pupil reaches the stage in which he has neither the power to reason,
decide or act. Then supervenes a state of mental inertia due to the
swiftly repeated stream of impulses received in rapid succession by
his brain. He begins to feel alone, and unable to assume control.
Errors occur, and he becomes overwhelmed with the enormousness
of the whole thing. Follows a state of brain fatigue and stupor,
during which he awaits events and takes little part in the control
of his machine. After such an accident, the pupil has generally no
recollection of what has happened. His memory seems to be partially
stunned. Under these circumstances, it seldom occurs that he resumes
flying--his temperament as a general thing proving to be unsuitable.
[Illustration: TYPES OF CRASHES.]
[Illustration: A TEXAS CRASH.
AT DESERONTO.
AT DESERONTO.]
[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--CRASHES ACCORDING TO CAUSES
TOTAL CRASHES 174]
It is important that “brain fatigue” should be sharply separated from
“fear.” The latter is rarely experienced in the air on the first few
solo flights, the pilot’s mind being far too much concerned with the
details of flying, watching the various instruments, and in checking
his position and direction in the air relative to the ground. Many
confess to a lurking sense of danger, but all say that it rarely if
ever asserts itself.
Turning again to the graph on page 218, and now keeping in mind the
classification of crashes, it is interesting to note that, owing to
the introduction of the Armour Heights system, crashes in which the
machine is totally wrecked were reduced from 53 in the month of June
to 21 in part of the month of November. “B” and “C” crashes in which
longerons are broken, were reduced from 43 in June to 12 in November.
“D” crashes, which are those affecting only the undercarriage or
planes, and are usually due to rough ground being insufficiently
allowed for, or too late a pull back on the control ere the machine
comes into contact with the earth, fell from 107 to 16. While
the general reduction is most gratifying, the improvement in the
acquirement of a delicate control necessary to make workmanlike
landings is remarkable.
It will be observed that although training was continually being
intensified, fatalities decreased from 1 in 1,760 hours’ flying in
July 1918, to 1 in 5,300 hours’ flying in October, 1918, and this
in spite of the fact that pilots were doing all aerial manoeuvres.
Official data from other training centres, where work was done on
varying types of machines, show 1 fatality for 1,170 hours’ flying.
[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--FLYING FATALITIES]
[Illustration: LAKE WORTH.
PART OF BENBROOK.]
THE R.F.C. IN TEXAS.
The entry of the United States into the war affected almost
immediately the programme of the R.F.C. in Canada. There was now next
door, instead of a neutral if friendly nation, a vast organization
associated with us in the greatest of all undertakings, and when
in April the O.C. was authorized to visit the War Department in
Washington and discuss a reciprocal scheme for training pilots, he
found the U.S. authorities animated by the keenest possible spirit.
The idea of coöperation was attractive to both services. It would
not only stimulate a most desirable comradeship between the two, but
would be of direct assistance to the U.S. Signal Corps in training
their tremendous reserves of admirable recruits, as well as possibly
obviate the necessity of the R.F.C. forming a fourth wing in British
Columbia, where the preparation of aerodromes was already under way.
The move was preceded by formal communications between the two
governments, but the details of organization, equipment and training,
on behalf of the British, rested with the O.C., R.F.C., Canada.
Briefly they were as follows:--
(1) The R.F.C. was to train ten squadrons for the U.S. Signal
Corps, comprising 300 pilots, 144 other flying officers, some 20
administrative and equipment officers and approximately 2,000
mechanics. This training was to be commenced immediately in Canada,
and completed at Fort Worth, Texas. All training equipment,
aerodromes, etc., in Canada to be provided by the R.F.C.
(2) The Aviation Section, United States Signal Corps was to provide
in Texas, and equip with all the necessary buildings, water supply,
etc., two aerodromes capable of accommodating 10 squadrons, and part
of a third for the Aerial Gunnery School; these areas to be occupied
and under the control of the R.F.C.
(3) The Aviation Section, United States Signal Corps was to provide
in Texas all aeroplanes, spares, running supplies (oil, gasoline,
etc.), office and barrack fixtures and other camp equipment. The
R.F.C. to supply gunnery, wireless and all other ground instructional
equipment.
(4) Each service would provide its own pay, clothing and
transportation, and draw rations on repayment during their stay in
each other’s country.
