Globes and Globe Makers of the First Half of the Eighteenth
Century--from Delisle to Ferguson
Activities of Guillaume Delisle.--Jean Dominique Cassini
and his reforms.--Vincenzo Miot.--The globes of Gerhard
and Leonhard Valk.--Activities of John Senex.--Nicolas
Bion.--The armillary sphere of Carmelo Cartilia.--Mattheus
Seutter of Augsburg.--Robert Morden.--Jean Antoine
Nollet.--Johann Gabriel Doppelmayr of
Nürnberg.--Terrestrial globe of Cusani.--Terrestrial
globes of Siena.--The work of the monk Pietro Maria da
Vinchio.--James Ferguson of Scotland.
Among the numerous globe makers of the eighteenth century, there are
few, if any, entitled to rank with Blaeu or Hondius, with Greuter or
Coronelli of the seventeenth. There was much written during the period,
it is true, on the value of globes in geographical and astronomical
studies, and there were many globes constructed, of which a very
considerable number still have a place in our libraries, museums, and
private collections.
With the improvements in scientific map construction, improvements
amounting to a complete reformation, and ushered in during the closing
years of the seventeenth century and the opening years of the
eighteenth, by such men as Riccioli, Picard, Cassini, and Delisle, not
to mention a number of their distinguished immediate predecessors and
contemporaries, the last above-named working through the patronage of
the Royal Academy of Science of France,[117]--with these improvements
there appears to have been a decline in the relative value which the
late sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries set upon globes. Once
regarded as an essential part of a seaman's instruments for use in
navigation, they gave place, just as the portolan chart of the earlier
day gave place, to an improved sailor's chart. Globe makers, however, of
this period, such as Delisle and Bion, as Gerhard and Leonhard Valk, as
Vaugondy and Fortin, as Ferguson and Adams, have an honorable place in
the history of globes and of globe construction.
France was leading at the turn of the seventeenth century in the field
of geographical and astronomical science, a fact in part due to the
generous subsidy allowed by royalty. Guillaume Delisle (1675-1726),
perhaps the greatest among the reformers active in these years in
improving the methods of map construction, was a native of Paris, in
which city he passed practically his entire life.[118] The father,
Claude Delisle, famous as a teacher of history and geography, inspired
in his son a particular love for the latter subject, or perhaps this may
the better be referred to as a love for historical geography. The period
was one in which there was much emphasis placed upon the relationship
existing between the two branches of study, and it is interesting to
note that this phase of geographical study is again coming into
favor.[119]
Doubtless it was in part the influence of Cassini's teaching which found
expression in Delisle's lifelong efforts to eliminate the numerous
errors which he had found existing in the maps of his day, efforts which
even in his early life won for him distinction as a map maker. In the
year 1700, when he was but twenty-five years of age, there appeared
under his name a world map and likewise maps of the several
continents.[120] In these there was exhibited much originality, they
being constructed in the main on the basis of astronomical observations
which had been made at the Royal
[Illustration: Fig. 118a. Terrestrial Globe of Johann Ludovicus Andreae,
1717.]
Academy. Hitherto the Ptolemaic cartography had exerted an overpowering
influence. Errors in the location of places still remained on the maps,
attributable in large part to that ancient cosmographer, who continued
for so long a period a most influential teacher of geography and map
making after the renaissance of his 'Cosmographia' in the early
fifteenth century. Among the greatest errors still to be found in the
maps in Delisle's day was the excessive length given to the
Mediterranean, this being about sixty-two degrees of longitude instead
of its correct length, which is about forty-two, and the extension of
Asia much too far to eastward, together with other errors following upon
these.[121] Delisle, having the support of the Royal Academy, and of the
King himself, was able to carry through the reforms in map construction,
the fundamental principles of which, it is true, had been suggested
before his day, based upon such astronomical observations as were those
of Cassini, Picard, and La Hire, wherein there had been an attempt to
determine the exact location in longitude of important places on the
earth's surface and wherein they had been aided by the use of the
telescope. Through the employment of this instrument they were able to
fix the exact time of eclipses and determine the time of the transit of
the moons of Jupiter.[122] In the 'Journal des Savants' of the year 1700
is given a letter addressed to the engraver and map maker, Nolin, and
signed "Delisle." In this there is reference to a manuscript globe of
the year 1696, the implication being that Guillaume was its author.[123]
The probability is that we have here a letter written by Claude, the
father, it being hardly probable that the son drafted a globe map at the
age of twenty-one. We, however, know, as before stated, that he achieved
great distinction through the maps he published in the year 1700, when
he was but twenty-five, and we are also informed that even at the age of
eight he attracted attention to himself through the maps he drew to
illustrate ancient history.
In the same year that he published his epoch-making maps he issued the
first edition of his globes, those having a diameter of about 31 cm. and
those having a diameter of about 15 cm. The globe balls were constructed
of papier-mâché covered with plaster over which were pasted the gore
maps, each map composed of twelve parts with the usual polar discs. The
engraver, we are told, in a brief legend on the terrestrial globe, was
Carolus Simonneau, "Car. Simon. del. et sculpsit." On the larger of the
terrestrial globes is the title legend "Globe terrestre dressé sur les
observations de l'Académie Royale des sciences et autres mémoires," and
a dedication reading, "À Son Altesse Royale Monseigneur Le Duc de
Chartres. Par son très humble et très obéissant serviteur G. De l'Isle
Géographie. Berey sculpsit."
The celestial globe bears the title, "Globe céleste calculé pour l'an
1700. Sur les observations les plus récents. Par. G. De l'Isle
Géographe," and is dedicated "À Son Altesse Royale Monseigneur le Duc de
Chartres. Par son très humble et très obéissant Serviteur De l'Isle,"
with the following reference to the privilege "À Paris Chez l'Auteur sur
le Quai de l'Horologe à la Couronne de Diamans. Avec Privilége du Roy
pour 20 ans. 1700."
