Globes and Globe Makers of the Second Half of the Eighteenth Century
Few globe makers of striking distinction in this
period.--An apparent decrease in scientific interest in
globes, but an apparent increase in popular
interest.--Gilles and Didier Robert de Vaugondy.--The work
of Desnos.--Globes of Gian Francesco Costa the
Venetian.--Globes of Akerman and Akrel.--The French globe
makers Rigobert Bonne and Lalande.--Charles Messier and
Jean Fortin.--Globes of George Adams the Elder, of George
Adams the Younger, and of Dudley Adams.--Small globes of
Nathaniel Hill.--The work of Innocente Alessandri and
Pietro Scaltaglia.--Charles Francis
Delamarche.--Manuscript globes of Vincenzo
Rosa.--Geographer and globe maker Giovanni Maria
Cassini.--Globes of William Cary.
During the second half of the eighteenth century there is a continued
interest in globe construction, yet the period is not one which is at
all striking by reason of the good quality of the work done in this
field. Since the latter part of the sixteenth century and the early part
of the seventeenth, when, as has been noted, globes were so generally
thought to be an essential part of a seaman's outfit of navigating
instruments, there had been a remarkable improvement in the construction
of sailors' charts resulting from carefully devised methods for the
determination of geographical position and the employment of the results
in map construction. The plane or sheet chart was again regarded as a
more convenient, a more handy guide in navigation than was the globe. If
plane chart making had improved so had plane map making. There must,
however, have been a considerable popular interest in globes, judging
from the number which we know were constructed, and from the number of
publications issued which were intended to point out the particular
value attaching to globes in geographical and astronomical instruction,
to explain their construction, and to indicate the character of the
problems which, by their use, could be easily solved. The interest in
such objects in this period, perhaps we may say, was rather more
extensive than intensive, having more of a popular than of a scientific
character.
Among the most prominent French map and globe makers of this period were
Gilles Robert de Vaugondy (1688-1766) and Didier Robert de Vaugondy
(1723-1786), father and son, reference usually being made to these men
in geographical literature under the name "Robert" or "Vaugondy."[160]
Gilles, the grandson of Nicolas Sanson,[161] who had achieved first rank
among geographers in his day for his maps and atlases, proved himself to
be a worthy member of the family. He doubtless owed his earliest
enthusiasm for geographical science to an inheritance of the maps,
atlases, and other geographical publications of the grandfather, many of
which he reissued, adding to the same his own valuable and independent
work. Didier seems to have possessed talents none the less brilliant
than were those exhibited by the father, and upon him, in succession,
the king conferred the title Royal Geographer. In addition to his issue
of maps and atlases, the father, often referred to simply as Robert de
Vaugondy, became interested in the construction of globes, issuing his
first pair, which must have been of small size, in the year 1751, in
which work he doubtless was assisted by the son. The king, it appears,
being so well pleased with these, directed the construction of others of
larger dimensions, and in the same year a pair was issued, each globe
having a diameter of about 48 cm.[162] In the same preface[163] it is
stated that the king gave orders for a terrestrial globe with map in
manuscript, the same to have a diameter of about six feet, and the
author further notes that "when this work shall have been completed and
presented to His Majesty, I shall give an explanation of the work which
I shall have been obliged to put upon the mechanical construction of the
ball, also a description of the allegorical ornaments which will adorn
the globe support, and a description of the geographical labor I shall
have expended." There appearing no later reference to this particular
work, it seems hardly probable that it was ever actually undertaken.
Delamarche gives us to understand that the king could not have been
altogether pleased with Vaugondy's first work, observing that while "it
was done to the satisfaction of the Prince, he would have received the
compensation due his talents and painstaking labor if the order of the
king had been followed."[164] Wherein he failed we do not know. It may
have been this fact which discouraged him in his thought of undertaking
the larger work.
In the construction of his globes having a diameter of 48 cm. he was
assisted by the engravers, De la Haye and Gobin, the results being the
production of a terrestrial and a celestial globe map of superior
excellence.
While it has not been possible to obtain photographs of any of the
Vaugondy globes, his map of the world dated 1751 is doubtless much the
same as his globe map, presenting geographical records as he thought
proper to present them, including a representation of the route of a
number of the recent exploring expeditions.
Copies of his globes of the year 1751 cannot now be located, but
reproductions of the same, the terrestrial dated 1773 and the celestial
dated 1764, may be found in the Biblioteca Governativa of Lucca, in the
Biblioteca Real of Caserta, and a copy of the celestial in the
Osservatorio Patriarcale of Venice. Shortly after the first issue of
the globes in the year 1751 Vaugondy constructed other pairs, each
having a diameter of 23 cm. These are dated 1754, copies of which may be
found in the Biblioteca Palatina of Parma (two copies of the celestial),
in the Pinacoteca Quirini of Venice, and a pair in the Palazzo of the
Marquis of Spinola of Tassarolo.
