drunk (see HEMP and BHANG). From the Arabic

_hashishin_, i.e. "hemp-eaters," comes the English "assassin" (see

ASSASSIN).

HASLEMERE, a market-town in the Guildford parliamentary division of

Surrey, England, 43 m. S.W. from London by the London & South-Western

railway. It is situated in an elevated valley between the bold ridges of

Hindhead (895 ft.) and Blackdown (918 ft.). Their summits are open and

covered with heath, but their flanks and the lower ground are

magnificently wooded. The hills are deeply scored by steep and

picturesque valleys, of which the most remarkable is the Devil's Punch

Bowl, a hollow of regular form on the west flank of Hindhead. The

invigorating air has combined with scenic attraction to make the

district a favourite place of residence. Professor Tyndall built a house

on the top of Hindhead, setting an example followed by many others. On

Blackdown, closely screened by plantations, is Aldworth, built for

Alfred, Lord Tennyson, who died here in 1892. George Eliot stayed for a

considerable period at Shottermill, a neighbouring village. Pop. of

Haslemere (1901), 2614; of Hindhead, 666.

HASLINGDEN, a market-town and municipal borough in the Rossendale and

Heywood parliamentary divisions of Lancashire, England, 19 m. N. by W.

from Manchester by the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901),

18,543. It lies in a hilly district on the borders of the forest of

Rossendale, and is supposed by some to derive its name from the hazel

trees which formerly abounded in its neighbourhood. The old town stood

on the slope of a hill, but the modern part has extended about its base.

The parish church of St James was rebuilt in 1780, with the exception of

the tower, which dates from the time of Henry VIII. The woollen

manufacture was formerly the staple. The town, however, steadily

increasing in importance, has cotton, woollen and engineering

works--coal-mining, quarrying and brickmaking are carried on in the

neighbourhood. The borough, as incorporated in 1891, comprised several

townships and parts of townships, but under the Local Government Act of

1894 these were united into one civil parish. The corporation consists

of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 8196 acres.

HASPE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, in the

valley of the Ennepe, at the confluence of the Hasper, and on the

railway from Dusseldorf to Dortmund, 10 m. N.E. of Barmen by rail. Pop.

(1905), 19,813. Its industries include iron foundries, rolling mills,

puddling furnaces, and manufactures of iron, steel and brass wares and

of machines. Haspe was raised to the rank of a town in 1873.

HASSAM, CHILDE (1859- ), American figure and landscape painter, born

in Boston, Massachusetts, was a pupil of Boulanger and Lefebvre in

Paris. He soon fell under the influence of the Impressionists, and took

to painting in a style of his own, in brilliant colour, with effective

touches of pure pigment. He won a bronze medal at the Paris Exhibition

of 1889; medals at the World's Fair, Chicago, 1893; Boston Art Club,

1896; Philadelphia Art Club, 1892; Carnegie Institute, Pittsburg, 1898;

Buffalo Pan-American, 1901; Temple gold medal, Pennsylvania Academy of

Fine Arts, Philadelphia, 1899; and silver medal, Paris Exhibition, 1900.

He became a member of the National Academy of Design, the Society of

American Artists, the Ten Americans, the American Water Colour Society,

the Societe Nationale des Beaux Arts, Paris, and the Secession Society,

Munich.

HASSAN, a town and district of Mysore, India. The town dates from the

11th century and had in 1901 a population of 8241. The district

naturally divides into two portions, the Malnad, or hill country, which

includes some of the highest ranges of the Western Ghats, and the Maidan

or plain country, sloping towards the south. The Hemavati, which flows

into the Cauvery in the extreme south, is the most important river of

the district. The upper slopes of the Western Ghats are abundantly

clothed with magnificent forests, and wild animals abound. Among the

mineral products are kaolin, felspar and quartz. The soil of the valleys

is a rich red alluvial loam. The area is 2547 sq. m. Population (1901),

568,919, showing an increase of 11% in the decade. The district contains

some of the most remarkable archaeological monuments in India, such as

the colossal Jain image at Sravana Belgola (a monolith 57 ft. high on

the summit of a hill) and the great temple at Halebid. Coffee

cultivation has been on the increase of late years. The first plantation

was opened in 1843, and now there are many coffee estates owned by

Europeans and also native holdings. The exports are large, consisting

chiefly of food-grains and coffee. The imports are European piece-goods,

hardware of all sorts and spices. The largest weekly fair is held at

Alur. A great annual religious gathering and fair, attended by about

10,000 persons, takes place every year at Melukot. The Southern Mahratta

railway traverses the north-east of the district.

The real history of Hassan does not begin until the epoch of the Hoysala

dynasty, which lasted from the 11th till the 14th century. Their capital

was at Dwarasamundra (Dwaravati-pura), the ruins of which are still to

be seen scattered round the village of Halebid. The earlier kings

professed the Jain faith, but the finest temples were erected to Siva by

the later monarchs of the line. While they were at the zenith of their

power the whole of southern India acknowledged their sway.

HASSANIA, an African tribe of Semitic stock. They inhabit the desert

between Merawi and the Nile at the 6th Cataract, and the left bank of

the Blue Nile immediately south of Khartum.

HASSAN IBN THABIT (died 674), Arabian poet, was born in Yathrib

(Medina), a member of the tribe Khazraj. In his youth he travelled to

Hira and Damascus, then settled in Medina, where, after the advent of

Mahomet, he accepted Islam and wrote poems in defence of the prophet.

His poetry is regarded as commonplace and lacking in distinction.

His diwan has been published at Bombay (1864), Tunis (1864) and Lahore

(1878). See H. Hirschfeld's "Prolegomena to an edition of the Diwan of

Hassan" in _Transactions of Oriental Congress_ (London, 1892).

(G. W. T.)

HASSE, JOHANN ADOLPH (1699-1783), German musical composer, was born at

Bergedorf near Hamburg, on the 25th of March 1699, and received his

first musical education from his father. Being possessed of a fine tenor

voice, he chose the theatrical career, and joined the operatic troupe

conducted by Reinhard Keiser, in whose orchestra Handel had played the

second violin some years before. Hasse's success led to an engagement at

the court theatre of Brunswick, and it was there that, in 1723, he made

his debut as a composer with the opera _Antigonus_. The success of this

first work induced the duke to send Hasse to Italy for the completion of

his studies, and in 1724 he went to Naples and placed himself under

Porpora, with whom, however, he seems to have disagreed both as a man

and as an artist. On the other hand he gained the friendship of

Alessandro Scarlatti, to whom he owed his first commission for a

serenade for two voices, sung at a family celebration of a wealthy

merchant by two of the greatest singers of Italy, Farinelli and Signora

Tesi. This event established Hasse's fame; he soon became very popular,

and his opera _Sesostrato_, written for the Royal Opera at Naples in

1726, made his name known all over Italy. At Venice, where he went in

1727, he became acquainted with the celebrated singer Faustina Bordogni

(born at Venice in 1700), who became the composer's wife in 1730. The

two artists soon afterwards went to Dresden, in compliance with a

brilliant offer made to them by the splendour-loving elector of Saxony,

Augustus II. There Hasse remained for two years, after which he again

journeyed to Italy, and also in 1733 to London, in which latter city he

was tempted by the aristocratic clique inimical to Handel to become the

rival and antagonist of that great master. But this he modestly and

wisely declined, remaining in London only long enough to superintend the

rehearsals for his opera _Artaserse_ (first produced at Venice, 1730).

All this while Faustina had remained at Dresden, the declared favourite

of the public and unfortunately also of the elector, nor was her

husband, who remained attached to her, allowed to see her except at long

intervals. In 1739, after the death of Augustus II., Hasse settled

permanently at Dresden till 1763, when he and his wife retired from

court service with considerable pensions. But Hasse was still too young

to rest on his laurels. He went with his family to Vienna, and added

several operas to the great number of his works already in existence.

His last work for the stage was the opera _Ruggiero_ (1771), written for

the wedding of Archduke Ferdinand at Milan. On the same occasion a work

by Mozart, then fourteen years old, was performed, and Hasse observed

"this youngster will surpass us all." By desire of his wife Hasse

settled at her birthplace Venice, and there he died on the 23rd of

December 1783. His compositions include as many as 120 operas, besides

oratorios, cantatas, masses, and almost every variety of instrumental

music. During the siege of Dresden by the Prussians in 1760, most of his

manuscripts, collected for a complete edition to be brought out at the

expense of the elector, were burnt. Some of his works, amongst them an

opera _Alcide al Bivio_ (1760), have been published, and the libraries

of Vienna and Dresden possess the autographs of others. Hasse's

instrumentation is certainly not above the low level attained by the

average musicians of his time, and his _ensembles_ do not present any

features of interest. In dramatic fire also he was wanting, but he had a

fund of gentle and genuine melody, and by this fact his enormous

popularity during his life must be accounted for. The two airs which

Farinelli had to repeat every day for ten years to the melancholy king

of Spain, Philip V., were both from Hasse's works. Of Faustina Hasse it

will be sufficient to add that she was, according to the unanimous

verdict of the critics (including Dr Burney), one of the greatest

singers of a time rich in vocal artists. The year of her death is not

exactly known. Most probably it shortly preceded that of her husband.