While it has not been possible to obtain a detailed description of
Delisle's globe maps, they are referred to as giving practically the
same information as his plane maps, many of the latter to be found in
our important library collections, and cannot be considered rare.[124]
The several constellations which he has represented on his celestial
globes are those of Ptolemy to which have been added two in the northern
hemisphere and thirteen in the southern, and the year chosen for the
representation of the position of the stars is 1700. In general the
names chosen for the several constellations are French, though a few are
in Latin.
[Illustration: Fig. 118. Terrestrial Globe of Guillaume Delisle, 1700.]
A pair of Delisle's globes may be found in the Königliches Museum of
Cassel, dated 1709; a pair dated 1700 in the Museo di Strumenti Antichi
of Florence, and a terrestrial globe dated 1700 in the Real Biblioteca
of Madrid (Fig. 118).
Weigel, Castlemaine, Coronelli, and Treffler, as has been noted,
represented a tendency in globe construction in their day which we have
referred to as the ultrapractical. It was impossible that their ideas
should find anything like a general acceptance and approval. A globe
eleven or fifteen feet in diameter, in the better judgment of
astronomers and geographers, could not be counted as possessing superior
scientific value, and globes of such dimensions seem only to have won
the praise of the novelty-loving contemporaries, and the same general
criticism may be passed upon the smaller globes of Castlemaine and
Treffler. Perhaps, however, one may well add that in all this a desire
was expressing itself for improvement in globe construction.
In this connection attention may be called to a plan for reform in globe
making proposed by Jean Dominique Cassini (1625-1712), one of the most
famous astronomers of the period.[125] Cassini was a native of
Périnaldo, Italy (Fig. 119). Early in life he became interested in the
study of astronomy, and at the age of twenty-five received an
appointment as professor of this science at the University of Bologna.
Recommended by Colbert as one worthy his royal master's patronage,
Cassini in 1669 accepted the invitation of Louis XIV to fill the chair
of astronomy in the Collège de France, a position once held by Pierre
Gassendi.[126] In 1671 he became the director of the Royal Observatory
of Paris, a position held in succession by four generations of his
family. To him we owe the determination of the rotation periods of
Jupiter, Venus, and Mars, the discovery of four of Saturn's satellites
and the determination of their periods of revolution. He devoted much
time and study to the problem of the obliquity of the ecliptic, to the
precession of the equinoxes,[127] and to the determination of the
latitude and longitude of places.[128] This precession, he found, could
not be represented on a celestial globe such as hitherto had been
constructed, and he set himself to the task of devising one on a new
plan. The position of the constellations, as indicated on the ordinary
celestial globe, he, as others, noted would soon be found to be
inaccurate. What he proposed was a globe capable of such adjustment as
to obviate this difficulty; in other words, he proposed the construction
of a globe by means of which this perpetual change might be indicated,
or one which would serve to indicate the position of the several
constellations at any time, past, present or future.
It was to Nicolas Bion, map and globe maker of Paris that the astronomer
Cassini entrusted the manufacture of such an instrument, and it is from
him that we have a brief description of its peculiar features.[129] He
tells us that the sphere on which the several constellations were
represented was enclosed within a number of armillae representing the
celestial circles, that is, the colures, the ecliptic, the tropics, the
equator, and the polar circles. This inner sphere was attached to a
meridian circle at the poles of its equator, within which circle it
turned as the ordinary sphere, and it was also attached to the same
meridian at the poles of the ecliptic. Around this polar axis of the
ecliptic the sphere, with the attached meridian, could be made to
revolve, the pole of the equator in its revolution tracing a circle
having a radius of twenty-three and a half degrees, a complete
revolution being made to represent a period of twenty-five thousand two
hundred years, or the time required for the complete precession of the
equinox according to his reckoning. This pole in its circle of
revolution could be immovably set at any desired point to represent any
time past or future, and the sphere then revolved around the pole of the
equator. The several stars or constellations could thus be represented
in their proper position for the time selected. Bion's reference to this
globe seems to assure us that he completed its construction, yet no
trace of it has been left, unless we have such in a record to be found
in the history of the Royal Academy for the year 1727. In this we
find that a globe constructed on the principle laid down by Cassini was
presented to the Academy, in the year designated, by Outhier, a priest
of Besançon.[130] This globe, which has disappeared, had the double
movements, one about the axis of the equator and one about the axis of
the ecliptic. It was a globe which would represent the daily and annual
movements of the sun, the difference between the true and the mean time,
the movements of the moon and its phases, the eclipses, and the passing
of the several fixed stars across the meridian.
[Illustration: Fig. 119. Portrait of Jean Dominique Cassini.]
[Illustration: Fig. 123. Portrait of Nicolas Bion.]
Vincenzo Miot, a little-known Italian globe maker of the early
eighteenth century, holds a place among the men who were interested in
this field, through one extant example of his work, this being a small
celestial, having a diameter of about 17 cm.[131] Its author and date
legend reads, "Sphaera Mundi majoribus et minoribus circulis distincta
praecipuisque stellis in nostro Horizonte conspicuis ornata ad annum
1710. Studio et opera D. Vincentio Miot." "World globe marked by large
and small circles, and adorned with the principal stars visible in our
horizon calculated for the year 1710. By the learning and labor of D.
Vincentio Miot." The sphere is covered with an engraved map showing the
several constellations and the principal celestial circles. Its twelve
segments are fashioned to terminate at the poles of the ecliptic,
instead of at the poles of the equator, a practice not uncommon. The
globe has a simple mounting of wood, is reported to be in good
condition, and may be found in the Liceo Marco Foscarini of Venice, to
which library it came, in the year 1807, from the Convent of S. Georgio
Maggiore.
It is not a little surprising that our information is so meager
concerning men as active in the field of map and globe making as were
Gerhard and Leonhard Valk in the latter part of the seventeenth and
early eighteenth century. We cannot be certain of their relationship;
apparently they were not brothers, as has been sometimes stated. If
there is not left to us a biographical word by any admiring or
appreciative contemporary of these praiseworthy Netherlanders, there is
extant a very considerable amount of their work which warrants our
giving them rank well toward the van of those interested in their
particular field. Of the two, Gerhard seems to have been the more
prominent, his name very frequently appearing as the engraver or maker
of many of the maps one finds in the collective atlases of the early
eighteenth century.[132] With Leonhard he was the maker of globes, large
and small, ranging from about 7 cm. to 46 cm. in diameter, of which a
very considerable number may still be found in our libraries and
museums.