(5) The R.F.C. to supply all medical services in Canada, and vice
versa.
This general arrangement was found to be mutually acceptable, and it
was agreed, in addition, that the invaluable assistance of the I.M.B.
in Canada, should be continued in Texas by the establishment there of
a section of their purchasing staff.
Such was the proposal noted on the back of an envelope by the chiefs
of each service, and it was carried out by both to the letter.
The brigade was already acquainted with the splendid pilot material
available in the U.S., as many had enlisted in Canada, hoping to
reach France at the earliest possible moment. Their record lives, and
some of the success of the Corps is due to the admirable progress
they made in training. They came--studied hard, and got into the air
at every opportunity, breathless to join those forerunners whose
names were already written large.
[Illustration: CANADIAN WEATHER IN TEXAS.
TOWED TARGET FOR AERIAL GUNNERY.]
[Illustration: EVERMAN, TEXAS.
PORTION OF HICKS, TEXAS.]
Commencing early in July, 1917, the brigade received for training
from the U.S.S.C., about 1,400 enlisted men and cadets. A colonel
of the Signal Corps describes them as under-officered, unorganized,
unpaid, without records, and though one hesitates--practically
without uniforms. The immediate result for the R.F.C. was
administrative chaos, but, in due course, matters were smoothed out,
and when they returned south in the fall, they were already assuming
a semblance of entity as United States Aero Squadrons.
On September 24th, 1917, the advance party left for Texas, composed
of 4 U.S. officers and 50 men and 4 R.F.C. officers and 34 men,
constituting a wing headquarters and a fatigue party, who, arriving
in Fort Worth on September 26th, immediately proceeded to their
headquarters in that city. They found there were three fields located
north, south and west of Fort Worth, named, locally, Hicks, Benbrook
and Everman, but grouped under the Signal Corps title of Camp
Taliaferro, Fields Nos. 1, 2, and 3. Construction had been delayed
through various causes. Barracks and aerodromes were incomplete. At
one field building had been barely started. Water and light supply
and sewage disposal had not been finished. Thus, although every
effort was made to complete construction, it was nearly three months
before this was accomplished, entailing much delay, inconvenience and
some hardship on the squadrons occupying camps and quarters not ready
for them.
The first to arrive from Canada was the 17th Aero Squadron, U.S.S.C.,
which marched in to Hicks Field on October 17th. From that time
on one squadron arrived weekly until November 17th when the 42nd
and 43rd Wings R.F.C. and the balance of the Americans detrained,
preceded only by a few days by advanced headquarters staff.
There were now in Texas two R.F.C. Wings, the 42nd at Everman and
43rd at Benbrook, the 17th, 22nd, 27th, 28th Aero Squadrons and the
School of Aerial Gunnery at Hicks, advanced headquarters, R.F.C.,
headquarters U.S.S.C., Camp Taliaferro and the purchasing section of
the I.M.B. in Fort Worth.
Transportation arrangements for these units from Canada to Texas were
exceptionally good. The 42nd and 43rd Wings ceased flying on 14th
November and recommenced in Texas on 17th November, a loss of only
three days occasioned by a journey of approximately 1,600 miles.
It would not be amiss to mention the enormous amount of work thrown
on A.O., A.E., and Q.M. branches through the novel situation that
now existed. The U.S. owned the buildings, but the R.F.C. used and
were responsible for those they occupied. There were R.F.C. squadrons
and, beside them, American squadrons being trained by the R.F.C. but
administered by their own authorities. Aeroplanes, engines, oil,
gasoline, etc., were supplied by the U.S., but the R.F.C. directed
flying, and repaired and rebuilt machines and engines, drawing the
necessary spares from U.S. stores. The Aviation Department of the
I.M.B. transacted R.F.C. affairs as though in Canada, and with
equal facility. Cadets and men were being received continually for
training, and as continually trained and returned to their own
organizations. American railroads honoured transportation warrants
redeemable in Ottawa. The R.F.C. medical officers quarantined the
R.F.C., in which there were hundreds of Americans, against U.S. camps
a few miles away. Weekly train-loads of Canadian-made engines and
aeroplanes arrived, came under U.S. control and were immediately used
by the R.F.C.