HASSELQUIST, FREDERIK (1722-1752), Swedish traveller and naturalist, was

born at Tornevalla, East Gothland, on the 3rd of January 1722. On

account of the frequently expressed regrets of Linnaeus, under whom he

studied at Upsala, at the lack of information regarding the natural

history of Palestine, Hasselquist resolved to undertake a journey to

that country, and a sufficient subscription having been obtained to

defray expenses, he reached Smyrna towards the end of 1749. He visited

parts of Asia Minor, Egypt, Cyprus and Palestine, making large natural

history collections, but his constitution, naturally weak, gave way

under the fatigues of travel, and he died near Smyrna on the 9th of

February 1752 on his way home. His collections reached home in safety,

and five years after his death his notes were published by Linnaeus

under the title _Resa till Heliga Landet forattad fran ar 1749 till

1752_, which was translated into French and German in 1762 and into

English in 1766.

HASSELT, ANDRE HENRI CONSTANT VAN (1806-1874), Belgian poet, was born at

Maastricht, in Limburg, on the 5th of January 1806. He was educated in

his native town, and at the university of Liege. In 1833 he left

Maastricht, then blockaded by the Belgian forces, and made his way to

Brussels, where he became a naturalized Belgian, and was attached to the

Bibliotheque de Bourgogne. In 1843 be entered the education department,

and eventually became an inspector of normal schools. His native

language was Dutch, and as a French poet Andre van Hasselt had to

overcome the difficulties of writing in a foreign language. He had

published a _Chant hellenique_ in honour of Canaris in the columns of

_La Sentinelle des Pays-Bas_ as early as 1826, and other poems followed.

His first volume of verse, _Primeveres_ (1834), shows markedly the

influence of Victor Hugo, which had been strengthened by a visit to

Paris in 1830. His relations with Hugo became intimate in 1851-1852,

when the poet was an exile in Brussels. In 1839 he became editor of the

_Renaissance_, a paper founded to encourage the fine arts. His chief

work, the epic of the _Quatre Incarnations du Christ_, was published in

1867. In the same volume were printed his _Etudes rythmiques_, a series

of metrical experiments designed to show that the French language could

be adapted to every kind of musical rhythm. With the same end in view he

executed translations of many German songs, and wrote new French

libretti for the best-known operas of Mozart, Weber and others. Hasselt

died at Saint Josse ten Noode, a suburb of Brussels, on the 1st of

December 1874.

A selection from his works (10 vols., Brussels, 1876-1877) was edited

by MM. Charles Hen and Louis Alvin. He wrote many books for children,

chiefly under the pseudonym of Alfred Avelines; and studies on

historical and literary subjects. The books written in collaboration

with Charles Hen are signed Charles Andre. A bibliography of his

writings is appended to the notice by Louis Alvin in the _Biographie

nat. de Belgique_, vol. vii. Van Hasselt's fame has continued to

increase since his death. A series of tributes to his memory are

printed in the _Poesies choisies_ (1901), edited by M. Georges Barral

for the _Collection des poetes francais de l'etranger_. This book

contains a biographical and critical study by Jules Guillaume, and

some valuable notes on the poet's theories of rhythm.

HASSELT, the capital of the Belgian province of Limburg. Pop. (1904),

16,179. It derives its name from _Hazel-bosch_ (hazel wood). It stands

at the junction of several important roads and railways from Maaseyck,

Maastricht and Liege. It has many breweries and distilleries, and the

spirit known by its name, which is a coarse gin, has a certain

reputation throughout Belgium. On the 6th of August 1831 the Dutch

troops obtained here their chief success over the Belgian nationalists

during the War of Independence. Hasselt is best known for its great

septennial fete held on the day of Assumption, August 15th. The curious

part of this fete, which is held in honour of the Virgin under the name

of Virga Jesse, is the conversion of the town for the day into the

semblance of a forest. Fir trees and branches from the neighbouring

forest are collected and planted in front of the houses, so that for a

few hours Hasselt has the appearance of being restored to its primitive

condition as a wood. The figure of the giant who is supposed to have

once held the Hazel-bosch under his terror is paraded on this occasion

as the "lounge man." Originally this celebration was held annually, but

in the 18th century it was restricted to once in seven years. There was

a celebration in 1905.

HASSENPFLUG, HANS DANIEL LUDWIG FRIEDRICH (1794-1862), German statesman,

was born at Hanau in Hesse on the 26th of February 1794. He studied law

at Gottingen, graduated in 1816, and took his seat as _Assessor_ in the

judicial chamber of the board of government (_Regierungskollegium_) at

Cassel, of which his father Johann Hassenpflug was also a member. In

1821 he was nominated by the new elector, William II., _Justizrat_

(councillor of justice); in 1832 he became _Ministerialrat_ and reporter

(_Referent_) to the ministry of Hesse-Cassel, and in May of the same

year was appointed successively minister of justice and of the interior.

It was from this moment that he became conspicuous in the constitutional

struggles of Germany.

The reactionary system introduced by the elector William I. had broken

down before the revolutionary movements of 1830, and in 1831 Hesse had

received a constitution. This development was welcome neither to the

elector nor to the other German governments, and Hassenpflug

deliberately set to work to reverse it. In doing so he gave the lie to

his own early promise; for he had been a conspicuous member of the

revolutionary _Burschenschaft_ at Gottingen, and had taken part as a

volunteer in the War of Liberation. Into the causes of the change it is

unnecessary to inquire; Hassenpflug by training and tradition was a

strait-laced official; he was also a first-rate lawyer; and his

naturally arbitrary temper had from the first displayed itself in an

attitude of overbearing independence towards his colleagues and even

towards the elector. To such a man constitutional restrictions were

intolerable, and from the moment he came into power he set to work to

override them, by means of press censorship, legal quibbles,

unjustifiable use of the electoral prerogatives, or frank supersession

of the legislative rights of the Estates by electoral ordinances. The

story of the constitutional deadlock that resulted belongs to the

history of Hesse-Cassel and Germany; so far as Hassenpflug himself was

concerned, it made him, more even than Metternich, the Mephistopheles of

the Reaction to the German people. In Hesse itself he was known as

"Hessen's Hass und Fluch" (Hesse's hate and curse). In the end, however,

his masterful temper became unendurable to the regent (Frederick

William); in the summer of 1837 he was suddenly removed from his post as

minister of the interior and he thereupon left the elector's service.

In 1838 he was appointed head of the administration of the little

principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, an office which he exchanged

in the following year for that of civil governor of the grand-duchy of

Luxemburg. Here, too, his independent character suffered him to remain

only a year: he resented having to transact all business with the

grand-duke (king of the Netherlands) through a Dutch official at the

Hague; he protested against the absorption of the Luxemburg surplus in

the Dutch treasury; and, failing to obtain redress, he resigned (1840).

From 1841 to 1850 he was in Prussian service, first as a member of the

supreme court of justice (_Obertribunal_) and then (1846) as president

of the high court of appeal (_Oberappellationsgericht_) at Greifswald.

In 1850 he was tried for peculation and convicted; and, though this

judgment was reversed on appeal, he left the service of Prussia.

With somewhat indecent haste (the appeal had not been heard) he was now

summoned by the elector of Hesse once more to the head of the

government, and he immediately threw himself again with zeal into the

struggle against the constitution. He soon found, however, that the

opinion of all classes, including the army, was solidly against him, and

he decided to risk all on an alliance with the reviving fortunes of

Austria, which was steadily working for the restoration of the _status

quo_ overthrown by the revolution of 1848. On his advice the elector

seceded from the Northern Union established by Prussia and, on the 13th

of September, committed the folly of flying secretly from Hesse with his

minister. They went to Frankfort, where the federal diet had been

re-established, and on the 21st persuaded the diet to decree an armed

intervention in Hesse. This decree, carried out by Austrian troops, all

but led to war with Prussia, but the unreadiness of the Berlin

government led to the triumph of Austria and of Hassenpflug, who at the

end of the year was once more installed in power at Cassel as minister

of finance. His position was, however, not enviable; he was loathed and

despised by all, and disliked even by his master. The climax came in

November 1853, when he was publicly horse-whipped by the count of

Isenburg-Wachtersbach, the elector's son-in-law. The count was

pronounced insane; but Hassenpflug was conscious of the method in his

madness, and tendered his resignation. This was, however, not accepted;

and it was not till the 16th of October 1855 that he was finally

relieved of his offices. He retired to Marburg, where he died on the

15th of October 1862. He lived just long enough to hear of the

restoration of the Hesse constitution of 1831 (June 21, 1862), which it

had been his life's mission to destroy. Of his publications the most

important is _Actenstucke, die landstandischen Anklagen wider den

Kurfurstlichen hessischen Staatsminister Hassenpflug. Ein Beitrag zur

Zeitgeschichte und zum neueren deutschen Staatsrechte_, anonym.

(Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1836). He was twice married, his first wife

being the sister of the brothers Grimm. His son Karl Hassenpflug

(1824-1890) was a distinguished sculptor.

See the biography by Wippermann in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_,

with authorities.

HASTINAPUR, an ancient city of British India, in the Meerut district of

the United Provinces, lying on the bank of a former bed of the Ganges,

22 m. N.E. of Meerut. It formed the capital of the great Pandava

kingdom, celebrated in the _Mahabharata_, and probably one of the

earliest Aryan settlements outside the Punjab. Tradition points to a

group of shapeless mounds as the residence of the Lunar princes of the

house of Bharata whose deeds are commemorated in the great national

epic. After the conclusion of the famous war which forms the central

episode of that poem, Hastinapur remained for some time the metropolis

of the descendants of Parikshit, but the town was finally swept away by

a flood of the Ganges, and the capital was transferred to Kausambi.

HASTINGS, a famous English family. JOHN, BARON HASTINGS (c. 1262-c.

1313), was a son of Sir Henry de Hastings (d. 1268), who was summoned to

parliament as a baron by Simon de Montfort in 1264. Having joined

Montfort's party Sir Henry led the Londoners at the battle of Lewes and

was taken prisoner at Evesham. After his release he continued his

opposition to Henry III.; he was among those who resisted the king at

Kenilworth, and after the issue of the _Dictum de Kenilworth_ he

commanded the remnants of the baronial party when they made their last

stand in the isle of Ely, submitting to Henry in July 1267. His younger

son, Edmund, was specially noted for his military services in Scotland

during the reign of Edward I. John Hastings married Isabella (d. 1305),

daughter of William de Valence, earl of Pembroke, a half-brother of

Henry III., and fought in Scotland and in Wales. Through his mother,

Joanna de Cantilupe, he inherited the extensive lordship of Abergavenny,

hence he is sometimes referred to as lord of Bergavenny, and in 1295 he

was summoned to parliament as a baron. Before this date, however, he had

come somewhat prominently to the front. His paternal grandmother, Ada,

was a younger daughter of David, earl of Huntingdon, and a niece of the

Scottish king, William the Lion; and in 1290 when Margaret, the maid of

Norway, died, Hastings came forward as a claimant for the vacant throne.

Although unsuccessful in the matter he did not swerve from his loyalty

to Edward I. He fought constantly either in France or in Scotland; he

led the bishop of Durham's men at the celebrated siege of Carlaverock

castle in 1300; and with his brother Edmund he signed the letter which

in 1301 the English barons sent to Pope Boniface VIII. repudiating papal

interference in the affairs of Scotland; on two occasions he represented

the king in Aquitaine. Hastings died in 1312 or 1313. His second wife

was Isabella, daughter of the elder Hugh le Despenser. Hastings, who was

one of the most wealthy and powerful nobles of his time, stood high in

the regard of the king and is lauded by the chroniclers.

His eldest son JOHN (d. 1325), who succeeded to the barony, was the

father of Laurence Hastings, who was created earl of Pembroke in 1339,

the earls of Pembroke retaining the barony of Hastings until 1389. A

younger son by a second marriage, Sir Hugh Hastings (c. 1307-1347), saw

a good deal of military service in France; his portrait and also that

of his wife may still be seen on the east window of Elsing church, which

contains a beautiful brass to his memory.

On the death of John, the third and last earl of Pembroke of the

Hastings family, in 1389, Sir Hugh's son JOHN had, according to a

decision of the House of Lords in 1840, a title to the barony of

Hastings, but he did not prosecute his claim and he died without sons in

1393. However his grand-nephew and heir, Hugh (d. 1396), claimed the

barony, which was also claimed by Reginald, Lord Grey of Ruthyn. Like

the earls of Pembroke, Grey was descended through his grandmother,

Elizabeth Hastings, from John, Lord Hastings, by his first wife; Hugh,

on the other hand, was descended from John's second wife. After Hugh's

death his brother, Sir Edward Hastings (c. 1382-1438), claimed the

barony, and the case as to who should bear the arms of the Hastings

family came before the court of chivalry. In 1410 it was decided in

favour of Grey, who thereupon assumed the arms. Both disputants still

claimed the barony, but the view seems to have prevailed that it had

fallen into abeyance in 1389. Sir Edward was imprisoned for refusing to

pay his rival's costs, and he was probably still in prison when he died

in January 1438. After his death the Hastings family, which became

extinct during the 16th century, tacitly abandoned the claim to the

barony. Then in 1840 the title was revived in favour of Sir Jacob

Astley, Bart. (1797-1859), who derived his claim from a daughter of Sir

Hugh Hastings who died in 1540. Sir Jacob's descendant, Albert Edward

(b. 1882), became 21st Baron Hastings in 1904.

A distant relative of the same family was William, Baron Hastings (c.

1430-1483), a son of Sir Leonard Hastings (d. 1455). He became attached

to Edward IV., whom he served before his accession to the throne, and

after this event he became master of the mint, chamberlain of the royal

household and one of the king's most trusted advisers. Having been made

a baron in 1461, he married Catherine, daughter of Richard Neville, earl

of Salisbury, and was frequently sent on diplomatic errands to Burgundy

and elsewhere. He was faithful to Edward IV. during the king's exile in

the winter of 1470-1471, and after his return he fought for him at

Barnet and at Tewkesbury; he has been accused of taking part in the

murder of Henry VI.'s son, prince Edward, after the latter battle.

Hastings succeeded his sovereign in the favour of Jane Shore. He was

made captain of Calais in 1471, and was with Edward IV. when he met

Louis XI. of France at Picquigny in 1475, on which occasion he received

gifts from Louis and from Charles the Bold of Burgundy. After Edward

IV.'s death Hastings behaved in a somewhat undecided manner. He disliked

the queen, Elizabeth Woodville, but he refused to ally himself with

Richard, duke of Gloucester, afterwards King Richard III. Suddenly

Richard decided to get rid of him, and during a meeting of the council

on the 13th of June 1483 he was seized and at once put to death. This

dramatic incident is related by Sir Thomas More in his _History of

Richard III._, and has been worked by Shakespeare into his play _Richard

III._ Hastings is highly praised by his friend Philippe de Commines, and

also by More. He left a son, Edward (d. 1508), the father of George,

Baron Hastings (c. 1488-1545), who was created earl of Huntingdon (q.v.)

in 1529.

When Francis, 10th earl of Huntingdon, died in October 1789, the barony

of Hastings passed to his sister Elizabeth (1731-1808), wife of John

Rawdon, earl of Moira, and from her it came to her son Francis

Rawdon-Hastings (see below), who was created marquess of Hastings in

1817.

HASTINGS, FRANCIS RAWDON-HASTINGS, 1st MARQUESS OF (1754-1826), British

soldier and governor-general of India, born on the 9th of December 1754,

was the son of Sir John Rawdon of Moira in the county of Down, 4th

baronet, who was created Baron Rawdon of Moira, and afterwards earl of

Moira, in the Irish peerage. His mother was the Lady Elizabeth Hastings,

daughter of Theophilus, 9th earl of Huntingdon. Lord Rawdon, as he was

then called, was educated at Harrow and Oxford, and joined the army in

1771 as ensign in the 15th foot. His life henceforth was entirely spent

in the service of his country, and may be divided into four periods:

from 1775 to 1782 he was engaged with much distinction in the American

war; from 1783 to 1813 he held various high appointments at home, and

took an active part in the business of the House of Lords; from 1813 to

1823 was the period of his labours in India; after retiring from which,

in the last years of his life (1824-1826), he was governor of Malta.

In America Rawdon served at the battles of Bunker Hill, Brooklyn, White

Plains, Monmouth and Camden, at the attacks on Forts Washington and

Clinton, and at the siege of Charleston. In fact he was engaged in many

important operations of the war. Perhaps his most noted achievements

were the raising of a corps at Philadelphia, called the Irish

Volunteers, who under him became famous for their fighting qualities,

and the victory of Hobkirk's Hill, which, in command of only a small

force, he gained by superior military skill and determination against a

much larger body of Americans. In 1781 he was invalided. The vessel in

which he returned to England was captured and carried into Brest. He was

speedily released, and on his arrival in England was much honoured by

George III., who created him an English peer (Baron Rawdon) in March

1783. In 1789 his mother succeeded to the barony of Hastings, and Rawdon

added the surname of Hastings to his own.