In an undated work published by Gerhard on the uses of celestial and
terrestrial globes,[133] he tells us of the improvements he introduced,
noting that he had attempted to give the location of the stars on his
celestial globe as late as 1700, while on those issued prior to his own,
the dates selected were in general 1640 or 1660. The suggestion
contained herein is that he at least began the construction of his
globes as early as 1700, although none are now known bearing date so
early.[134] There appears to be an example of his work in the University
Library of Ghent, dated 1707, but a description of this it has not been
possible to obtain. The date most commonly found on the Valk globes is
1750, all of which, if correctly dated, were issued long after their
death.
The Hispanic Society of America possesses three pairs of the Valk
globes, each apparently dated 1750, though in some instances, as noted
below, these dates have been altered by skilfully cutting out the last
two figures of the original and inserting the number 50. The diameter of
each of the largest pair is 46 cm. (Fig. 120). Each is supplied with a
graduated meridian circle of brass, the celestial being furnished with a
brass hour circle and pointer, and the terrestrial with a brass quadrant
of altitude. Each is further furnished with a broad horizon circle of
wood on which has been pasted an engraved paper giving the names of the
signs of the zodiac, the various chronological signs, such as golden
numbers, epacta, and dominical letters, the names of the months, and
points of the compass, including both the old and the new nomenclature
for the directions of winds, as "Borro Lybicus" or "Noord-West,"
"Zephyrus" or "West." The under supports of the globes consist in each
instance of four turned columns attached at their lower extremities by
crossbars on which rests a circular turned plate 42 cm. in diameter.
From the center of these plates rises a post 10 cm. in length through a
notch in which the brass meridian circle is made to pass in moving the
globes to an adjustment for any desired altitude. The gores of each are
twelve in number, those of the terrestrial globe having an equatorial
mounting while those of the celestial globe have an ecliptic mounting,
that is, the meridian lines pass from pole to pole of the ecliptic
instead of from pole to pole of the equator. In each, the gores have
been truncated twenty degrees from the poles, the polar space being
covered by circular discs. The engraving of both the terrestrial and the
celestial map is exquisitely done, and much of the color originally
applied by hand yet remains. The several figures representing the
constellations are copies of the figures as represented by Hevelius in
his 'Prodromus Astronomiae,' and reference to this great astronomer is
made in the title legend quoted below. These figures are among the most
artistic representations to be found on any of the globes of the period,
which the author is preparing to reissue in facsimile as a by-product of
these globe studies. (Fig. 120a.)
[Illustration: Fig. 120. Terrestrial Globe of Gerhard and Leonhard Valk,
1750 (?).]
[Illustration: Fig. 120a. Southern Hemisphere of Celestial Globe by
Gerhard and Leonhard Valk, with Author and Date Legend, 1750 (?).]
Between the constellations "Cetus" and "Phoenix" on the celestial globe
is a cartouch which appears to have been pasted over an older title,
reading, "Uranographia Syderum et Stelarum in Singulis Syderibus
conspicuarum, exhibens Delineatonem accuratissimam qua ex
observationibus Astronomi plane Singularis Johannis Hevelii usque ad
finem anni MDCC emendata est. Nova praeterea methodo additus est ex
mente Lotharii Zumbach M.D. et Mathem. Cearis Horizon ad Meridianum
Amstelaedamensem accurate per annos plures quam ducentos Lunae Syzygias
indicans praeter annos communes et bissextiles. Opera et Studio Gerhardi
et Leonhardi Valk Amstelaedamensium 17[50]." "Uranography of the
constellations and of the single stars, exhibiting an accurate
delineation (of the same) corrected from the observations of the
renowned astronomer Johannes Hevelius, and conformed to the year 1700.
Besides a new method is added, the invention of Lothar Zumbach, M. D.,
and a renowned mathematician, accurately exhibiting the horizon on the
meridian of Amsterdam for more than 200 years, also the changes of the
moon in addition to the common years and leap years. By the learning and
the labor of Gerhard and Leonhard Valk, citizens of Amsterdam, 1750."
Near the constellation Argo appears the dedication to the Burgomaster of
Amsterdam and President of the East India Company, Johannes Trip J. U.
D. (1664-1732). In this there is, of course, conclusive evidence that
the globe must have been made before the year 1732. The dedication
reads, "Viro amplissima dignitate ac meritorum Splendore, conspicuo
Johanni Trip J. U. D. Reipublicae Amstelaedamensis Consuli Gravissimo,
Societatis Indiae Orientalis Moderatori integerrimo Toparchae in
Berkenroden iustissimo & hanc Universi Orbis Terrarum Faciem eâ quâ par
est reverentia D. D. D. Gerhardus et Leonhardus Valk." "To John Tripp J.
U. D., Consul of the Amsterdam Republic, President of the East India
Company, the upright and honorable magistrate of Berkenrode, a man
conspicuous by reason of his great worth and the splendor of his
achievements, this globe is dedicated with reverence which is befitting
by Gerhard and Leonhard Valk."