The situation was, in short, as though an area in Texas had been
temporarily acquired by the British Empire, and in it members of
an Imperial force conducted their affairs with the utmost freedom.
There was friction of course--for no two great military systems can
work together with all their national traditions, usages, procedures
and regulations, without many minor and some major adjustments
being necessary. It was, however, the friction of two keen and
rival organizations pressing toward the same object. Difficulties
arose only to be met and overcome by the spontaneous goodwill and
friendship of both services.
[Illustration: BENBROOK, TEXAS.]
[Illustration: A DIVE AT “HUNGRY LIZZIE.”
SALVAGE.
TEXAS CRASHES.]
[Illustration: THE LOOP.
THE LOOP.]
[Illustration: CLASS INSTRUCTION.
GUNNERY IN TEXAS.]
Before moving to Texas many American cadets had nearly finished
their training. Their first flights in their own country were
over aerodromes situated amid open territory with no timber and
comparatively flat. Excellent material these men, the best the U.S.
could supply, most of them fresh from great American universities,
young, keen and quick to learn. There were very few who did not
turn out excellent pilots. The supply of machines was satisfactory,
the standard of flying was good, and daily acrobatics took place.
Formation flying was popular. On one occasion a formation of six
machines, all piloted by newly graduated cadets, were seen to loop
several times consecutively, retaining their formation, a most
unusual performance at that time at any aerodrome in the United
States.
A summing up of the work in Texas shows a total of 67,000 flying
hours between November 17th and April 12th, spent in turning out
1,960 pilots trained and partly trained, both U.S. and R.F.C.
Besides these, 69 non-flying officers and 4,150 men were trained in
their respective duties. The flying fatalities were 1.88% of pilots
trained--an excellent record. The medical percentage is equally good,
showing 3% incapacitated from all causes.
Flying conditions were found to differ somewhat from those in Canada.
The atmosphere was much dryer and less buoyant. Calm air was the
exception, despite the comparatively flat country. The temperature
range was much wider, and on the arrival of a “norther,” the air
became chilled with extraordinary rapidity, the thermometer dropping
from 70 to 20 degrees Fah. in a couple of hours. This sudden drop
was more trying to many than the colder but steadier temperature
of higher latitudes. Texas, though presumed a dry state, departed
this winter from its custom, and suffered heavy rainfalls and
even snow, which reduced the aerodromes at times to a drab plain
surfaced with a sticky blanket of mud, from which undercarriages and
propellers suffered grievously at times. No less than 40 propellers
were broken in one morning, and the average for one month was 10 per
day. So troublesome was the mud that finally the brigade was forced
to adopt the use of wire mesh mud guards. No provision had been
made for sub-draining any of the fields. These periods, however,
were but occasional. For the rest, the winter was one of favorable
weather with high, clear skies, dotted from daylight till dark with
innumerable machines.
Much admirable work was done by the personnel of both services, of
which perforce no record can be given. In one instance an American
squadron allotted to Hicks Field marched into new and unfinished
barracks. There was no camp equipment, no water or sewerage. The
hangars were congested with machines in packing cases, and there were
no tools, yet within eight days the packing cases had disappeared
and all machines were serviceable and ready to fly. A remarkable
performance for a unit of partially-trained men.
No account of the Texas experience would be complete without some
record of the spontaneous hospitality and goodwill shown by the
citizens of Fort Worth and the community in general. During Christmas
time, pneumonia was rampant at Camp Bowie, some six miles from
Fort Worth, where there were no less than 35,000 Texans, composing
the Panther Division. As a result the Canadians were quarantined.
This made no difference, however, to the all-hospitable Texan,
who extended to officers, cadets and mechanics so many and lavish
invitations that at the year’s end there was not a man who had not
personally experienced the goodwill of the South. The interest
created by the first arrival of the brigade in strange uniforms
and caps seemed to continue throughout the winter. No Flying Corps
man was allowed to walk, when every privately owned motor car was
at his service. Liaison duties were most admirably discharged by
the American officer who made it not only his particular duty but
pleasure to see that all newcomers were welcomed under his kindly
roof, and had every opportunity of meeting brother officers under the
most delightful circumstances.
[Illustration: “THE ROLL”--HALF-OVER.
THE “ROLL.”]