L. C. (Pierre-Joseph ?) Desnos, a contemporary and an intimate friend of
Didier Robert de Vaugondy, was a Danish geographer of distinction,
winning for himself in early life the favor of his king and the title
Geographical Engineer.[165] A considerable number of his maps are known,
and especially worthy of note is his atlas, titled 'Atlas Général et
Élémentaire,' dated Paris, 1778, there being other editions of the same
with modifications. It has been possible to locate a few of his globes.
The first, a celestial, appears to have been issued as early as the year
1750, a copy of which may be found in the Liceo of Reggio, as there may
also be found in the same collection a Desnos terrestrial globe dated
1760. These have each a diameter of about 22 cm. and are reputed to be
in an excellent state of preservation. On the brass meridian circle of
the second, one reads, "Se fait et se vendre chez Desnos rue St. Julien
le pauvre 1753," which legend suggests an issue of the same as early as
the date given, and this idea finds support in an engraved legend
referring to this particular issue as being one revised and corrected.
There is additional support for the belief that a pair was issued in the
year 1753 in the fact that this date appears on the base of the
celestial globe. The Desnos maps are all well engraved and, like others
of the period, much was made of indicating the routes of many of the
famous explorers, including a reference to the success of Bering as
follows, "Les Moscovites ont recouvré ici en 1743 sur les terres
basses." In this we have one of the very early references to the Russian
successes in this region.
[Illustration: Fig. 129a. Globe of L. C. Desnos, 1782.]
In the year 1754 Desnos issued a pair of globes somewhat larger in size,
giving to them a diameter of about 26 cm. Copies of these globes may
be found in the private library of the Marquis Lalatta Costerbosa of
Parma. In their general features they resemble the previous edition,
with every evidence that the author wished to bring his records to date
and to make them quite as full as his space would allow, noting in one
of his inscriptions, "Nous n'avons tracé que par des points la figure
des terres que l'Admiral De Fonté détaille dans se lettre que Mr.
Delisle a rédu publique, en attendant l'authenticité de cette lettre, se
que les relations des nouvelles découvertes rendent probable." In the
year 1772, it appears, he issued a third edition, noting that he had
made use of the most recent observations of the Royal Academy of
Sciences of Paris, bringing his star records down to the year 1770.
Copies of this edition are in Piacenza.
Gian Francesco Costa, a Venetian engineer, architect, and engraver, gave
some attention to the construction of globes.[166] In the year 1754 he
prepared and issued, for the Venetian Academy, a terrestrial and a
celestial globe, each about 24 cm. in diameter, basing the former on the
work of Delisle and the latter on the observations and records of the
English astronomer, John Flamsteed.[167] There is little of special
value attaching to the globes of Costa. They give merely the well-known
geographical and astronomical records of the day. Copies of his
celestial globe may be found in the Biblioteca Municipale of Cagli and
in the Osservatorio Astronomico of Rome. Fiorini refers to a copy of the
terrestrial as belonging to the Biblioteca Universitorio of Urbino, and
to one in the private library of Canon Ettore Fronzi of Senigallia.
There is said to be a fine manuscript terrestrial globe, dated 1756, in
the private library of Professor Maximilian Tono, director of the
Osservatorio Patriarcale di S. Maria della Salute in Venice. The ball is
of wood, over which is a coating of varnish, and on this a world map has
been drawn by hand. It appears to have been constructed merely for the
personal use of the maker, P. Francesco Grandi.
In Andrea Akerman we find a native of Sweden interested in the matter
of globe making. Observing him to be one in possession of commendable
talents, the Academy of Sciences of Stockholm, about the year 1750,
granted to him a subsidy for the establishment of a workshop in Upsala.
Here he undertook the construction of a terrestrial and of a celestial
globe. So successful was his enterprise that, we are told, his
productions found favor not only among those interested in his field
within his own country, but among those similarly interested in Denmark,
Germany, and Russia. Lalande makes mention of his work published through
the Geographical Society of Upsala, dated 1776, noting that they had a
diameter of about 22 inches.[168] A copy of his celestial globe may be
found in the Osservatorio Astronomico of Milan, having a diameter of
about 59 cm. It has an author and date legend, reading "Globus coelestis
ex Catalogo Brittanico et De la Caillii observationibus ad annum 1800
cura Soc. Cosmog. Upsal. delineatus ab Andrea Akerman Reg. S. S. Apt.
sculptore 1766."
A pair of Akerman's globes may also be found in the Geographisches
Institut of Göttingen, the terrestrial dated 1759, and the celestial
dated 1760 and dedicated to the President of the Academy of Sciences by
the Geographical Society of Upsala. His globes, it appears, were
reissued by Frederick Akrel,[169] an engraver who had assisted him in
his work. The reissue of the Akerman globes dated 1779 contained
corrections and additions which brought them to date, a fact which is
noted in the following legend: "Globus terraqueus cura Societatis
cosmographicae Upsalensis, editus ab Andr. Akerman Nunc emendatus....
opera Frederici Akrel 1779." "Terrestrial globe issued under the
auspices of the Cosmographical Society of Upsala, edited by Andrea
Akerman, now corrected.... the work of Frederick Akrel 1779."