Near the first legend has been pasted the following brief printed
statement, "Propter motum, Stellarum fixarum versus ortum post annum
1750 additione 3/4 gr. Correctio Longitudinum ut instituatur monendus
Uranophilus." "Because of the movement of the fixed stars toward the
east since the year 1750, the student of astronomy is advised to correct
the longitude by the addition of 3/4 of a degree." The terrestrial
globe map, composed of eighteen gores, is filled with interesting
geographical details, with geographical names and brief explanatory
legends, being a fine example of the superior cartographical work
published in that century in the Netherlands. There is something of an
exaggeration in the representation by waving line of the several coasts
and river courses, all of which appears to have been done for artistic
effect rather than for a desire to be strictly accurate. In the New
World we find such regional names as "Penn-Sylvania," the first part of
the name being north of Lake Ontario, also "Carolina," "Virginia,"
"Belgia Nova," "Anglia," "Scotia Nova." Many provincial names are given
in South America with boundary lines drawn. California is represented as
an island, stretching northward to "Fretum Aniani." To the west of this
stretches as far as the northeast coast of Asia, through about
seventy-five degrees of longitude with definitely drawn southern coast
line but extending indefinitely northward, a continental region bearing
the legend "Terra incognita sive terra Esonis." Loxodromic lines are
represented as on the best globes of the period radiating from numerous
compass roses located along the meridians 0 degrees, 180 degrees, and
270 degrees. Frobisher's Strait is strangely duplicated at the southern
extremity of Greenland. The title legend of this terrestrial globe,
placed in the southern Pacific, reads, "Universi Orbis Terrarum Facies
cum industria ac fide Secundum certissimas et novissimas
Praestantissimiorum Geographorum Observationes denuo luci exposita;
cuique praeterea longitudinis et latitudinis gradus Secundum
Uranographiam novam, ac proinde &c. rei veritate sunt inscripti per
Gerhardum et Leonhardum Valk, Amstelaedamenses 1750, cum privilegio." "A
representation of the land of the whole earth exhibited with industry
and accuracy according to the most reliable and the most recent
observations of the most renowned geographers, on which, in addition the
degrees of latitude and longitude according to a new method and also in
accord with truth, have been inserted by Gerhard and Leonhard Valk.
Amsterdam. 1750. With privilege."
In the second pair of Valk globes belonging to The Hispanic Society of
America (Fig. 121), both terrestrial and celestial have diameters of
about 30 cm. The mounting of these globes is practically the same as
that in the larger pair. An author and date legend appearing in the
Pacific to the west of South America reads: "Cosmotheore. Coelesti
nostro Globo, Par et plane Novus. Hic Terrestris Ut existeret: certo
facias: Errore Veterum Sublatô, Non tantum Utrisque Orbis Longitudines
ac Latitudines, per reiteratas Neotericorum Observationes. Hiccè esse
restitutas; Sed et nullum typis Emendatiorum pro diisse, Hoc igitur
Novissimô tam diu fruere, Donec, sub Majori forma, Me[=o] aere Alios
excudemus. Ger. et Leon. Valk Calcographi Amstelaedami. Revis. A^o 1750
Cum Privilegio." "Cosmotherium. That this terrestrial globe might equal
(be a companion to) our celestial globe and entirely new, be assured
that after correcting the errors of those who have preceded us, not only
the longitudes and latitudes of each sphere have been corrected by the
repeated observations of later astronomers, but likewise no (globe) has
appeared more carefully corrected in the printing. This most recent
globe therefore make use of until in a larger form at my own expense we
Gerhard and Leonhard Valk, engravers shall construct others. Amsterdam.
Revised to the year 1750. With privilege."
[Illustration: Fig. 121. Terrestrial Globe of Gerhard and Leonhard Valk,
1750 (?).]
A dedication, such as appears on the first pair referred to, is wanting.
There is no particular improvement to be noted in this revision.
California is still laid down as an island. The uncertainty as to the
outline of "Holandia Nova" is a striking feature, as is the omission of
an austral continent. Geographical details are less numerous than in the
larger pair, but in the matter of the engraving of the map it exhibits
practically the same characteristics.
The celestial globe map has the author and date legend placed near the
constellation "Cetus." It reads, "Uranographia Coelum omne hic
Complectens, illa pro ut aucta, et ad annum 1750 Completum MAGNO ab
HEVELIO correcta est; ita ejus ex Prototypis, sua noviter haec Ectypa
veris Astronomiae cultoribus exhibet et consecrant GER. et LEON. VALK,
Amstelaedamenses. Cum Privilegio." "Star-Map comprising the entire
heavens according as it has been corrected to the end of the year 1750
by the Great Hevelius; so from his prototype Gerhard and Leonhard Valk
present and dedicate these their own recent copies to the true lovers of
astronomy. With privilege."
Near this legend, now appearing as a part of the original engraving, is
that which, in the larger globe referred to above, had been pasted on as
a separate slip, reading "Propter motum ... Uranophilus." Near the
constellation "Hydra" is the legend reading "Monitum Novis hisce
Sphaeris Novissimus. Ex praescripto Lotharii Zum-Bach Med. Doct. unus,
et alter additus Horizon: Quorum Is, qui huic Caelesti singularis,
Praeter Communes atque Bissextilem, Ut exactior, Luminarium indigetur
Locus ad Meridianum Amstelodamens. Plus quam per Ducentos Annos, Suis
Mensium Diebus Appositas Lunae Syzygias, Mediô Tempore Medias, Ingeniosâ
Method[=o] et eruit, et exhibet." "Notice. To these our spheres, in accord
with the directions of Lothar Zum-Bach, Doctor of Medicine, there has
been added one very recent, and also a second horizon; of these two the
one which belongs to the celestial globe has in addition the common and
bissextile years, in order that the location of the stars may the more
exactly be discovered; it both works out and exhibits by an ingenious
method, according to the meridian of Amsterdam, over a space of more
than two hundred years the syzygies of the moon placed opposite their
proper days of the month, the middle ones being in the middle time."
Each of these globes is well preserved, the colors originally applied
remaining particularly bright in the southern hemispheres, these being
better protected from light and from injuries incident to the more
exposed upper surfaces.
In the third pair of Valk globes belonging to The Hispanic Society (Fig.
121a) the diameter of each is about 23 cm. In geographical details, in
legends, etc., each of these agrees with the preceding second pair. It
is, however, to be noted that the date on the terrestrial globe has the
figure 50 appearing in the date 1750 skilfully inserted after the
removal of the original, and that the loxodromic lines are on this more
numerous; indeed, it is one of the most interesting globes examined for
the representation of these lines, which become curiously, but
necessarily, somewhat intricate in their crossings as they approach the
poles. Of the three pairs of these globes referred to above, this third
pair seems to be the best preserved; the only injury to be especially
noted is that appearing on the celestial, this being a crack in the
surface extending from pole to pole. The original colors in each are
particularly well preserved.