In 1793 Rawdon succeeded his father as earl of Moira. In 1794 he was

sent with 7000 men to Ostend to reinforce the duke of York and the

allies in Flanders. The march by which he effected a junction was

considered extraordinary. In 1803 he was appointed commander-in-chief in

Scotland, and in 1804 he married Flora Mure Campbell, countess of

Loudoun in her own right. When Fox and Grenville came into power in

1806, Lord Moira, who had always voted with them, received the place of

master-general of the ordnance. He was now enabled to carry a

philanthropic measure, of which from his first entry into the House of

Lords he had been a great promoter, namely, the Debtor and Creditor Bill

for relief of poor debtors. Ireland was another subject to which he had

given particular attention: in 1797 there was published a _Speech by

Lord Moira on the Dreadful and Alarming State of Ireland_. Lord Moira's

sound judgment on public affairs, combined with his military reputation

and the uprightness of his character, won for him a high position among

the statesmen of the day, and he gained an additional _prestige_ from

his intimate relations with the prince of Wales. As a mark of the

regent's regard Lord Moira received the order of the Garter in 1812, and

in the same year was appointed governor-general of Bengal and

commander-in-chief of the forces in India. He landed at Calcutta, and

assumed office in succession to Lord Minto in October 1813. One of the

chief questions which awaited him was that of relations with the Gurkha

state of Nepal. The Gurkhas, a brave and warlike little nation, failing

to extend their conquests in the direction of China, had begun to

encroach on territories held or protected by the East India Company;

especially they had seized the districts of Batwal and Seoraj, in the

northern part of Oudh, and when called upon to relinquish these, they

deliberately elected (April 1814) to go to war rather than do so. Lord

Moira, having travelled through the northern provinces and fully studied

the question, declared war against Nepal (November 1814). The enemy's

frontier was 600 m. long, and Lord Moira, who directed the plan of the

campaign, resolved to act offensively along the whole line. It was an

anxious undertaking, because the native states of India were all

watching the issue and waiting for any serious reverse to the English to

join against them. At first all seemed to go badly, as the British

officers despised the enemy, and the sepoys were unaccustomed to

mountain warfare, and thus alternate extremes of rashness and

despondency were exhibited. But this rectified itself in time,

especially through the achievements of General (afterwards Sir David)

Ochterlony, who before the end of 1815 had taken all the Gurkha posts to

the west, and early in 1816 was advancing victoriously within 50 m. of

Khatmandu, the capital. The Gurkhas now made peace; they abandoned the

disputed districts, ceded some territory to the British, and agreed to

receive a British resident. For his masterly conduct of these affairs

Lord Moira was created marquess of Hastings in February 1817.

He had now to deal with internal dangers. A combination of Mahratta

powers was constantly threatening the continuance of British rule, under

the guise of plausible assurances severally given by the peshwa,

Sindhia, Holkar and other princes. At the same time the existence of the

Pindari state was not only dangerous to the British, as being a warlike

power always ready to turn against them, but it was a scourge to India

itself. In 1816, however, the Pindaris entered British territory in the

Northern Circars, where they destroyed 339 villages. On this, permission

was obtained to act for their suppression. Before the end of 1817 the

preparations of Lord Hastings were completed, when the peshwa suddenly

broke into war, and the British were opposed at once to the Mahratta and

Pindari powers, estimated at 200,000 men and 500 guns. Both were utterly

shattered in a brief campaign of four months (1817-18). The peshwa's

dominions were annexed, and those of Sindhia, Holkar, and the raja of

Berar lay at the mercy of the governor-general, and were saved only by

his moderation. Thus, after sixty years from the battle of Plassey, the

supremacy of British power in India was effectively established. The

Pindaris had ceased to exist, and peace and security had been

substituted for misery and terror.

"It is a proud phrase to use," said Lord Hastings, "but it is a true

one, that we have bestowed blessings upon millions. Nothing can be

more delightful than the reports I receive of the sensibility

manifested by the inhabitants to this change in their circumstances.

The smallest detachment of our troops cannot pass through that

district without meeting everywhere eager and exulting gratulations,

the tone of which proves them to come from glowing hearts. Multitudes

of people have, even in this short interval, come from the hills and

fastnesses in which they had sought refuge for years, and have

reoccupied their ancient deserted villages. The ploughshare is again

in every quarter turning up a soil which had for many seasons never

been stirred, except by the hoofs of predatory cavalry."

While the natives of India appreciated the results of Lord Hastings's

achievements, the court of directors grumbled at his having extended

British territory. They also disliked and opposed his measures for

introducing education among the natives and his encouraging the freedom

of the press. In 1819 he obtained the cession by purchase of the island

of Singapore. In finance his administration was very successful, as

notwithstanding the expenses of his wars he showed an annual surplus of

two millions sterling. Brilliant and beneficent as his career had been,

Lord Hastings did not escape unjust detraction. His last years of office

were embittered by the discussions on a matter notorious at the time,

namely, the affairs of the banking-house of W. Palmer and Company. The

whole affair was mixed up with insinuations against Lord Hastings,

especially charging him with having been actuated by favouritism towards

one of the partners in the firm. From imputations which were

inconsistent with his whole character he has subsequently been

exonerated. But while smarting under them he tendered his resignation in

1821, though he did not leave India till the first day of 1823. He was

much exhausted by the arduous labours which for more than nine years he

had sustained. Among his characteristics it is mentioned that "his ample

fortune absolutely sank under the benevolence of his nature"; and, far

from having enriched himself in the appointment of governor-general, he

returned to England in circumstances which obliged him still to seek

public employment. In 1824 he received the comparatively small post of

governor of Malta, in which island he introduced many reforms and

endeared himself to the inhabitants. He died on the 28th of November

1826, leaving a request that his right hand should be cut off and

preserved till the death of the marchioness of Hastings, and then be

interred in her coffin.

Hastings was succeeded by his son, Francis George Augustus (1808-1844),

who in 1840 succeeded through his mother to the earldom of Loudoun. When

his second son, Henry Weysford, the 4th marquess, died childless on the

10th of November 1868 the marquessate became extinct; the earldom of

Loudoun devolved upon his sister, Edith Mary (d. 1874), wife of Charles

Frederick Abney-Hastings, afterwards Baron Donington; the barony of

Hastings, which fell into abeyance, was also revived in 1871 in her

favour.

See Ross-of-Bladensburg, _The Marquess of Hastings_ ("Rulers of India"

series) (1893); and _Private Journal of the Marquess of Hastings_,

edited by his daughter, the marchioness of Bute (1858).

HASTINGS, FRANK ABNEY (1794-1828), British naval officer and

Philhellene, was the son of Lieut.-general Sir Charles Hastings, a

natural son of Francis Hastings, tenth earl of Huntingdon. He entered

the navy in 1805, and was in the "Neptune" (100) at the battle of

Trafalgar; but in 1820 a quarrel with his flag captain led to his

leaving the service. The revolutionary troubles of the time offered

chances of foreign employment. Hastings spent a year on the continent to

learn French, and sailed for Greece on the 12th of March 1822 from

Marseilles. On the 3rd of April he reached Hydra. For two years he took

part in the naval operations of the Greeks in the Gulf of Smyrna and

elsewhere. He saw that the light squadrons of the Greeks must in the end

be overpowered by the heavier Turkish navy, clumsy as it was; and in

1823 he drew up and presented to Lord Byron a very able memorandum which

he laid before the Greek government in 1824. This paper is of peculiar

interest apart from its importance in the Greek insurrection, for it

contains the germs of the great revolution which has since been effected

in naval gunnery and tactics. In substance the memorandum advocated the

use of steamers in preference to sailing ships, and of direct fire with

shells and hot shot, as a more trustworthy means of destroying the

Turkish fleet than fire-ships. It will be found in Finlay's _History of

the Greek Revolution_, vol. ii. appendix i. The application of

Hastings's ideas led necessarily to the disuse of sailing ships, and the

introduction of armour. The incompetence of the Greek government and the

corrupt waste of its resources prevented the full application of

Hastings's bold and far-seeing plans. But largely by the use of his own

money, of which he is said to have spent L7000, he was able to some

extent to carry them out. In 1824 he came to England to obtain a

steamer, and in 1825 he had fitted out a small steamer named the

"Karteria" (Perseverance), manned by Englishmen, Swedes and Greeks, and

provided with apparatus for the discharge of shell and hot shot. He did

enough to show that if his advice had been vigorously followed the Turks

would have been driven off the sea long before the date of the battle of

Navarino. The great effect produced by his shells in an attack on the

sea-line of communication of the Turkish army, then besieging Athens at

Oropus and Volo in March and April 1827, was a clear proof that much

more could have been done. Military mismanagement caused the defeat of

the Greeks round Athens. But Hastings, in co-operation with General Sir

R. Church (q.v.), shifted the scene of the attack to western Greece.

Here his destruction of a small Turkish squadron at Salona Bay in the

Gulf of Corinth (29th of September 1827) provoked Ibrahim Pasha into the

aggressive movements which led to the destruction of his fleet by the

allies at Navarino (q.v.) on the 20th of October 1827. On the 25th of

May 1828 he was wounded in an attack on Anatolikon, and he died in the

harbour of Zante on the 1st of June. General Gordon, who served in the

war and wrote its history, says of him: "If ever there was a

disinterested and really useful Philhellene it was Hastings. He received

no pay, and had expended most of his slender fortune in keeping the

'Karteria' afloat for the last six months. His ship, too, was the only

one in the Greek navy where regular discipline was maintained."