[Illustration: Fig. 128. Terrestrial Globe of Pietro Rosini, 1762.]
The Biblioteca Universitario of Bologna possesses a very interesting
manuscript terrestrial globe (Fig. 128), the work of P. D. Pietro
Rosini, an Olivetan monk. Word from the librarian with photograph
kindly sent[170] gives us the information that this splendid globe was
constructed in the year 1762, that it is a fine example of the period
and is in an excellent state of preservation. It has a diameter of about
150 cm., being one of the largest constructed in Italy. The sphere is
constructed of wooden plates securely braced. It has a meridian circle
of heavy brass, a horizon circle of wood, having on its upper surface
the usual representations referring to the constellations of the zodiac,
the names of the months, and the principal directions. The circle on its
inner edge is fashioned to receive the sphere, but it has an outer edge
which is octagonal. Over the surface of the ball irregular pieces of
paper were pasted and on this the geographical map was drawn by hand.
Practically all geographical names are in the Italian language, as are
the few geographical legends. The author and date legend in Latin reads,
"D. Petrus Rosini de Lendinara Mon^{us} Oliv^{us} fecit ann: 1762." "D.
Petrus Rosini of Lendinara, an Olivetan monk made this in the year
1762." Fiorini cites a reference to a letter written by Rosini wherein
he is referred to as a professor, noting that other information
concerning him seems to be unobtainable. From the fact of his having
constructed a terrestrial globe and of his reference in his letter to an
eruption of Mount Vesuvius, one would obtain the impression that he was
a lover of scientific studies, and especially of geography.
Rigobert Bonne (1727-1794), a distinguished French hydrographer and
engineer, achieved likewise a very considerable reputation as a
geographer and cartographer; indeed, the great majority of his
scientific publications were within the field of geography.[171] With
Joseph Jérôme Le Français de Lalande (1732-1807), one of the most famous
of French astronomers,[172] he undertook the construction of a
terrestrial and a celestial globe on which it was proposed to record in
particular all of the most recent discoveries in both the field of
geography and that of astronomy. To these globes they gave a diameter
of about 31 cm., following, in constructing the gore maps with which
each sphere was covered, the method of Bion, giving very careful
consideration to the fact that the paper on which the maps were printed
would expand somewhat unevenly when moistened with the paste used in the
mounting. It seems probable that Bonne completed the terrestrial globe
about the year 1771, and Lalande the celestial about the year 1775, and
that the engraving of the maps was entrusted to Lattré, who had at this
time a place of marked distinction in the profession he represented.
Lalande says of the first issue of their work: "M. Lattré, Graveur
ordinaire de Mgr. le Dauphin et de M. le Duc d'Orleans, publiera vers la
fin de cette année 1771, deux globes d'un pied de diamètre, faites avec
le plus grand soin, et sur les observations les plus récentes dessines
avec une nouvelle exactitude; M. Bonne s'est chargé du globe terrestre,
et je suis occupé actuellement du globe céleste. Ces globes seront en
même temps réduits à 8 pouces et à six; chaque assortissement aura des
sphères du même diamètre. Les prix seront annoncés dans les journaux." A
short time later these globe makers issued a publication in which they
especially described their work, and Lalande noted in his 'Bibliographie
astronomique' under the year 1775: "On trouve dans le Globe céleste
toutes les étoiles alors connues, toutes les constellations nouvelles de
la Caille, celle que j'avais introduite sous le nom de Messier, et
toutes les découvertes géographiques obtenues depuis quelques années par
plusieurs voyages autour du monde. On trouve ces globes chez Lamarche,
rue du Foin." While it has not been possible to locate a pair of the
first edition of these globes, there may be found in the Osservatorio
Astronomico of Palermo an undated terrestrial globe by Bonne and a
celestial, clearly intended as a companion piece, dated 1779. In all
probability they are but reprints of the first edition, having the same
diameters, that is, about 31 cm. Each is furnished with a graduated
horizon circle of wood, a graduated horizon circle of brass, and a
small brass hour circle marked from I to XII, the whole being supported
by three turned columns. They are reported as being well preserved. A
pair has likewise been located in the Geographisches Institut of
Göttingen.
The British Museum possesses a small terrestrial globe 7 cm. in
diameter, signed N. Lane and dated 1776. Over a sphere of wood has been
pasted the engraved gore map, which gives but little geographical
information. It has not been possible to obtain a biographical reference
to this globe maker, who probably was an unimportant printer of maps in
London at this time.