In addition to the examples of Valk globes referred to above as
belonging to the University of Ghent and to The Hispanic Society of
America, a pair may be found in the Königliches Museum of Cassel, said
by Gerland to be dated 1715, and to have each a diameter of 45 cm., also
a terrestrial globe in the same museum said to be dated, though
doubtless erroneously, 1700, and to have a diameter of 23 cm., also a
celestial globe of the same date having a diameter of 30 cm. In the
Mathematische Salon of Dresden is a celestial globe having a diameter of
30 cm., and a pair in the Museo di Fisica of Bologna, the diameter of
each being about 46 cm. The date has not been ascertained. In the
Germanisches Nationalmuseum of Nürnberg may be found a well-preserved
pair of the Valk globes said to be dated 1700 and to have each a
diameter of 31 cm.
[Illustration: Fig. 121a. Celestial Globe of Gerhard and Leonhard Valk,
1750 (?).]
John Senex, a noted English cartographer and engraver (d. 1749),[135]
appears to have given some attention to the construction of globes,
which were sold at his establishment in Salisbury Court, London. In
the year 1714 we find his name associated with that of John Maxwell in
the issue of 'The English Atlas,' and in 1721 he appears as the editor
of 'A New General Atlas.' It was in the year 1720 that he made a
representation to the House of Commons on the subject of "A New Globular
Projection," with the thought of eliciting encouragement for the
employment of better methods in map construction. He became a Fellow of
the Royal Society in 1728, and in 1738 read before that society a noted
paper on his "Contrivance to make the Poles of the Diurnal Motion in a
Celestial Globe pass round the Poles of the Ecliptic." This globe was to
be "so adjusted as to exhibit not only the risings and the settings of
the stars in all ages and in all latitudes, but the other phenomena
likewise, that depend upon the motion of the diurnal axis round the
annual axis." From what is stated in this paper one is led to associate
his idea with that of Cassini, to which attention was directed above.
If, however, such a globe was constructed as that referred to in this
scientific address it is not now known. Five of his globes have been
located, two of them undated, and three of them dated 1793, which, if
the correct date of issue, it will be noted, is more than fifty years
after his death. A pair of his globes may be found in the Bibliothèque
Nationale of Paris undated. These are reported as having a diameter of
about 40 cm. They are furnished with brass meridian circles, with
horizon circles of wood, and each with a wooden base. The dedication
reads: "Philosopho ac Geometrae summo D^o Isaaco Newton, equiti, Regalis
Societatis Londini, ad scientias promovendas institutae, Praesidi
dignissimo, ejusdemque consilio et sodalibus hos Globos qua par est
humilitate D.D. C. Johannes Senex. London." "To the great philosopher
and geometrician Sir Isaac Newton, Knight, most worthy President of the
Royal Society of London, for the promotion of knowledge, and to the
Committee and Members of the same Society these globes with befitting
humility are dedicated by C. John Senex. London." Further descriptive
details of these globes it has not been possible to obtain.
The Biblioteca Real of Madrid possesses a terrestrial globe by Senex
(Fig. 122), which bears the title legend, "A new and most correct Globe
of the Earth laid down from the latest observations from the most
judicious astronomers, navigators, & travelers, by John Senex, F. R. S.
Now made and sold by Dudley Adams (only)[136] with all the latest
discoveries together with many new improvements etc. 1793." This globe
has a diameter of about 40 cm., is furnished with a broad band which
serves as a horizon circle, a meridian circle of brass within which it
is made to revolve, and a tripod base. Its three fluted support columns
are strengthened in their position by three curved iron braces which
carry at their juncture a short carved post, through a slot in which the
brass meridian is movable. While the surface of the sphere is somewhat
injured, being crossed by numerous cracks, the engraved map is fairly
legible in all of its parts.
[Illustration: Fig. 122. Terrestrial Globe of John Senex, 1793.]
The British Museum likewise possesses one of Senex's terrestrial globes,
which seems to be practically like that to be found in the Madrid
Library.
It will have been noted that many of those reputed to have been globe
makers in these early years did not actually apply themselves to the
constructive mechanical work, this being passed over to skilled
artisans, to workers in metal and wood, to engravers and to mathematical
instrument makers, who, if possessing generally recognized ability,
often insisted on having their names associated in the author legends
with the real authors of the globes. Nicolas Bion (1652-1733) may be
cited as an excellent example of such a skilful workman, achieving in
his day great distinction as a globe maker.[137] He seems not to have
thought of himself as one meriting special honors as geographer,
cartographer or astronomer (Fig. 123). By reason of his marked
abilities, exhibited in the manufacture of mathematical instruments,
he was honored by his royal patron with the title Engineer of the King
for Mathematical Instruments. Through his principal work,[138] a
treatise on the construction and uses of globes in which the subject is
treated in both a theoretical and a practical manner, he is entitled to
rank with the leaders of the century in this particular field of
scientific endeavor. True to the spirit of the age Bion gave much
thought to the idea of reform in the matter of globe construction,
especially in the matter of fashioning globe gores and their attachment
to the surface of the sphere. He seems to have prospered in his
business, and we are told by his son that he constructed numerous
armillary spheres, likewise many terrestrial and celestial globes of
various sizes. Reference is made above to a task assigned to him by the
great astronomer, Cassini.[139]
A few of the globes of this distinguished man have been located. Fiorini
reports[140] that one of his celestial globes may be found in the
private library of Count Malvezzi de' Medici of Bologna, having a
diameter of about 32 cm. Its twelve gores have been cut at latitude 70
degrees both north and south, the polar spaces being covered by four
sectors instead of by the usual circular disc. The globe is made to
revolve on its equatorial axis, not on the axis of the ecliptic. It has
a simple mounting, including a meridian circle of brass and a horizon
circle of wood. Star names are given in French and in Latin. The
dedication reads, "Dédié et présenté à Monseigneur le Dauphin par son
très humble et très obéissant Bion," but there appears to be some
uncertainty about the date, which is probably between 1700 and 1710.