See Thomas Gordon, _History of the Greek Revolution_ (London, 1832);

George Finlay, _History of the Greek Revolution_ (Edinburgh, 1861).

HASTINGS, WARREN (1732-1818), the first governor-general of British

India, was born on the 6th of December 1732 in the little hamlet of

Churchill in Oxfordshire. He came of a family which had been settled for

many generations in the adjoining village of Daylesford; but his

great-grandfather had sold the ancestral manor-house, and his

grandfather had been unable to maintain himself in possession of the

family living. His mother died a few days after giving him birth; his

father, Pynaston Hastings, drifted away to perish obscurely in the West

Indies. Thus unfortunate in his birth, young Hastings received the

elements of education at a charity school in his native village. At the

age of eight he was taken in charge by an elder brother of his father,

Howard Hastings, who held a post in the customs. After spending two

years at a private school at Newington Butts, he was moved to

Westminster, where among his contemporaries occur the names of Lord

Thurlow and Lord Shelburne, Sir Elijah Impey, and the poets Cowper and

Churchill. In 1749, when his headmaster Dr Nichols was already

anticipating for him a successful career at the university, his uncle

died, leaving him to the care of a distant kinsman, Mr Creswicke, who

was afterwards in the direction of the East India Company; and he

determined to send his ward to seek his fortune as a "writer" in Bengal.

When Hastings landed at Calcutta in October 1750 the affairs of the East

India Company were at a low ebb. Throughout the entire south of the

peninsula French influence was predominant. The settlement of Fort St

George or Madras, captured by force of arms, had only recently been

restored in accordance with a clause of the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.

The organizing genius of Dupleix everywhere overshadowed the native

imagination, and the star of Clive had scarcely yet risen above the

horizon. The rivalry between the English and the French, which had

already convulsed the south, did not penetrate to Bengal. That province

was under the able government of Ali Vardi Khan, who peremptorily

forbade the foreign settlers at Calcutta and Chandernagore to introduce

feuds from Europe. The duties of a young "writer" were then such as are

implied in the name. At an early date Hastings was placed in charge of

an _aurang_ or factory in the interior, where his duties would be to

superintend the weaving of silk and cotton goods under a system of money

advances. In 1753 he was transferred to Cossimbazar, the river-port of

the native capital of Murshidabad. In 1756 the old nawab died, and was

succeeded by his grandson Surajud-Dowlah, a young madman of 19, whose

name is indelibly associated with the tragedy of the Black Hole. When

that passionate young prince, in revenge for a fancied wrong, resolved

to drive the English out of Bengal, his first step was to occupy the

fortified factory at Cossimbazar, and make prisoners of Hastings and his

companions. Hastings was soon released at the intercession of the Dutch

resident, and made use of his position at Murshidabad to open

negotiations with the English fugitives at Falta, the site of a Dutch

factory near the mouth of the Hugli. In later days he used to refer with

pride to his services on this occasion, when he was first initiated into

the wiles of Oriental diplomacy. After a while he found it necessary to

fly from the Mahommedan court and join the main body of the English at

Falta. When the relieving force arrived from Madras under Colonel Clive

and Admiral Watson, Hastings enrolled himself as a volunteer, and took

part in the action which led to the recovery of Calcutta. Clive showed

his appreciation of Hastings's merits by appointing him in 1758 to the

important post of resident at the court of Murshidabad. It was there

that he first came into collision with the Bengali Brahman, Nuncomar,

whose subsequent fate has supplied more material for controversy than

any other episode in his career. During his three years of office as

resident he was able to render not a few valuable services to the

Company; but it is more important to observe that his name nowhere

occurs in the official lists of those who derived pecuniary profit from

the necessities and weakness of the native court. In 1761 he was

promoted to be member of council, under the presidency of Mr Vansittart,

who had been introduced by Clive from Madras. The period of Vansittart's

government has been truly described as "the most revolting page of our

Indian history." The entire duties of administration were suffered to

remain in the hands of the nawab, while a few irresponsible English

traders had drawn to themselves all real power. The members of council,

the commanders of the troops, and the commercial residents plundered on

a grand scale. The youngest servant of the Company claimed the right of

trading on his own account, free from taxation and from local

jurisdiction, not only for himself but also for every native subordinate

whom he might permit to use his name. It was this exemption,

threatening the very foundations of the Mussulman government, that

finally led to a rupture with the nawab. Macaulay, in his celebrated

essay, has said that "of the conduct of Hastings at this time little is

known." As a matter of fact, the book which Macaulay was professing to

review describes at length the honourable part consistently taken by

Hastings in opposition to the great majority of the council. Sometimes

in conjunction only with Vansittart, sometimes absolutely alone, he

protested unceasingly against the policy and practices of his

colleagues. On one occasion he was stigmatized in a minute by Mr Batson

with "having espoused the nawab's cause, and as a hired solicitor

defended all his actions, however dishonourable and detrimental to the

Company." An altercation ensued. Batson gave him the lie and struck him

in the council chamber. When war was actually begun, Hastings officially

recorded his previous resolution to have resigned, in order to repudiate

responsibility for measures which he had always opposed. Waiting only

for the decisive victory of Buxar over the allied forces of Bengal and

Oudh, he resigned his seat and sailed for England in November 1764.

After fourteen years' residence in Bengal Hastings did not return home a

rich man, estimated by the opportunities of his position. According to

the custom of the time he had augmented his slender salary by private

trade. At a later date he was charged by Burke with having taken up

profitable contracts for supplying bullocks for the use of the Company's

troops. It is admitted that he conducted by means of agents a large

business in timber in the Gangetic Sundarbans. When at Falta he had

married Mrs Buchanan, the widow of an officer. She bore him two

children, of whom one died in infancy at Murshidabad, and was shortly

followed to the grave by her mother. Their common gravestone is in

existence at the present day, bearing date July 11, 1759. The other

child, a son, was sent to England, and also died shortly before his

father's return. While at home Hastings is said to have attached himself

to literary society; and it may be inferred from his own letters that he

now made the personal acquaintance of Samuel Johnson and Lord Mansfield.

In 1766 he was called upon to give evidence before a committee of the

House of Commons upon the affairs of Bengal. The good sense and

clearness of the views which he expressed caused attention to be paid to

his desire to be again employed in India. His pecuniary affairs were

embarrassed, partly from the liberality with which he had endowed his

few surviving relatives. The great influence of Lord Clive was also

exercised on his behalf. At last, in the winter of 1768, he received the

appointment of second in council at Madras. Among his companions on his

voyage round the Cape were the Baron Imhoff, a speculative

portrait-painter, and his wife, a lady of some personal attractions and

great social charm, who was destined henceforth to be Hastings's

lifelong companion. Of his two years' work at Madras it is needless to

speak in detail. He won the good-will of his employers by devoting

himself to the improvement of their manufacturing business, and he kept

his hands clean from the prevalent taint of pecuniary transactions with

the nawab of the Carnatic. One fact of some interest is not generally

known. He drew up a scheme for the construction of a pier at Madras, to

avoid the dangers of landing through the surf, and instructed his

brother-in-law in England to obtain estimates from the engineers

Brindley and Smeaton.