Charles Messier (1730-1817), a French astronomer, map, and globe maker,
was a native of Lorraine.[173] In the year 1751 he went to Paris, where
he soon became associated with Delisle, first as his secretary, during
which period he gave striking proof of his abilities, and later as his
trusted assistant. His fame quickly extended to other lands, and he
became a member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin, also of the
Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg, each of which organizations
published a considerable number of his scientific papers. It appears
that his fame as an astronomer rested chiefly on his investigations of
the nature and the movements of comets, becoming known as "le furet des
comètes." Messier's contemporary and intimate associate was Jean Fortin
(1750-1831), whose fame as a scientist rests primarily upon his work as
a maker of mathematical instruments. Like Bonne and Lalande, who labored
jointly in the construction of terrestrial and celestial globes, Messier
and Fortin were active in the same field. In the year 1780 they placed
on sale at the shop of Fortin in Rue de la Harpe pairs of their globes,
each having a diameter of about 31 cm. Lalande refers to them as "Globes
d'un pied de diamètre. Chez Fortin. Paris 1780. Le Globe céleste par
Messier: Les étoiles réduites à 1800, d'après les tables que j'avais
faites pour mon Globe. Le Globe terrestre par Fortin d'après les
nouvelles découvertes géographiques." It has not been possible to locate
a copy of Fortin's terrestrial globe, but an example of Messier's
celestial may be found in the Osservatorio Meteorico of the University
of Parma, in the Istituto di Fisica of the University of Siena, in the
Biblioteca S. Scolastica e S. Benedetto in Subiaco, and in the Liceo
Machiavelli of Lucca. Copies of a celestial globe by Fortin, each about
22 cm. in diameter, may be found in the Convento dei Frati della
Missione of Chieri, in the Biblioteca Comunale of Correggio, and in the
Liceo Andrea Doria of Novi.
The Hispanic Society of America possesses a good example of Fortin's
work (Fig. 129), this being an armillary sphere, having at the common
center of its system of circles a terrestrial globe about 5 cm. in
diameter. It is without date, but probably was constructed about the
year 1780. In the South Pacific within a cartouch is the inscription "A
Paris chez le Sr. Fortin. Rue de la Harpe." This example is 41 cm. in
height, having a graduated horizon circle 31 cm. in diameter, supported
on a turned wooden base by four arms or quadrants. The terrestrial globe
map of twelve gores is much darkened with age but gives in good outline
the several continents with a few geographical names. Its armillae are
of pasteboard, consisting of a supporting meridian circle within which
the several celestial circles can be revolved on the extended polar axis
of the terrestrial globe. These celestial circles represent the zodiac,
on the surface of which are given the names of the several zodiacal
constellations and the names of the months, the meridian circles, the
tropics, the equator, the two polar circles with an hour circle at the
north pole, all of these being so attached as not to permit of
independent motion. Attached to one of the meridian circles is a device
for representing eclipses, the one of the sun and the other of the moon.
[Illustration: Fig. 129. Armillary Sphere of Jean Fortin, 1780.]
George Adams, the elder (fl. 1760), maker of mathematical instruments
and optician to His Majesty George III of England, won great distinction
for himself as a maker of terrestrial and celestial globes, and as a
writer on geographical and astronomical subjects. With him in his work
were associated his sons George (1750-1795) and Dudley, to whom, after
the death of the brother, fell the management of the business. We know
of Dudley's success in his work, which he must have carried on well into
the first quarter of the nineteenth century, though we know neither the
date of his birth nor of his death. In the year 1766 the elder Adams
issued the first edition of a very useful work on globes, including a
consideration of their construction and their uses.[174] In the year
1810 appeared the thirtieth edition of this work, with a preface and
additions by the son, Dudley. The title of the work suggests that the
first issue was prepared as a description of globes which the author had
just put upon the market, but globes of his bearing a date so early seem
to be unknown. None have been located which appear to have been issued
earlier than the year 1772, after which time we know there were repeated
issues signed either "G. Adams" or "D. Adams." A pair of the date 1782
may be found in the Museo Astronomico of Rome. These appear to be in a
fair state of preservation (Fig. 130). Each has a diameter of about 46
cm., being furnished with a graduated brass meridian circle within which
the sphere revolves, a graduated horizon circle of wood, having pasted
thereon the usual records referring to the zodiacal constellations and
to the time reckoning. This horizon circle rests upon four supporting
arms or quadrants, which in turn are carried by a tripod base of wood.
The spheres are of pasteboard with plaster of Paris covering, on which
the respective maps have been pasted, each map being composed of
twenty-four gores or biangles, or of twice twenty-four, since each is
cut on the line of the equator to facilitate mounting. The geographical
records given on the terrestrial globe map are practically such as one
could find on the best plane maps of the period, always, however, in
this connection remembering that those regions which had not been
visited or carefully charted by explorers gave to the map maker
considerable latitude for a play of his imagination. It is interesting,
for example, here to note that Adams appears to have been very uncertain
about his information relative to the western and southwestern part of
the present United States. He seems to have caught from some explorer's
account that the Colorado River flows westward, emptying directly into
the Pacific, and he so marks it, giving, however, to the river the name
St. Bartholomew. The celestial globe revolves on the axis of the
equator, the gores being made to terminate at the poles of the ecliptic.