There is one of Bion's terrestrial globes dated 1712 and dedicated to
"Monseigneur le Duc de Berry," in the Istituto tecnico of Florence,
which is reported to be in a good state of preservation. Loxodromic
lines are drawn on the map in accord with the best practices of the
time, which radiate from wind or compass roses, one being placed on the
equator and one at latitude 35 degrees south. A third terrestrial globe
made by Bion may be found in the Osservatorio Astronomico of Rome, which
is wanting both dedication and place of publication.
The Osservatorio Astronomico also possesses a fine armillary sphere, the
work of Carmelo Cartilia,[141] the diameter of whose largest or meridian
circle is about 26 cm. It is described by a former director of the
observatory as being made of brass, and a companion of a globe
constructed by Bion, having a similar mounting. The equatorial circle,
the tropics, and the colures have the usual graduation. The ecliptic
consists of a band 4 cm. in width, having engraved on its surface the
signs of the zodiac and the days of the months. At the north pole is
attached an hour circle with index. At the common center of the circles
is a small ball 27 mm. in diameter representing the earth, through which
the axis of the ecliptic passes. Around this small ball is adjusted a
circle on which is engraved the word "Luna." There is an additional
small circle which represents the course of the sun, and attached to
this is a silvered ball to represent that luminary. Circles are provided
representing the planets, on which we find such names as "Marti,"
"Giove," "Saturno," and circles around the sun representing the course
of the planets Mercury and Venus. On one of the supporting arms of the
sphere is the author and date legend, reading, "Carmelus Cartilia et
Francalancia Siculus fecit Taurini anno dñi 1720."
Mattheus Seutter (1678-1756) was a map and globe maker of this period,
whose activities centered in the city of Augsburg.[142] His early
training as engraver was received in the establishment of Johann
Baptista Homann in the city of Nürnberg, but in the year 1707 he
established himself in his native city, Augsburg, setting up an
independent business for the production of maps, globes, and
mathematical instruments. Seutter holds his place in the history of
cartography not so much by reason of the high quality of the work done
as by reason of the quantity.[143] The number of maps, large and
small, battle plans and city plans, charts geneological, chronological,
and heraldic, which he published may be counted by the hundreds, the
majority being modified copies of maps and charts which others had
previously issued. As a reward for the dedication of his large atlas to
the Emperor Charles VI, issued in the year 1725, he was named "Imperial
Geographer," a title which had been held by Homann until his death in
the year 1727.
Following the practice of the more prominent map makers of the period,
Seutter turned his attention to globe construction, and not a few
examples of his work can still be found. Some of his globes were of
large size, having a diameter of about 160 cm. The terrestrial as well
as the celestial globe balls he covered with twelve engraved sections,
or twice twelve, these being cut at the line of the equator, and at
latitude sixty-seven both north and south, the polar space being
covered, as was usual, with a circular cap or disc. The mountings of
these globes consist of a wooden meridian circle and a graduated wooden
horizon circle, having each on the upper surface the usual concentric
rings with the names of the months, the names and signs of the zodiacal
constellations, and the names of the principal winds, the whole being
supported by two semicircles attached below to a single columnar base 28
cm. in length. A brief author legend reads, "Globus terrestris juxta
recentissimas observation: et navigation: peritissimor: Geograph:
delineat. cura et sumptibus Matth. Seutteri Calcogr: August."
"Terrestrial globe according to the most recent observations and voyages
of the most skilled geographers. Made by the labor and at the expense of
Mattheus Seutter renowned engraver."
The maps on these globes present no features of special scientific
value, the author following in the main the best contemporary
geographical and astronomical records. It should, however, be noted that
he introduced an improvement in the construction and printing of the
circular polar discs. To the end of remedying the difficulty in
attaching this part of the covering, having observed, as others, that
the paper would expand with the application of paste, and could
therefore not be adjusted with the strictest accuracy and nicety, he
conceived the idea of cutting from this disc a very small section or
small sections, so that when it was applied to the sphere after being
moistened with the paste the amount of stretching was sufficient to
cover the space. In other words, he made his circular disc one of 350
degrees instead of one having the full 360 degrees. In this connection,
it might be noted that the quality of the paper was an element always to
be taken into account in calculating the amount of expansion after
moistening.
A pair of Seutter's globes may be found in the Biblioteca Comunale of
Macerata. A copy of the terrestrial is reported in 1892 to have been in
the private library of Professor Maximilian Tono of Venice, a pair in
the Museo Astronomico of Rome (Figs. 124, 125) and also in this museum
may be found a complete set of the gores for one of his terrestrial as
well as a set for one of his celestial globes, but which by Professor
Jacoli of Venice have been thought to be reprints and not originals. A
copy of the celestial globe may be found in the Biblioteca Universitario
of Urbino.
[Illustration: Fig. 124. Terrestrial Globe of Mattheus Seutter, 1710.]
[Illustration: Fig. 125. Celestial Globe of Mattheus Seutter, 1710.]
[Illustration: Fig. 125a. Terrestrial Globe of Van Lauen Zonen, 1745.]
Robert Morden,[144] active in London in the closing years of the
seventeenth and early years of the eighteenth century as map and globe
maker, seems, however, not to have won for himself a place of particular
prominence, his maps not being held in especially high repute. He was
for some time associated with Thomas Cockrill at "The Sign of the Atlas"
in Cornhill. Morden, however, published a small work on geography and
navigation in the year 1702, in which he attempted to set forth the
value attaching to globes for those interested in the general subject of
which he treated in his work.[145] While his map publications are
numerous, it has been possible to locate only the gores of one of his
globes, which gores may be found in the British Museum. Of the twelve
sections which made up a complete set for covering a sphere about 35
cm. in diameter, but nine remain, three having disappeared.
Jean Antoine Nollet, a French physicist (1700-1770), was a man of
science held in high esteem in his day.[146] In his early years he
entered the College of Clermont, later studied philosophy at the
University of Paris, where, against the wishes of his parents, he
finally turned his attention to the study of the natural sciences,
particularly to experimental physics. Early in his career he was honored
with membership in the Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris and in other
similar organizations in Europe. In the year 1739 he was called to the
Court of Sardinia, where he gave lessons in physics to the Duke of
Savoy. Later he was called to the University of Turin, and was here
especially honored by having his name associated with those who were the
founders of the institution. In the year 1753 he was called to the chair
of physics at the College of Navarre, which position he so acceptably
filled that he received the title Master of Physics and of Natural
History for the Royal Children of France. His published works, which are
very numerous, treat of his studies in the physical sciences,
particularly in the field of electricity.