[Illustration: CALM SKIES.]
Fort Worth citizens subscribed the sum of $75,000 to provide funds
for the local branch of the American War Service Board, and rented
a large club room and dancing hall in the centre of the city, where
comfortable accommodation was found for men of both the American
and British services. This organization was under the management of
a “Big Brother,” who seemed born to the work. Canteen and dancing
halls were supervised by an organization, the Federated Ladies’ Clubs
of Fort Worth, in which each of the latter endeavoured to excel in
hospitality, and it fell on one memorable night that the Canadians
were entertained by the daughter of the President of the United
States.
The Country Club was at the disposal of visiting officers, who
will long remember the evenings spent in the best of fellowship.
The ever-present Y.M.C.A. saw to it that commodious huts and
writing rooms were furnished in all Canadian flying camps. It is
impossible, in short, to imagine any source of pleasure, interest or
entertainment which was not provided during these notable months in
the history of the brigade.
On the evening before the departure of the R.F.C. a smoking concert
was given by U.S. officers to their comrades, an entertainment which
was eloquent of the comradeship born of strenuous times of mutual
work, and prophetic of that still closer brotherhood which would
follow in the days of active service.
The appended copy of a letter from Major-General Kenly reveals his
generous appreciation of the effort of the R.F.C. personnel:--
“WAR DEPARTMENT.
“OFFICE OF THE CHIEF SIGNAL OFFICER,
“WASHINGTON.
“May 17, 1918.
“Air Service Division
Training Section.
“FROM: Chief of Air Service.
“TO: General Officer Commanding, Royal Air Force,
Toronto, Canada.
“SUBJECT: Reciprocal Agreement.
“1. The reciprocal agreement made last autumn by yourself and the
Chief Signal Officer of the Army having successfully accomplished
its purpose, I desire to express to you my appreciation of the
manner in which the Royal Air Force, under your directions, has
fulfilled its part of the arrangement.
“2. By its faithful and efficient work in the training of our
cadets and enlisted personnel, the Royal Air Forces has conferred
a great and practical benefit on the United States Air Service.
“3. Equally important is the imponderable but undoubted benefit
which has accrued to our men from instruction by and association
with officers and men who have had practical experience, at
the front, with the conditions which we are preparing to meet.
This contact, so desired by all our forces and so particularly
influential in the training of a wholly new arm of the service,
would, but for your assistance, have been denied to all the men
training for the Air Service in this country.
“4. The following is quoted from the report of our Commanding
Officer, Taliaferro Fields. ‘I am of the opinion that the
reciprocal agreement between the Chief Signal Officer of the
Army and the General Officer Commanding, Royal Flying Corps,
has proven an entire success, and that outside of the training
actually given at the fields here, the influence of the Royal
Flying Corps in Texas and our association with that Corps in
Canada has had a far-reaching and decidedly beneficial effect
on our flying fields, throughout the United States.’ With the
sentiment herein expressed I am in complete accord, and can wish
no better for the United States Air Service than that it may
duplicate the high endeavor and equally high accomplishment which
has distinguished the Royal Flying Corps, and now distinguishes,
in no less abundant measure, the Royal Air Force.
“W. L. KENLY,
“Major-General N.A.,
“Chief of the Air Service.”
[Illustration: PART OF FORT WORTH, TEXAS.]
[Illustration: OFFICERS AND STAFF--ENGINE REPAIR PARK.]
ENGINE REPAIR PARK.
To the Engine Repair Park the brigade has looked for the main portion
of that mechanical work on which so much has depended, and it has not
looked in vain. The necessity for the establishment of this unit was
apparent from the first, it being put into action about the time when
flying might be said to have reached a permanent status. Some three
months later, in August, 1917, the unit was enlarged by provision for
aeroplane repair, and work of both types was done under one command.
With the rapidly increasing flying hours put in by the Corps, there
again appeared the necessity for still further enlargement, and the
unit was finally subdivided into Engine and Aeroplane Repair. This
system remained till the close of hostilities.
It is quite obvious that the mechanical condition of the power plant
of an aeroplane is of paramount importance, and, in consequence, no
expense or trouble was spared to put the Engine Repair Park on the
best possible basis. The equipment, which in the winter of 1917,
promised to be ample, soon proved insufficient, and in September,
1918, the Park moved into large and most completely fitted shops
in rented premises on King Street. In this building four floors
presented a scene of extreme activity, the work being so arranged as
to be progressive, finishing with the final tests before shipment.