Constellations are represented so far as they have been named by
astronomers to date, the several figures being artistically drawn, on
which color has been somewhat sparingly employed. Each constellation is
given its old name with an English translation; star names, when given,
are frequently in Arabic, Latin or Chinese, and are distinguished by
Greek letters. Recently discovered stars are so marked as to be easily
distinguished.
In addition to the above, a pair of Adams globes may be found in the
Osservatorio Astronomico of Naples and a pair in the Biblioteca
Classense of Ravenna. A copy of the terrestrial may be found in the
Seminario Vescovile of Padua. A copy of the terrestrial dated 1785 may
be found in the Biblioteca Real of Madrid, agreeing in general with the
preceding except in the mounting. The author and date legend appears in
a neat cartouch in the North Pacific, reading: "Britanniarum Rigi
Augustissimo Georgio Tertio Scientiarum Cultori pariter et praefidio
Globum hunc Terrestrem. Omnes hactenus exploratios terrarum tractus. Ad
Observationes Navigantium Itinerantium et Astronomorum recentiores,
accuratissime descriptos exhibentem Grati animi et pietatis monumentum
D. D. Q. Omni cultu et officio devinctissimus. G. Adams. Londini apud G.
Adams artificem regium in vico (?) Fleet Street, 1785."
[Illustration: Fig. 130. Terrestrial Globe of George Adams, 1782.]
The American Geographical Society possesses a pair of the Adams globes,
the gift of Mrs. Thomas F. Byrnes, dated 1797, and made by "Dudley
Adams Globe Maker to the King, Inst. Maker to his Majesty & Optician to
H. R. H. the Prince of Wales. No. 60 Fleet Street, London." They are in
a fair state of preservation, the celestial, however, being somewhat
damaged through attempts to turn the sphere, which does not move freely
on its axis within the meridian and the horizon circle. These are
mounted on a high tripod base and are movable right or left, just as
they are movable for elevation or depression of the pole in the usual
manner. It does not appear that additions or corrections were made for
this issue.
Nathaniel Hill of London, active as a map engraver about the middle of
the eighteenth century, likewise turned his attention to the
construction of globes.[175] Those of his make now known, however, are
very small, consequently they present but meager geographical details.
Like certain productions of James Ferguson, the Hill globes might be
referred to as pocket globes.
The New York Public Library possesses a fine example of his work (Fig.
130a), bearing the title and author legend placed in the North Pacific,
"A New Terrestrial Globe by Nath. Hill 1754." This globe has a diameter
of 7 cm. It is furnished with a graduated meridian circle, surmounted at
the north pole with an hour circle and pointer. The graduation is
somewhat unusual, beginning as it does with 0 degrees at either pole and
marked by tens on the right half of the circle through 90 degrees or to
the equator, and with 90 degrees at either pole and marked by tens on
the left to 0 degrees at the equator. The horizon circle of wood has
represented on its surface the names of the zodiacal constellations, the
names of the months, and the thirty-two compass directions, and rests
upon a base of four branching arms or quadrants, which in turn are
supported by three widely spreading feet, this base being fashioned and
carved in the Chippendale style. The sphere is covered with the usual
twelve gores truncated in latitude both north and south at about 68
degrees and has the polar spaces covered by circular discs. The entire
piece, including the map, is remarkably well preserved. The Pacific is
called "The Great South Sea," while just off the coast of "S. America"
we read "Pacific Sea." Between "N. America" and "Asia" is a great open
sea, Alaska being omitted. We find such names given as "Florida,"
"Virginia," "Carolina," "Maryla": the Missouri River is called the "Long
R." The meridian on which the graduation in latitude is represented is
150 degrees west, passing through the Pacific slightly to the west of
California. In "S. America" there are numerous regional names given,
including "Brazil," "Peru," "Terra firma," "Chili." In the East Indies
we find "New Holland," "New Zeeland," neither with completed coast line.
An attached card tells us that this globe was "Presented to the New York
Public Library by Mrs. Henry Draper, Oct. 9, 1908."
There likewise may be found in the British Museum a copy, presumably of
this same globe, dated 1754, and a copy in the Bibliothèque Nationale of
Paris, signed and dated. This Paris copy is furnished with a cover
opening along the line of the equator and having on its inner surface a
representation of the celestial sphere which is neither signed nor
dated, but which is in a good state of preservation.
[Illustration: Fig. 130a. Terrestrial Globe of Nathaniel Hill, 1754.]