In the beginning of 1772 his ambition was stimulated by the nomination

to the second place in council in Bengal with a promise of the reversion

of the governorship when Mr Cartier should retire. Since his departure

from Bengal in 1764 the situation of affairs in that settlement had

scarcely improved. The second governorship of Clive was marked by the

transfer of the diwani or financial administration from the Mogul

emperor to the Company, and by the enforcement of stringent regulations

against the besetting sin of peculation. But Clive was followed by two

inefficient successors; and in 1770 occurred the most terrible Indian

famine on record, which is credibly estimated to have swept away

one-third of the population. In April 1772 Warren Hastings took his seat

as president of the council at Fort William. His first care was to

carry out the instructions received from home, and effect a radical

reform in the system of government. Clive's plan of governing through

the agency of the native court had proved a failure. The directors were

determined "to stand forth as _diwan_, and take upon themselves by their

own servants the entire management of the revenues." All the officers of

administration were transferred from Murshidabad to Calcutta, which

Hastings boasted at this early date that he would make the first city in

Asia. This reform involved the ruin of many native reputations, and for

a second time brought Hastings into collision with the wily Brahman,

Nuncomar. At the same time a settlement of the land revenue on leases

for five years was begun, and the police and military systems of the

country were placed upon a new footing. Hastings was a man of immense

industry, with an insatiable appetite for detail. The whole of this

large series of reforms was conducted under his own personal

supervision, and upon no part of his multifarious labours did he dwell

in his letters home with greater pride. As an independent measure of

economy, the stipend paid to the titular nawab of Bengal, who was then a

minor, was reduced by one-half--to sixteen _lakhs_ a year (say

L160,000). Macaulay imputes this reduction to Hastings as a

characteristic act of financial immorality; but in truth it had been

expressly enjoined by the court of directors, in a despatch dated six

months before he took up office. His pecuniary bargains with

Shuja-ud-Dowlah, the nawab wazir of Oudh, stand on a different basis.

Hastings himself always regarded them as incidents in his general scheme

of foreign policy. The Mahrattas at this time had got possession of the

person of the Mogul emperor, Shah Alam, from whom Clive obtained the

grant of Bengal in 1765, and to whom he assigned in return the districts

of Allahabad and Kora and a tribute of L300,000. With the emperor in

their camp, the Mahrattas were threatening the province of Oudh, and

causing a large British force to be cantoned along the frontier for its

defence. Warren Hastings, as a deliberate measure of policy, withheld

the tribute due to the emperor, and resold Allahabad and Kora to the

wazir of Oudh. The Mahrattas retreated, and all danger for the time was

dissipated by the death of their principal leader. The wazir now

bethought him that he had a good opportunity for satisfying an old

quarrel against the adjoining tribe of Rohillas, who had played fast and

loose with him while the Mahratta army was at hand. The Rohillas were a

race of Afghan origin, who had established themselves for some

generations in a fertile tract west of Oudh, between the Himalayas and

the Ganges, which still bears the name of Rohilkhand. They were not so

much the occupiers of the soil as a dominant caste of warriors and

freebooters. But in those troubled days their title was as good as any

to be found in India. After not a little hesitation, Hastings consented

to allow the Company's troops to be used to further the ambitious

designs of his Oudh ally, in consideration of a sum of money which

relieved the ever-pressing wants of the Bengal treasury. The Rohillas

were defeated in fair fight. Some of them fled the country, and so far

as possible Hastings obtained terms for those who remained. The

fighting, no doubt, on the part of the wazir was conducted with all the

savagery of Oriental warfare; but there is no evidence that it was a war

of extermination.

Meanwhile, the affairs of the East India Company had come under the

consideration of parliament. The Regulating Act, passed by Lord North's

ministry in 1773, effected considerable changes in the constitution of

the Bengal government. The council was reduced to four members with a

governor-general, who were to exercise certain indefinite powers of

control over the presidencies of Madras and Bombay. Hastings was named

in the act as governor-general for a term of five years. The council

consisted of General Clavering and the Hon. Colonel Monson, two

third-rate politicians of considerable parliamentary influence; Philip

Francis (q.v.), then only known as an able permanent official; and

Barwell, of the Bengal Civil Service. At the same time a supreme court

of judicature was appointed, composed of a chief and three puisne

judges, to exercise an indeterminate jurisdiction at Calcutta. The

chief-justice was Sir Elijah Impey, already mentioned as a schoolfellow

of Hastings at Westminster. The whole tendency of the Regulating Act was

to establish for the first time the influence of the crown, or rather of

parliament, in Indian affairs. The new members of council disembarked at

Calcutta on the 19th of October 1774; and on the following day commenced

the long feud which scarcely terminated twenty-one years later with the

acquittal of Warren Hastings by the House of Lords. Macaulay states that

the members of council were put in ill-humour because their salute of

guns was not proportionate to their dignity. In a contemporary letter

Francis thus expresses the same petty feeling: "Surely Mr H. might have

put on a ruffled shirt." Taking advantage of an ambiguous clause in

their commission, the majority of the council (for Barwell uniformly

sided with Hastings) forthwith proceeded to pass in review the recent

measures of the governor-general. All that he had done they condemned;

all that they could they reversed. Hastings was reduced to the position

of a cipher at their meetings. After a time they lent a ready ear to

detailed allegations of corruption brought against him by his old enemy

Nuncomar. To charges from such a source, and brought in such a manner,

Hastings disdained to reply, and referred his accuser to the supreme

court. The majority of the council, in their executive capacity,

resolved that the governor-general had been guilty of peculation, and

ordered him to refund. A few days later Nuncomar was thrown into prison

on a charge of forgery preferred by a private prosecutor, tried before

the supreme court sitting in bar, found guilty by a jury of Englishmen

and sentenced to be hanged. Hastings always maintained that he did not

cause the charge to be instituted, and the legality of Nuncomar's trial

is thoroughly proved by Sir James Stephen. The majority of the council

abandoned their supporter, who was executed in due course. He had

forwarded a petition for reprieve to the council, which Clavering took

care should not be presented in time, and which was subsequently burnt

by the common hangman on the motion of Francis. While the strife was at

its hottest, Hastings had sent an agent to England with a general

authority to place his resignation in the hands of the Company under

certain conditions. The agent thought fit to exercise that authority.

The resignation was promptly accepted, and one of the directors was

appointed to the vacancy. But in the meantime Colonel Monson had died,

and Hastings was thus restored, by virtue of his casting vote, to the

supreme management of affairs. He refused to ratify his resignation; and

when Clavering attempted to seize on the governor-generalship, he

judiciously obtained an opinion from the judges of the supreme court in

his favour. From that time forth, though he could not always command an

absolute majority in council, Hastings was never again subjected to

gross insult, and his general policy was able to prevail.

A crisis was now approaching in foreign affairs which demanded all the

experience and all the genius of Hastings for its solution. Bengal was

prosperous, and free from external enemies on every quarter. But the

government of Bombay had hurried on a rupture with the Mahratta

confederacy at a time when France was on the point of declaring war

against England, and when the mother-country found herself unable to

subdue her rebellious colonists in America. Hastings did not hesitate to

take upon his own shoulders the whole responsibility of military

affairs. All the French settlements in India were promptly occupied. On

the part of Bombay, the Mahratta war was conducted with procrastination

and disgrace. But Hastings amply avenged the capitulation of Wargaon by

the complete success of his own plan of operations. Colonel Goddard with

a Bengal army marched across the breadth of the peninsula from the

valley of the Ganges to the western sea, and achieved almost without a

blow the conquest of Gujarat. Captain Popham, with a small detachment,

stormed the rock fortress of Gwalior, then deemed impregnable and the

key of central India; and by this feat held in check Sindhia, the most

formidable of the Mahratta chiefs. The Bhonsla Mahratta raja of Nagpur,

whose dominions bordered on Bengal, was won over by the diplomacy of an

emissary of Hastings. But while these events were taking place, a new

source of embarrassment had arisen at Calcutta. The supreme court,

whether rightly or wrongly, assumed a jurisdiction of first instance

over the entire province of Bengal. The English common law, with all the

absurdities and rigours of that day, was arbitrarily extended to an

alien system of society. _Zamindars_, or government renters, were

arrested on mesne process; the sanctity of the _zenana_, or women's

chamber, as dear to Hindus as to Mahommedans, was violated by the

sheriff's officer; the deepest feelings of the people and the entire

fabric of revenue administration were alike disregarded. On this point

the entire council acted in harmony. Hastings and Francis went

joint-bail for imprisoned natives of distinction. At last, after the

dispute between the judges and the executive threatened to become a

trial of armed force, Hastings set it at rest by a characteristic stroke

of policy. A new judicial office was created in the name of the Company,

to which Sir Elijah Impey was appointed, though he never consented to

draw the additional salary offered to him. The understanding between

Hastings and Francis, originating in this state of affairs, was for a

short period extended to general policy. An agreement was come to by

which Francis received patronage for his circle of friends, while

Hastings was to be unimpeded in the control of foreign affairs. But a

difference of interpretation arose. Hastings recorded in an official

minute that he had found Francis's private and public conduct to be

"void of truth and honour." They met as duellists. Francis fell wounded,

and soon afterwards returned to England.