During its life of some nineteen months, this Park completely
overhauled no less than 1,325 engines, of which all but thirty-five
were of the Curtiss 8-cylinder type. Records show that for a complete
overhaul, such as was given, an average of 300 hours’ work was
required. The total strength of the unit in November, 1918, was 125.
It is of interest to note that obligations covered the complete
dissembling and assembling of engines, the repair sections, situated
at the various wings, doing only a top overhaul, for which they were
suitably equipped.
During 1918, it became apparent that considerable saving could be
effected by carrying the work of the unit into the manufacture of
engines as well as their repair, and, in consequence, much time
and thought was given to the turning out of those integral parts
which, assembled, made up the complete engine. To such a pitch was
this carried that the point was reached at which only about twenty
individual parts out of several hundred were purchased, the balance
being the product of the Repair Park itself. It is estimated that
in this way some $30,000 was saved on the manufacture of Curtiss
engines, and some $20,000 additional when this economical system was
applied to the manufacture of machine gun parts. These estimates of
saving are probably low, owing to the fact that 50c. an hour was
allowed for bench work and $1.00 an hour for machine work.
The rarity of any serious engine trouble reported by the flying
wings, is a tribute not only to the admirably simple design of the
Curtiss engine, but also to the excellent work done by the Engine
Repair Park.
[Illustration: ENGINES MOUNTED FOR TEST.
THE STARTING END.
(NOTE PROTECTIVE SCREEN.)]
[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--MONTHLY STRENGTH OF ENGINE REPAIR PARK]
[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--ENGINE REPAIR PARK--ENGINES OVERHAULED
AND SHIPPED PER MONTH]
AEROPLANE REPAIR PARK.
This unit commenced operations as a separate organization on the 23rd
February, 1918, prior to which time both engine and aeroplane repairs
were made under the same administration. The work consisted of not
only rebuilding every machine which crashed, but also dismantling and
reassembling every aeroplane which had completed its flying time at
the various wings. The fact that 400 hours in the air was considered
to necessitate complete rebuilding, will indicate the extreme care
taken to ensure that no instructor or cadet took to the air in an
aeroplane which was not in perfect mechanical condition.
Entire dismantling was accomplished in every case, and after every
individual fitting and part had undergone various stages of repair
and inspection, it was sent forthwith to the technical stores, whence
it was reissued as required for construction of new machines. By this
means it was found feasible to salve and re-use not less than sixty
per cent. of the members and fittings of every machine received by
the unit.
In the early summer of 1918, the output of the Aeroplane Repair Park
(the quality of this output being always entirely satisfactory)
reached such a point that the brigade found it unnecessary to
continue the practice of buying complete machines from the Canadian
Aeroplanes Limited, and the latter undertook to supply only such
individual parts as the Repair Park was not equipped to make for
itself. Thus this organization proved its constantly increasing
importance.
A glance at the exterior of a machine gives no idea whatever of the
number of integral parts which go to make up a structure seemingly so
simple, and the fact that the parts are so numerous threw additional
work on the stores section, which was required at all times to keep
in stock an ample supply of members and fittings.
In addition to the work of salvaging machines, the unit had other
duties to perform, such as the repair of instruments, tires,
inner-tubes, radiators, metal fittings, wings, etc. The aeroplane
when dismantled presents a vastly different appearance to that of the
complete machine ready to take the air.
In all construction the progressive system was worked out, by which
machines, commencing at the first stage, moved on from section to
section, receiving at each point the necessary additional touches,
till at the end they emerged mechanically complete. The work was, in
fact exactly like that at the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited, with the
exception that in addition to new construction this unit shouldered
as well the system of salvaging, by which great economies were
without question effected. Over and above this, there went out from
the Repair Park a constantly increasing flow of wooden members, which
were absorbed by various flying units in repairs made on wings and
ailerons at these stations.
Two graphs, given herewith, show the fluctuation in the quantity of
work done, this fluctuation corresponding with demands made. These
will be found to synchronize closely with other data giving the
record of crashes, etc.