Fiorini refers to certain pairs of globes being apparently copies of the
work of Gian Francesco Costa without credit being noted. These globes,
inferior in the matter of engraving to the work of Costa, were issued as
the work of Innocente Alessandri and Pietro Scaltaglia.[176] The
terrestrial globe bears the inscription, "Nova et accurata descrizione
del Globo Terracqueo dirizzato sopra le più recenti Osservazioni del
Sig^r Delisle e degli ultimi viaggiatori. Per uso dell' Accademia
Veneta. Composto da Innocente Alessandri e Pietro Scaltaglia incisori in
rame. L' anno 1784. Matteo Viani in Campo S. Bartolamio. Venezia." "New
and accurate description of the Terrestrial globe based on the most
recent observations of Sr. Delisle and the latest explorers. For the
use of the Venetian Academy. Composed by Innocente Alessandri and Pietro
Scaltaglia, copper engravers. In the year 1784. Mattio Viani in Campo S.
Bartolamio. Venice." A legend very similar to that on the terrestrial
globe appears on the celestial, reading, "Globo celeste nel quale sono
accuratamente descritte le stelle fisse col loro preciso numero e
Magnitudini secondo il Catalogo Brittanico del Sig^r Flamstadio. Per uso
dell' Accademia Veneta. Composto da Innocente Alessandri e Pietro
Scaltaglia incisori in Rame. L'anno 1784. Matteo Viani in Campo S.
Bartolamio. Venezia." "Celestial Globe in which is accurately described
the fixed stars with their precise number and magnitude according to the
British Calendar of Sr. Flamsteed. For the use of the Venetian Academy.
Composed by Innocente Alessandri and Pietro Scaltaglia copper engravers.
In the year 1784. Matteo Viani in Campo S. Bartolamio. Venice." A copy
of the terrestrial globe belongs to the Biblioteca Comunale of Cagli,
likewise one may be found in the office of the Eredità Bottrigari of
Bologna. Copies of the celestial may be found in the Museo Astronomico
of Rome, in the Seminario Vescovile of Brescia, in the Tipolitografia
Roberto of Bassano. Somewhat later it appears that the bookdealer Viani
reissued the terrestrial globe, undated, perhaps with the thought of
bringing them to date, that they might not be crowded out of the market
by the recently constructed globes by Giovanni Maria Cassini. The
inscription on this globe reads, "Nova et accurata descrizione del Globo
Terracqueo dirizzato sopra le più recenti Osservazioni del Sig^r dell'
Isle e degli ultimi viaggiatori e del Cap. Cook negli ultimi suoi
viaggi. In Ven^a appo Mattio Viani in Campo S. Bartolomeo." "New and
accurate description of the Terrestrial globe based on the most recent
observations of Sr. Delisle and on the records of the most recent
navigators and of Captain Cook in his last voyages. In Venice by Mattio
Viani in Campo S. Bartolomeo." Copies of this issue may be found in the
Museo Astronomico of Rome, in the library of the artist Giuseppe
Bortognoni of Bologna, in the library of Sr. Fenaroli of Brescia, in the
Biblioteca Vescovile of Rimini, and in the Tipolitografia Roberto of
Bassano.
Among the geographers of this period who were contributing to French
leadership may be named Charles Francis Delamarche (1740-1817). He was a
native of Paris, in which city, under the patronage of King Louis XV, he
carried on his activities as map and globe maker, conducting at the same
time a shop for their distribution. He seems to have patterned his globe
work largely after that of Gilles and Didier Robert de Vaugondy, giving
to his completed products practically the same dimensions and mounting.
His earliest examples bear the date 1785, of which only one copy, a
celestial globe, has been located, this now belonging to the
Osservatorio Meteorico of Venice. In the year 1791, he constructed a
pair of globes each having a diameter of about 18 cm., only the
terrestrial being dated, and in the same year he issued his treatise
which doubtless was intended to serve as an explanatory text for these
globes, at the same time advertising and popularizing his
productions.[177] Examples of this issue may be found in the Biblioteca
di Brera of Milan, and in the Liceo Carlo Alberto of Novara. A copy of
the terrestrial may be found in the Istituto Nautico of Palermo, and a
copy of the celestial in the Convento dei Frati della Missione of
Chieri. It could not have been long after this issue of 1791 that he
undertook the construction of a terrestrial globe about 31 cm. in
diameter, a copy of which may be found in the Istituto di Fisico of the
University of Siena.
We know that like his contemporary, Fortin, he also constructed
armillary spheres, one example of which it has been possible to locate.
Fiorini thus refers to it, his citation being given in free
translation.[178] It is a Copernican sphere, that is, having a
representation of the sun placed at the common center of the armillae
instead of a representation of the earth as in the Ptolemaic sphere. It
may be found in the palace of Sr. Scaramucci in S. Maria a Monte in the
province of Florence. Attached to a base of wood about 20 cm. in height
is an iron rod 35 cm. long. This rod passes through the several rings,
about which they can be revolved, each being in its movement independent
of the others. The first circle about the central sun represents the
orbit of Mercury, and has written upon it "Éloigné du Soleil 8537,
incliné 7 degr., fait sa révolution en 87 jours, 23 heures, 50 m." The
second represents the orbit of Venus, having written upon it the
distance 15928-1/2 diameters of the earth, inclination 3 degrees and 22
minutes; it completes its revolution in 2224 days 16 hours and 41
minutes. In a space much larger than that which separates the other
circles, there is the orbit of the earth, upon which is written that
this planet passes over the ecliptic in 365 days 5 hours and 49 minutes,
and that it is 22000 diameters distant from the sun. This ring
representing the orbit of the earth is opened for the insertion of a
representation of the moon, adjusted to revolve on an adjusted pivot.