The Mahratta war was not yet terminated, but a far more formidable

danger now threatened the English in India. The imprudent conduct of the

Madras authorities had irritated beyond endurance the two greatest

Mussulman powers in the peninsula, the nizam of the Deccan and Hyder

Ali, the usurper of Mysore, who began to negotiate an alliance with the

Mahrattas. A second time the genius of Hastings saved the British empire

in the east. On the arrival of the news that Hyder had descended from

the highlands of Mysore, cut to pieces the only British army in the

field, and swept the Carnatic up to the gates of Madras, he at once

adopted a policy of extraordinary boldness. He signed a blank treaty of

peace with the Mahrattas, who were still in arms, reversed the action of

the Madras government towards the nizam, and concentrated all the

resources of Bengal against Hyder Ali. Sir Eyre Coote, a general of

renown in former Carnatic wars, was sent by sea to Madras with all the

troops and treasure that could be got together; and a strong body of

reinforcements subsequently marched southwards under Colonel Pearse

along the coast line of Orissa. The landing of Coote preserved Madras

from destruction, though the war lasted through many campaigns and only

terminated with the death of Hyder. Pearse's detachment was decimated by

an epidemic of cholera (perhaps the first mention of this disease by

name in Indian history); but the survivors penetrated to Madras, and not

only held in check Bhonsla and the nizam, but also corroborated the

lesson taught by Goddard--that the Company's sepoys could march

anywhere, when boldly led. Hastings's personal task was to provide the

ways and means for this exhausting war. A considerable economy was

effected by a reform in the establishment for collecting the land tax.

The government monopolies of opium and salt were then for the first time

placed upon a remunerative basis. But these reforms were of necessity

slow in their beneficial operation. The pressing demands of the military

chest had to be satisfied by loans, and in at least one case from the

private purse of the governor-general. Ready cash could alone fill up

the void; and it was to the hoards of native princes that Hastings's

fertile mind at once turned. Chait Sing, raja of Benares, the greatest

of the vassal chiefs who had grown rich under the protection of the

British rule, lay under the suspicion of disloyalty. The wazir of Oudh

had fallen into arrears in the payment due for the maintenance of the

Company's garrison posted in his dominions, and his administration was

in great disorder. In his case the ancestral hoards were under the

control of his mother, the begum of Oudh, into whose hands they had been

allowed to pass at the time when Hastings was powerless in council.

Hastings resolved to make a progress up country in order to arrange the

affairs of both provinces, and bring back all the treasure that could be

squeezed out of its holders by his personal intervention. When he

reached Benares and presented his demands, the raja rose in

insurrection, and the governor-general barely escaped with his life. But

the faithful Popham rapidly rallied a force for his defence. The

insurgents were defeated again and again; Chait Sing took to flight, and

an augmented permanent tribute was imposed upon his successor. The Oudh

business was managed with less risk. The wazir consented to everything

demanded of him. The begum was charged with having abetted Chait Sing in

his rebellion; and after the severest pressure applied to herself and

her attendant eunuchs, a fine of more than a million sterling was

exacted from her. Hastings appears to have been not altogether satisfied

with the incidents of this expedition, and to have anticipated the

censure which it received in England. As a measure of precaution, he

procured documentary evidence of the rebellious intentions of the raja

and the begum, to the validity of which Impey obligingly lent his

extra-judicial sanction.

The remainder of Hastings's term of office in India was passed in

comparative tranquillity, both from internal opposition and foreign war.

The centre of interest now shifts to the India House and to the British

parliament. The long struggle between the Company and the ministers of

the crown for the supreme control of Indian affairs and the attendant

patronage had reached its climax. The decisive success of Hastings's

administration alone postponed the inevitable solution. His original

term of five years would have expired in 1778; but it was annually

prolonged by special act of parliament until his voluntary resignation.

Though Hastings was thus irremovable, his policy did not escape censure.

Ministers were naturally anxious to obtain the reversion to his vacant

post, and Indian affairs formed at this time the hinge on which party

politics turned. On one occasion Dundas carried a motion in the House of

Commons, censuring Hastings and demanding his recall. The directors of

the Company were disposed to act upon this resolution; but in the court

of proprietors, with whom the decision ultimately lay, Hastings always

possessed a sufficient majority. Fox's India Bill led to the downfall of

the Coalition ministry in 1783. The act which Pitt successfully carried

in the following year introduced a new constitution, in which Hastings

felt that he had no place. In February 1785 he finally sailed from

Calcutta, after a dignified ceremony of resignation, and amid

enthusiastic farewells from all classes.

On his arrival in England, after a second absence of sixteen years, he

was not displeased with the reception he met with at court and in the

country. A peerage was openly talked of as his due, while his own

ambition pointed to some responsible office at home. Pitt had never

taken a side against him, while Lord Chancellor Thurlow was his

pronounced friend. But he was now destined to learn that his enemy

Francis, whom he had discomfited in the council chamber at Calcutta, was

more than his match in the parliamentary arena. Edmund Burke had taken

the subject races of India under the protection of his eloquence.

Francis, who had been the early friend of Burke, supplied him with the

personal animus against Hastings, and with the knowledge of detail,

which he might otherwise have lacked. The Whig party on this occasion

unanimously followed Burke's lead. Dundas, Pitt's favourite subordinate,

had already committed himself by his earlier resolution of censure; and

Pitt was induced by motives which are still obscure to incline the

ministerial majority to the same side. To meet the oratory of Burke and

Sheridan and Fox, Hastings wrote an elaborate minute with which he

wearied the ears of the House for two successive nights, and he

subsidized a swarm of pamphleteers. The impeachment was decided upon in

1786, but the actual trial did not commence until 1788. For seven long

years Hastings was upon his defence on the charge of "high crimes and

misdemeanours." During this anxious period he appears to have borne

himself with characteristic dignity, such as is consistent with no other

hypothesis than the consciousness of innocence. At last, in 1795, the

House of Lords gave a verdict of not guilty on all charges laid against

him; and he left the bar at which he had so frequently appeared, with

his reputation clear, but ruined in fortune. However large the wealth he

brought back from India, all was swallowed up in defraying the expenses

of his trial. Continuing the line of conduct which in most other men

would be called hypocrisy, he forwarded a petition to Pitt praying that

he might be reimbursed his costs from the public funds. This petition,

of course, was rejected. At last, when he was reduced to actual

destitution, it was arranged that the East India Company should grant

him an annuity of L4000 for a term of years, with L90,000 paid down in

advance. This annuity expired before his death; and he was compelled to

make more than one fresh appeal to the bounty of the Company, which was

never withheld. Shortly before his acquittal he had been able to satisfy

the dream of his childhood, by buying back the ancestral manor of

Daylesford, where the remainder of his life was passed in honourable

retirement. In 1813 he was called on to give evidence upon Indian

affairs before the two houses of parliament, which received him with

exceptional marks of respect. The university of Oxford conferred on him

the honorary degree of D.C.L.; and in the following year he was sworn of

the privy council, and took a prominent part in the reception given to

the duke of Wellington and the allied sovereigns. He died on the 22nd of

August 1818, in his 86th year, and lies buried behind the chancel of the

parish church, which he had recently restored at his own charges.

In physical appearance, Hastings "looked like a great man, and not like

a bad man." The body was wholly subjugated to the mind. A frame

naturally slight had been further attenuated by rigorous habits of

temperance, and thus rendered proof against the diseases of the tropics.

Against his private character not even calumny has breathed a reproach.

As brother, as husband and as friend, his affections were as steadfast

as they were warm. By the public he was always regarded as reserved, but

within his own inner circle he gave and received perfect confidence. In

his dealings with money, he was characterized rather by liberality of

expenditure than by carefulness of acquisition. A classical education

and the instincts of family pride saved him from both the greed and the

vulgar display which marked the typical "nabob," the self-made man of

those days. He could support the position of a governor-general and of a

country gentleman with equal credit. Concerning his second marriage, it

suffices to say that the Baroness Imhoff was nearly forty years of age,

with a family of grown-up children, when the complaisant law of her

native land allowed her to become Mrs Hastings. She survived her

husband, who cherished towards her to the last the sentiments of a

lover. Her children he adopted as his own; and it was chiefly for her

sake that he desired the peerage which was twice held out to him.