Nollet's instruments, made for use in the study of the physical
sciences, included terrestrial and celestial globes, six of which have
been located, dated 1728 and 1730. The spheres are of papier-mâché,
having each a diameter of about 35 cm.[147] The engraved maps covering
the spheres are composed of twelve gores, which are cut at the line of
the equator but extend to the poles, omitting therefore the usual polar
circular discs. Each is furnished with a horizon circle of wood, on the
surface of which is the usual paper covering with the names of the
principal directions, of the zodiacal constellations, and of the names
of the months in concentric circles. Each also has a graduated meridian
circle, the whole resting on a base of four turned and rather
artistically fashioned columns.
His terrestrial globes have the following title: "Globe terrestre dressé
sur les observations les plus nouvelles et le plus exactes approuvées
par M^{rs} de l'Académie Royale des sciences. À Paris avec privilège du
Roi. Monté par l'auteur." "Terrestrial globe made according to the most
recent and the most exact and approved observations by the Royal Academy
of Sciences. Paris, with the approval of the King. Made by the author."
The dedication reads "Dédié et présenté à S. A. Madame La Duchesse du
Maine par son très-humble et très-obéissant serviteur Nollet Lic. en
Théologie. 1728." "Dedicated and presented to Her Highness the Duchess
of Maine by her very humble and very obedient servant Nollet Licentiate
in Theology. 1728." Numerous inscriptions relate to well-known
geographical discoveries. Meridian and parallel circles are drawn on the
globe at intervals of five degrees, the principal ones, including the
equator, the tropics, and polar circles, being made especially
prominent. The prime meridian, passing through the Island of Ferro, is
designated "premier méridien de l'Isle Fer. Déclaration du Roi Louis
XIII du Juil. 1634."
The celestial globe is titled "Globe céleste calculé pour l'année 1730
sur les observations les plus nouvelles et les plus exactes. À Paris
avec privilège du Roi. Bailleul le jeune sculpsit. Monté par l'auteur."
"Celestial globe calculated to the year 1730 according to the most
recent and the most exact observations. Paris, with the privilege of the
King. Bailleul the younger engraver. Constructed by the author." It is
dedicated "Dédié et présenté à S. A. S. Monseigneur le Comte de Clermont
par son très-humble et très-obéissant serviteur Nollet de la Société des
Arts. 1730." "Dedicated and presented to His Most Serene Highness
Seigneur The Count of Clermont by his very humble and very obedient
servant Nollet of the Society of Arts. 1730." The equatorial circle and
the ecliptic, as represented on the map, are graduated, but the tropics
and the polar circles are merely drawn as continuous black lines. The
figures representing the several Ptolemaic constellations are
artistically drawn and retain much of their original color, which was
added by hand at the time of construction.
Of Nollet's globes a pair may be found in the Biblioteca Maldotti of
Guastalla, a pair in the Seminario Vescovile of Mondovi, a copy of the
terrestrial in the Archivo Fenaroli of Brescia, and a copy of the
celestial in the Museo Astronomico of Rome.
Johann Gabriel Doppelmayr (1671-1750) was one of Nürnberg's famous
eighteenth-century mathematicians who was especially distinguished as
writer, translator, editor, and teacher.[148] A part of his early
training he received at the Egedian Gymnasium of his native town, where
from 1704 to the time of his death he was actively engaged as teacher of
mathematics and physics. In the year 1696 we find him registered as a
student of law at the University of Altdorf, though turning betimes with
much enthusiasm to the study of mathematics under the direction of Joh.
Christoph Sturm. In the year 1700, after some months passed at the
University of Halle, he determined to add to his equipment for his life
work such experience as could be gained through travel; accordingly he
visited in turn the more important cities of his own country and those
of Holland and England, spending in his travels a period of ten years.
Among his more important publications may be mentioned a translation of
the 'Astronomy' of Thomas Street,[149] a work by Bion in a German
translation from the French, which at the same time he enlarged.[150]
His 'Einleitung zur Geographie,' appearing as an introduction to
Homann's 'Atlas' issued in the year 1714, and his 'Atlas Coelestis,'
issued in the year 1742, are among his more important works original in
character, which he published on the subject of geography and astronomy.
His principal work is his 'Notes' on the mathematicians and artists of
Nürnberg.[151]
It was doubtless through his connection with the cartographical
establishment of Homann that he felt induced to undertake the
construction of his globes, examples of which exist dated 1728. In the
collection belonging to The Hispanic Society of America (Fig. 126) there
may be found a fine example of his terrestrial globes, which has a
diameter of about 32 cm. Over a carefully prepared hollow wooden ball
twelve gores, cut at the line of the equator and five degrees from each
pole, have been pasted. The small polar spaces lying between latitudes
85 degrees, both north and south, are covered by circular discs, having
a diameter of but ten degrees, on the one is engraved "Polus Arcticus"
and on the other "Polus Antarcticus." The globe is furnished with a
narrow graduated meridian of brass within which the sphere turns on its
polar axis, a horizon circle of wood, circular on its inner edge but
octagonal on the outer. The engraved paper strip containing the zodiacal
figures, calendar, and directions, has practically disappeared. The base
support consists of four small turned columns of wood, attached at their
lower extremities by crossbars over which is a circular plate, provision
having been made for insertion into its surface of a compass, which
instrument, however, has disappeared. Excepting slight damage to its
horizon circle the globe may be said to be in an excellent state of
preservation. In a neat cartouch in the North Pacific is the title
legend reading, "Globus terrestris in quo locorum insigniorum situs
terraeque facies secundum praecipuas celeberrimorum nostri aevi
Astronomorum et Geographorum observationes opera Joh. Gabr. Doppelmaieri
Mathem. Prof. Publ. Norib. exhibentur, concinnatus a Joh. Georg.