Armillae have been provided representing the orbits of Mars, of Jupiter,
and of Saturn with statements concerning their respective distances from
the sun and their respective periods of revolution. The outer and larger
armillae represent the colures, the ecliptic, and the horizon, and on
the last the inscription, "À Paris chez Delamarche Géog. Rue du Foin
Saint Jacques au Collège de M^{re} Gervais."
In the year 1793 Vincenzo Rosa, a little-known Italian cosmographer,
constructed two terrestrial globes, the maps of which being in
manuscript. The spheres are of papier-mâché covered with a light coating
of plaster. Each of these globes has a diameter of about 100 cm. An
inscription in Italian reads, "Vincenzo Rosa fece nel 1793 n. 24. La
geografia è quasi tutta delle carte di Robert del Vaugondy e di
De-la-Marche." "Made by Vincent Rosa in the year 1793 n. 24. The
geographical information is almost entirely from the maps of Robert de
Vaugondy and of Delamarche." One copy may be found in the Biblioteca
Universitario of Pavia, and the other in the Liceo Foscolo of the same
city. Fiorini notes that the "n. 24." of the first is given as "n. 21."
in the second.[179]
The last important globe maker of the eighteenth century in Italy was
Giovanni Maria Cassini (fl. 1790), an engraver, and a geographer of
distinction, to the truth of which statement his excellent work gives
testimony. As evidence of his interest in the matter of globe
construction we have the introduction to his 'Nuovo atlante geografico
universale ...,' wherein he gives carefully devised rules for the
construction of globe gores, and in addition we still find a number of
his completed globes, particularly in Italian museums and libraries.
These globes (Fig. 131), dated, the terrestrial 1790, and the celestial
1792, have each a diameter of about 35 cm., each covering map being
composed of twelve gores cut at latitude 80 degrees both north and
south, the polar space having the usual circular disc covering. Each is
furnished with a brass meridian circle within which the sphere may be
revolved, an hour circle, a horizon circle, on the surface of which are
the usual concentric circles with the names of the several zodiacal
constellations, the names of the months, and the principal directions.
The terrestrial globe has an author and date legend reading, "Globo
terrestre delineato sulle ultime osservazioni con i viaggi e nuove
scoperte del Cap. Cook inglese. In Rome."
[Illustration: Fig. 131. Terrestrial Globe of Giovanni Maria Cassini,
1790.]
In The Hispanic Society's collection is a terrestrial globe (Fig. 132),
being a solid wooden ball 21 cm. in diameter, over which has been pasted
the gore map composed of twelve sections, each cut at the parallel of 70
degrees both north and south, the polar space being covered with
circular discs each forty degrees in diameter. It is neither signed nor
dated but is clearly of German origin, since practically all
geographical names and legends are in the German language. The title,
placed within a circle to the west of Australia, "Neu Holland," reads
"Die Erde nach den neusten Entdeckungen und besten Charten entworfen."
Its date cannot be far from 1800, perhaps a little later, seeing that it
assigns the name "Nord Amerikanischer Staat" to the region east of the
Mississippi River, except to "Florida" which extends westward to this
river. We find but one actual date given, this referring to the
discovery of a small group of the "Gesellschafts Inseln," reading
"Inseln welche die Spanier entdekt haben sollen 1773." It is constructed
to revolve within a graduated meridian circle of brass and an octagonal
horizon of wood, on which are indicated in picture the twelve signs of
the zodiac, the calendar, and the thirty-two winds or directions, the
whole resting on four plain supports of wood strengthened below by light
crossbars.
The map is one well drawn for the period, and the engraving of the
several names and legends has been most skilfully done. Regional names
are numerous, but there has not been an overcrowding of the map with
minute details. On the west coast of North America, for example, we find
such names as "Norfolk," "Neu Cornwallis," "Neu Hanover," "Neu Georgia,"
"Neu Albion," "Neu Navarre," "Mexico oder Neu Spanien." Central America
with the West Indies is called "Mittel America oder West Indien." In
South America we find "Neu Granada," "Peru," "Chili," "Brasilien," but
"Prasilisches Meer." Certain localities are especially distinguished by
the addition of color, as the coast of Australia except the southern
coast, which is marked with a dotted line. Many of the East Indian
islands and the islands of the Indian Ocean are outlined in color, as
also the coast of "Vorder Indien," and "Hinter Indien," the coast of
"Arabien," and certain other sections. The geography of the interior of
Africa is not as well represented as on many an earlier map, a fact
particularly noticeable with reference to the Nile River. The prime
meridian is made to pass through Cape Verde, to the west of which,
stretching practically along its entire length, we read "Der
Amerikanische Ocean."