Hastings's public career will probably never cease to be a subject of

controversy. It was his misfortune to be the scapegoat upon whose head

parliament laid the accumulated sins, real and imaginary, of the East

India Company. If the acquisition of the Indian empire can be supported

on ethical grounds, Hastings needs no defence. No one who reads his

private correspondence will admit that even his least defensible acts

were dictated by dishonourable motives. It is more pleasing to point out

certain of his public measures upon which no difference of opinion can

arise. He was the first to attempt to open a trade route with Tibet, and

to organize a survey of Bengal and of the eastern seas. It was he who

persuaded the _pundits_ of Bengal to disclose the treasures of Sanskrit

to European scholars. He founded the Madrasa or college for Mahommedan

education at Calcutta, primarily out of his own funds; and he projected

the foundation of an Indian institute in England. The Bengal Asiatic

Society was established under his auspices, though he yielded the post

of president to Sir W. Jones. No Englishman ever understood the native

character so well as Hastings; none ever devoted himself more heartily

to the promotion of every scheme, great and small, that could advance

the prosperity of India. Natives and Anglo-Indians alike venerate his

name, the former as their first beneficent administrator, the latter as

the most able and the most enlightened of their own class. If Clive's

sword conquered the Indian empire, it was the brain of Hastings that

planned the system of civil administration, and his genius that saved

the empire in its darkest hour.

See G. B. Malleson, _Life of Warren Hastings_ (1894); G. W. Forrest,

_The Administration of Warren Hastings_ (Calcutta, 1892); Sir Charles

Lawson, _The Private Life of Warren Hastings_ (1895); L. J. Trotter,

_Warren Hastings_ ("Rulers of India" series) (1890); Sir Alfred Lyall,

_Warren Hastings_ ("English Men of Action" series) (1889); F. M.

Holmes, _Four Heroes of India_ (1892); G. W. Hastings, _A Vindication

of Warren Hastings_ (1909). Macaulay's famous essay, though a classic,

is very partial and inaccurate; and Burke's speech, on the impeachment

of Warren Hastings, is magnificent rhetoric. The true historical view

has been restored by Sir James Stephen's _Story of Nuncomar_ (1885)

and by Sir John Strachey's _Hastings and the Rohilla War_ (1892), and

it is enforced in some detail in Sydney C. Grier's _Letters of Warren

Hastings to his Wife_ (1905), material for which existed in a mass of

documents relating to Hastings, acquired by the British Museum.

(J. S. Co.)

HASTINGS, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough and

watering-place of Sussex, England, one of the Cinque Ports, 62 m. S.E.

by S. from London, on the South Eastern & Chatham and the London,

Brighton & South Coast railways. Pop. (1901), 65,528. It is

picturesquely situated at the mouth of two narrow valleys, and, being

sheltered by considerable hills on the north and east, has an especially

mild climate. Eastward along the coast towards Fairlight, and inland,

the country is beautiful. A parade fronts the English Channel, and

connects the town on the west with St Leonard's, which is included

within the borough. This is mainly a residential quarter, and has four

railway stations on the lines serving Hastings. Both Hastings and St

Leonard's have fine piers; there is a covered parade known as the

Marina, and the Alexandra Park of 75 acres was opened in 1891. There are

also numerous public gardens. The sandy beach is extensive, and affords

excellent bathing. On the brink of the West Cliff stand a square and a

circular tower and other fragments of the castle, probably erected soon

after the time of William the Conqueror; together with the ruins, opened

up by excavation in 1824, of the castle chapel, a transitional Norman

structure 110 ft. long, with a nave, chancel and aisles. Besides the

chapel there was formerly a college, both being under the control of a

dean and secular canons. The deanery was held by Thomas Becket, and one

of the canonries by William of Wykeham. The principal public buildings

are the old parish churches of All Saints and St Clements, the first

containing in its register for 1619 the baptism of Titus Oates, whose

father was rector of the parish; numerous modern churches, the town hall

(1880); theatre, music hall and assembly rooms. The Brassey Institute

contains a public library, museum and art school. The Albert Memorial

clock-tower was erected in 1864. Educational institutions include the

grammar school (1883), school of science and art (1878) and technical

schools. At the west end of the town are several hospitals and

convalescent homes. The prosperity of the town depends almost wholly on

its reputation as a watering-place, but there is a small fishing and

boat-building industry. In 1890 an act of parliament authorized the

construction of a harbour, but the work, begun in 1896, was not

completed. The fish-market beneath the castle cliff is picturesque. The

parliamentary borough, returning one member, falls within the Rye

division of the county. The county borough was created in 1888. The

municipal borough is under a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors.

Area, 4857 acres.

Rock shelters on Castle Hill and numerous flint instruments which have

been discovered at Hastings point to an extensive neolithic population,

and there are ancient earthworks and a promontory camp of unknown date.

There is no evidence that Hastings was a Roman settlement, but it was a

place of some note in the Anglo-Saxon period. In 795 land at Hastings

(Haestingaceaster, Haestingas, Haestingaport) is included in a grant,

which may possibly be a forgery, of a South Saxon chieftain to the abbey

of St Denis in France; and a royal mint was established at the town by

Aethelstan. The battle of Hastings in 1066 described below was the first

and decisive act of the Norman Conquest. It was fought near the present

Battle Abbey, about 6 m. inland. After the Conquest William I. erected

the earthworks of the existing castle. By 1086 Hastings was a borough

and had given its name to the rape of Sussex in which it lay. The town

at that time had a harbour and a market. Whether Hastings was one of the

towns afterwards known as the Cinque Ports at the time when they

received their first charter from Edward the Confessor is uncertain, but

in the reign of William I. it was undoubtedly among them. These combined

towns, of which Hastings was the head, had special liberties and a

separate jurisdiction under a warden. The only charter peculiar to

Hastings was granted in 1589 by Elizabeth, and incorporated the borough

under the name of "mayor, jurats and commonalty," instead of the former

title of "bailiff, jurats and commonalty." Hastings returned two members

to parliament probably from 1322, and certainly from 1366, until 1885,

when the number was reduced to one.

_Battle of Hastings._--On the 28th of September 1066, William of

Normandy, bent on asserting by arms his right to the English crown,

landed at Pevensey. King Harold, who had destroyed the invaders of

northern England at the battle of Stamford Bridge in Yorkshire, on

hearing the news hurried southward, gathering what forces he could on

the way. He took up his position, athwart the road from Hastings to

London, on a hill[1] some 6 m. inland from Hastings, with his back to

the great forest of Anderida (the Weald) and in front of him a long

glacis-like slope, at the bottom of which began the opposing slope of

Telham Hill. The English army was composed almost entirely of infantry.

The shire levies, for the most part destitute of body armour and with

miscellaneous and even improvised weapons, were arranged on either flank

of Harold's guards (_huscarles_), picked men armed principally with the

Danish axe and shield.

Before this position Duke William appeared on the morning of the 14th of

October. His host, composed not only of his Norman vassals but of

barons, knights and adventurers from all quarters, was arranged in a

centre and two wings, each corps having its archers and arblasters in

the front line, the rest of the infantry in the second and the heavy

armoured cavalry in the third. Neither the arrows nor the charge of the

second line of foot-men, who, unlike the English, wore defensive mail,

made any impression on the English standing in a serried mass behind

their interlocked shields.[2]

Then the heavy cavalry came on, led by the duke and his brother Odo, and

encouraged by the example of the minstrel Taillefer, who rode forward,

tossing and catching his sword, into the midst of the English line

before he was pulled down and killed. All along the front the cavalry

came to close quarters with the defenders, but the long powerful Danish

axes were as formidable as the halbert and the bill proved to be in

battles of later centuries, and they lopped off the arms of the

assailants and cut down their horses. The fire of the attack died out

and the left wing (Bretons) fled in rout. But as the _fyrd_ levies broke

out of the line and pursued the Bretons down the hill in a wild,

formless mob, William's cavalry swung round and destroyed them, and this

suggested to the duke to repeat deliberately what the Bretons had done

from fear. Another advance, followed by a feigned retreat, drew down a

second large body of the English from the crest, and these in turn, once

in the open, were ridden over and slaughtered by the men-at-arms.

Lastly, these two disasters having weakened the defenders both

materially and morally, William subjected the _huscarles_, who had stood

fast when the _fyrd_ broke its ranks, to a constant rain of arrows,

varied from time to time by cavalry charges. These magnificent soldiers

endured the trial for many hours, from noon till close on nightfall; but

at last, when the Norman archers raised their bows so as to pitch the

arrows at a steep angle of descent in the midst of the _huscarles_, the

strain became too great. While some rushed forward alone or in twos and

threes to die in the midst of the enemy, the remainder stood fast, too

closely crowded almost for the wounded to drop. At last Harold received

a mortal wound, the English began to waver, and the knights forced their

way in. Only a remnant of the defenders made its way back to the forest;

and William, after resting for a night on the hardly-won ground, began

the work of the Norman Conquest.