RESULTS: Austria cedes thirty-two thousand square miles of
territory, containing three and one-half million inhabitants.
e. Invasion of Russia--1812.
CAUSE: Alexander’s refusal to enforce Napoleon’s continental system,
and other causes of dispute.
LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon=, =Marshal Ney=; (2) Kutusoff, Barclay de
Tolly.
CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Smolensk=, =Borodino.= Burning of Moscow,
Retreat from Moscow, Passage of the Beresina.
RESULT: Less than twenty thousand of the half million men in
Napoleon’s army recrossed the Russian frontier.
f. War of Liberation--1813-1814.
CAUSES: The disastrous Russian campaign, together with the steady
progress of the British in the peninsular war encouraged the
oppressed states of Germany to rise against Napoleon’s tyranny,
Prussia taking the lead.
LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon,=, =Ney=, =Macdonald=; (2) Frederick, William
III., Francis I., Alexander I., Schwarzenberg, Blücher, Bernadotte.
CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Lützen=, =Bautzen=, =Dresden=; (2) Dennewitz,
Leipzig, (Battle of the Nations). Allies enter Paris.
RESULTS: Driven from Russia in 1812, from Germany in 1813, Napoleon
in 1814 was forced to surrender France itself. By the treaty of
Fontainebleau he was given the Island of Elba and an annual revenue
of two million francs.
g. Waterloo Campaign--1815.
CAUSES: Quarrels among the allies and dissatisfaction of French with
Louis XVIII. tempt Napoleon to return from Elba.
LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon=, =Ney=; (2) Wellington, Blücher.
CHIEF ACTIONS: Napoleon lands at Cannes (March 1); enters Paris
March 20.
(1) =Ligny=; (2) Quatre Bras, Waterloo (June 18).
RESULTS: Waterloo marks the final downfall of Napoleon. He is
transported to the island of St. Helena, where he died in 1821. In
the Congress of Vienna the allies reconstructed Europe, restoring in
general the legitimate rulers and erecting barriers against
democratic movements and liberal ideas.
=WAR OF GRECIAN INDEPENDENCE=--1821-1829.
(1) =Greeks, aided by England, Russia and France= vs. (2) Turks.
CAUSES: Revived feeling of Greek nationality, stimulated by a
widespread secret society working for a restoration of a Greek
empire at Constantinople.
LEADERS: (1) =Ypsilanti=, =Diebitsch= (Russia), =Codrington=
(England), =Byron= (England); (2) Ibrahim, Pasha.
CHIEF ACTIONS: Massacre of Greeks at Chios.
(1) =Navarino=, =Adrianople=; (2) Missolonghi.
RESULTS: The treaty of Adrianople, 1829, compelled Turkey to
acknowledge the independence of Greece, which chose as king the
Bavarian prince Otto I.
=CRIMEAN WAR=--1854-1856.
(1) =Russia= vs. (2) Turkey aided by Great Britain, France and
Sardinia.
CAUSES: The question of the political status and future of the lands
of the Turkish empire. Immediate cause, the claim of Russia to a
protectorate over all Greek Christians living under the sultan’s
rule.
LEADERS: (1) =Mentchikoff=, =Gortchakoff=; (2) Canrobert, Pelissier
(France), Raglan, Simpson (England).
CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Balaclava=; (2) Alma, Siege of Sebastopol,
Inkermann.
RESULTS: In the peace of Paris (1856) Russia’s claim to a
protectorate is disallowed, the Danube is opened to navigation and
the Black Sea is closed to war vessels of all powers.
=SEPOY MUTINY=--1857-1858.
(1) =Sepoys= vs. (2) English.
CAUSES: Uneasiness created by the rapid progress of British ways and
rule causes a revolt of native Sepoy troops of India. Immediate
cause the rumor that cartridges furnished troops were greased with a
mixture of hog and beef fat--the one animal an object of loathing to
Mohammedans, the other of religious worship to the Hindu.
LEADERS: (1) =Nana Sahib=; (2) Nicholson, Havelock, Campbell.
CHIEF ACTIONS: Mutiny of Sepoys at Meerut.
(1) =Massacre at Cawnpore=; (2) Delhi, Relief of Lucknow.
RESULTS: Following the suppression of the mutiny the charter of the
East India company is revoked and India passes directly under the
crown, a secretary of state for India being added to the British
ministry.
=WAR OF ITALIAN LIBERATION=--1859.
(1) =Sardinia-Piedmont and France= vs. (2) Austria.
CAUSES: Since 1848 Sardinia-Piedmont had been the center of the
movement for Italian unity. Following promises of aid from Napoleon
III. Cavour traps Austria into declaring war over the question of
disarmament.
LEADERS: (1) =Victor Emmanuel=, =Napoleon III.=, =Garibaldi=; (2)
Francis Joseph II., Gyulay.
CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Montebello=, =Magenta=, =Solferino.= Peace
signed at Zurich, November 10, 1859.
RESULTS: By this war Victor Emmanuel gained Lombardy. In 1860
Tuscany, Parma, Modena and the papal legations were added. In 1861
he gained Sicily and Naples, together with the title King of Italy.
Venetia followed as a result of alliance with Prussia in 1866 and
the addition of Rome in 1871 completed the unification of Italy.
=DANISH WAR=--1864.
(1) =Austria and Prussia= vs. (2) Denmark.
CAUSES: Incorporation of the duchy of Schleswig with Denmark in
violation of treaty of 1852.
LEADERS: (1) =Gablenz= (=Austria=), =Prince Frederick=, =Charles=
(=Prussia=); (2) Dermeza, Gerlach.