RESULTS: Denmark gives up Schleswig-Holstein, which is jointly
administered by Austria and Prussia.
=AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR=--1866.
(1) =Prussia with smaller North German States and Italy= vs. (2)
Austria, Hanover, Saxony, and South German States.
CAUSES: Friction over Schleswig-Holstein enables Bismarck to force
Austria into a war for supremacy in Germany.
LEADERS: (1) =William I.=, =Prince Frederick=, =Charles=, =Moltke=,
=Victor Emmanuel=; (2) Benedek, Archduke Albert, Gablenz, Prince
Charles of Bavaria.
CHIEF ACTIONS: In Bohemia: (1) =Soor=, =Koniggrätz or Sadowa=; (2)
Trautenau. _In the West_: (1) =Aschaffenburg=; (2) Langensala. _In
Italy_: (2) Custozza, Lissa.
RESULTS: Closed with the peace of Prague, August 23, 1866, which
authorized the re-establishment of the federated German states,
excluding Austria; Austria ceded Venetia to Italy, and her rights in
Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia. Hanover, Hesse, Nassau are also
annexed to Prussia.
=FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR=--1870-1871.
(1) France vs. (2) =Prussia= supported by all German States.
CAUSES: Jealousy of France at Prussian gains and friction over
Hohenzollern candidacy for the throne of Spain. Bismarck’s
falsification of the “Ems dispatch” tricked France into a
declaration of war.
LEADERS: Napoleon III., MacMahon, Bazaine; (2) =William I.=,
=Moltke=, =Prince Frederick Charles=, =Crown Prince Frederic
William.=
CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Saarbrucken=; (2) Weissenberg, Wörth, Vionville,
Gravelotte, Sedan, Capitulation of Metz, Orleans, Capitulation of
Paris.
RESULTS: Closed in 1871 with the treaty of Versailles with the
following results: (1) The French military power was destroyed; (2)
the western frontier of Germany was rendered secure; (3) The German
empire was established; (4) Germany acquired Alsace and Lorraine. In
France Napoleon III. is deposed and the Third Republic established,
1870.
=RUSSO-TURKISH WAR=--1877-1878.
(1) =Russia= vs. (2) Turkey.
CAUSES: Turkish misgovernment and revolts in her Christian subject
provinces, which were barbarously put down (“Bulgarian atrocities”)
arouse all Europe but Russia alone declares war.
LEADERS: (1) =Grand Duke Nicholas=, =Gurka=, =Grand Duke Michael=,
=Alexander II.=; (2) Suleiman Pasha, Osman Pasha, Mukhitar Pasha.
CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Passages of the Danube at Shitova=, =Shipka
Pass=, =Plevna=, =Storm of Kars.=
RESULTS: By the peace of San Stefano as revised in the congress of
the powers at Berlin, Montenegro, Servia and Roumania become
independent; Bulgaria remains tributary but receives a Christian
prince; Russia obtains large indemnity and part of Armenia and also
Bessarabia.
=CHINESE-JAPANESE WAR=--1894-1895.
(1) =Japan= vs. (2) China.
CAUSES: Rival claims to suzerainty over Korea.
LEADERS: (1) =Ito=, =Yamagata=, =Oyama=, =Nogi=; (2) Tso, Yeh, Wei.
CHIEF ACTIONS: =Yalu River=, =Port Arthur=, =Wei-hai-wei=,
=Niuchwang.=
RESULTS: Treaty of Shimonoseki, signed April 17, 1895, removed Korea
from Chinese influence; ceded Formosa and the Pescadores to Japan,
and awarded to the latter an indemnity of $180,000,000.
=SOUTH AFRICAN OR BOER WAR=--1899-1902.
(1) =Great Britain= vs. (2) Transvaal, Orange Free State.
CAUSES: Resistance by the Boers to the British form of government in
the Transvaal.
LEADERS: (1) =Sir George White Buller=, =Methuen=, =Roberts=,
=Kitchener=, =French=; (2) Cronje, Botha, De Wet, Delarey.
CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Siege of Ladysmith=, =Paardeberg=; (2) Colenso,
Spion Kop, Vaal Krantz, Magersfontein.
RESULT: Boers surrendered May 31, 1902; are granted the right of
self-government under British sovereignty, and united with other
self-governing British colonies in South Africa, in 1910, to form
the Union of South Africa.
=RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR=--1904-1905.
(1) =Japan= vs. (2) Russia.
CAUSES: Russian encroachments in Manchuria, and their fortification
of Port Arthur.
LEADERS: (1) =Togo=, =Kuroki=, =Oku=, =Nodzu=, =Oyama=, =Nogi=; (2)
Kuropatkin, Alexieff, Makaroff, Stoessel, Stakelberg, Linievitch.
CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Port Arthur and Chemulpo=, =Vladivostok=, =Yalu
River=, =Dalny=, =Siege of Port Arthur=, =Mukden=, =Sea of Japan.=
RESULTS: Closed September 5, 1905, by treaty of Portsmouth by which
Korea passes under control of Japan, China regains Manchuria, and
Japan is granted important railroad rights.
=BALKAN WAR=--1912-1913.
(1) =Montenegro=, =Bulgaria=, =Servia and Greece= vs. (2) Turkey.
CAUSES: Discontent with Turkish rule in Macedonia.
LEADERS: (1) =Savoff=, =Dimitrieff=, =Putnik=, =Constantine=; (2)
Nazim Pasha, Mukhtar Pasha, Abdullah Pasha.