Among the globe makers of the eighteenth century whose work carries us
over into the nineteenth may be named William Cary (1759-1825).[180] At
first associated with Ramsden, a renowned mechanic, he established
himself in an independent business in London in the year 1790. He is
reputed to have constructed the first transit circle made in England,
which circle had a diameter of two feet and was provided with a reading
microscope. One of his circles of the above date, 41 cm. in diameter, is
reported as belonging to the Observatory of Zürich. In addition to the
altitude, azimuth, sextant, reflecting and refracting telescopic, and
microscopic instruments made by him, he interested himself in the
construction of terrestrial and celestial globes. Those examples of his
to which reference may here be made do not appear to be of the highest
order, perhaps due to the fact that he was primarily an instrument maker
and not a geographer or an astronomer. Further, the majority of his
globes which have been located bear dates subsequent to the year 1800,
and therefore do not properly call for reference here.
In the private library of Sr. Vittorio Bianchini of Macerata four of the
Cary globes may be found, three celestial and one terrestrial dated
1799. A celestial globe of the same date may be found in the
Osservatorio Astronomico of Rome, but its companion, a terrestrial
globe, bears the date 1815. Extant Cary globes of the early nineteenth
century may be considered numerous.
[Illustration: Fig. 132. Anonymous Terrestrial Globe, ca. 1800.]
Notes
[160] Nouvelle biographie générale, "Robert de Vaugondy, Gilles,"
"Robert de Vaugondy, Didier," with references to their works.
[161] Sanson was the author of numerous maps and atlases. His works
are extensively referred to by Phillips in his List of
Geographical Atlases. See also list of his works in Britannica,
"Sanson, Nicolas."
[162] These are referred to in the preface of a work titled 'Usages
des Globes céleste et terrestre, faits par ordre du Roi, par le S.
Robert de Vaugondy, fils.' Paris, 1751.
[163] See work referred to in preceding note.
[164] Cited by Fiorini, Sfere terrestri e celesti, p. 417, n. 2.
[165] Fiorini, op. cit., p. 419.
[166] Fiorini, op. cit., p. 421.
[167] John Flamsteed (1646-1719) was the first astronomer royal,
author of 'Atlas Coelestis' and other works treating of astronomical
subjects. The figures of the several constellations appearing in
this atlas were drawn by James Thornhill. Artistically they are not
equal to those appearing in Hevelius' Prodromus astronomiae.
[168] Akerman, A. Globes céleste et terrestre de vingt-deux pouces.
Upsala, 1766.
[169] Poppe. Ausfürliche Geschichte der Anwendung aller krummen
Linien in mechanischen Künsten und in der Architektur. Nürnberg,
1882. p. 65.
[170] Letter and information from the Librarian dated Jan. 14, 1914.
[171] Reference to his publications in Nouvelle biographie, "Bonne,
Rigobert."
[172] Nouvelle biographie, "Lalande, Joseph Jerome." This is an
excellent article with references to his numerous publications. His
'Bibliographie astronomique,' Paris, 1803, has been of particular
value in the preparation of this work. See also Nouveaux globes,
céleste et terrestre, d'un pied de diamètre par M. De la Lande et M.
Bonne, avec l'explication en une brochure in-12. Paris, 1775.
Lalande, op. cit., refers to a work titled 'Usage du Planétaire ou
sphère mouvante de Copernic, qui se trove chez Fortin,
ingénieur-mécanicien du Roi.' Paris, 1773. Fortin issued a French
edition of Flamsteed's Atlas under the title 'Atlas céleste de
Flamsteed approuvé par l'Académie Royale des Sciences. Seconde
édition par M. J. Fortin Ingénieur-Mécanicien du Roi et de la
Famille Royale pour les Globes et les Sphères.' Paris, 1776.
[173] Nouvelle biographie, "Messier, Charles," with a very long list
of his publications.
[174] Adams, G. A treatise describing and explaining the
construction and the use of new celestial and terrestrial globes,
designed to illustrate in the most easy manner the phenomena of the
earth and heavens, with a great variety of astronomical and
geographical problems. London, 1766; A treatise on the construction
of globes. London, 1769; Geometrical and geographical essays,
containing a description of mathematical instruments. London, 1791;
Astronomical and geographical essays. London, 1795.
[175] We find that Nathl. Hill engraved the title-page and maps in
an atlas by Lewis Morris. Plans and Harbours, etc. London, 1748.
[176] Fiorini, op. cit., p. 439.
[177] Delamarche, C. F. Les usages de la Sphère et des Globes
céleste et terrestre. Paris, 1791.
[178] Fiorini, op. cit., p. 432.
[179] Fiorini, op. cit., p. 441.
[180] Dictionary of National Biography, "Cary, William"; Wolf,
Geschichte der Astronomie, pp. 562, 563.