Puschnero Chalcographo Norib. A. C. 1728." "Terrestrial globe on which
the position of the principal places on the surface of the earth are
shown according to the principal observations of the most celebrated
astronomers and geographers of our times by the labor of John Gabriel
Doppelmayr, mathematician, professor and publisher of Nürnberg. Engraved
by John George Puschner, engraver of Nürnberg[152] in the year 1728." An
interesting legend in the South Pacific tells us "Exprimit Globus hic
noster quicquid Geographia recens ex Observationibus fide dignis
suppeditat tam in situ locorum plurium, quam in terrarum novarum etiam
mariumque ambitu. Meridianus primus per Insulam Fer inter Canarias (quae
olim Fortunatae dicebantur) occidentalissimam ductus a quo Parisiensis
Meridianus Probatissimarum Observationum testimonio 20 Gradibus,
Noribergensis vero 28 Gr. 40 Min: distat." "This globe of ours shows
that which the latest geographical information furnishes from the
trustworthy observations both as regards the location of new places and
the extent of the new lands and seas. The first meridian passes through
the Island of Ferro in the Canary Islands (called the Fortunate
Islands), which is the most western point and from which the meridian of
Paris, according to the testimony of the most approved observations
differs by 22 degrees, while that of Nürnberg differs by 28 degrees and
40 minutes." Around this legend are the engraved portraits of famous
explorers, "Mart. Bohemus Norimbegus," "Americus Vesputi," "Franc.
Draco," "Schouten," "Georg Spilbergius," "R. P. Tachard," "Wilh.
Dampier," "Mon. de la Salle," "Thomas Candisch," "Olivirius a Nord,"
"Ferdin. Magellanicus," "Christ. Columbus."
[Illustration: Fig. 126. Terrestrial Globe of Johann Gabriel Doppelmayr,
1728.]
While the representation of the world is not so detailed in certain
respects as we find, for example, on the Valk globes, there nevertheless
is the evidence that the author wished to include such information as in
his judgment should be recorded. There are records of interest in the
newly explored regions of America. California is laid down as a
peninsula. In about latitude 41 degrees there appears a Drake record
reading "Pt. F. Drack." "Fretum Anian" is represented at latitude 45
degrees. Sixty degrees to the west of this is the somewhat indefinitely
indicated coast line of "Terra Borealis incognita detecta Dom. Ioh. de
Gama," this being separated from the coast of "Kamtzadalia Terra Jedso"
by "Fretum Vries." The recently explored regions in the Far East, as in
Australia, New Zealand, Van Diemen's Land,--each, however, being
represented as imperfectly known,--are made very prominent. There are
scarcely any map records of the period more interesting than are those
to be found on this globe of Doppelmayr's. The routes of Magellan, 1519;
Nord, 1600; Roggeveen, 1722; Dampier, 1700; Tasman, 1624; Loys, 1708;
Lemaire, 1616, are all laid down. In latitude 60 degrees south and
longitude 300 degrees we find, "Port detecta per Fr. Drack," and again
in latitude 67 degrees south and longitude 310, "I. deton detecta per F.
Drack."
To accompany his terrestrial globe, Doppelmayr issued a celestial globe
bearing the same date. A title legend on the latter reads, "Globus
coelestis novus Stellarum fixarum loca secundum celeberrimi astronomi
Dantiscicani Joannis Hevelii Catalogum ad annum 1730 compl. sistens
opera Joh. Gabr. Doppelmaieri M. P. P. exhibitus a Johanne Georgio
Puschnero Chalcographo Noribergensi. A. C. 1728." "A new celestial globe
giving the location of the fixed stars according to the record of the
celebrated Danish astronomer Johannes Hevelius conforming to the year
1730, by the labor of Johannes Gabriel Doppelmayr, mathematician,
professor, publisher, engraved by Johannes George Puschner, engraver of
Nürnberg, in the year 1728." In size and in general features of
construction these globes seem to agree, being scientifically and
carefully constructed. A pair of these globes may be found in the
Biblioteca Capitolare of Verona, a pair in the Geographisches Institute
of Göttingen, a copy of the celestial in the Mathematical Salon of
Dresden, a copy of the terrestrial in the Museo di Fisica of Pavia, a
pair dated 1728 in the Germanisches Nationalmuseum of Nürnberg, a pair
dated 1736, 20 cm. in diameter, and three copies each of his globes
issued in 1730, 20 cm. in diameter, and a celestial globe dated 1730 and
20 cm. in diameter, in Dresden. (Fig. 126a.)
[Illustration: Fig. 126a. Celestial Globe of Johann Gabriel Doppelmayr,
1728.]
Fiorini notes the existence of a large terrestrial globe belonging
to the Marquis Luigi Cusani,[153] which probably was constructed in the
early eighteenth century, perhaps before 1730, by order of Cardinal
Agostino Cusani. The globe, unsigned and undated, is of papier-mâché,
having a diameter of about 120 cm. The paper gores with which the sphere
is covered are not all of like form, but all are cut at the line of the
equator and at latitude 80 both north and south, the usual circular disc
being provided for covering the polar areas. On its surface the map has
been drawn by hand, and practically all of the geographical names
recorded are in the Italian language. The globe is mounted on a solid
base, having a heavy horizon circle of wood, which is graduated, and on
its surface are the names and the signs of the several zodiacal
constellations, the names of the months and of the principal winds or
directions. The meridian circle, within which the sphere revolves, is of
brass and is graduated. It is reported to be in a good state of
preservation.
The Biblioteca Comunale of Siena possesses two anonymous terrestrial
globes, according to report of Fiorini, the one having a map in
manuscript, the other having an engraved map.[154] The first of these,
unsigned and undated, probably of the second quarter of the century, has
a diameter of about 120 cm. The sphere is of wood, the surface of which
is covered with mastic or varnish, and on this the map has been drawn.
It is constructed to revolve within its simple mounting of wood by means
of a crank. The title legend reads "Globe terrestre Dressé selon les
observations de l'Acad. Royale de Paris et des autres Acad. plus
célébrés d'Europe." "Terrestrial globe constructed according to the
observations of the Royal Academy of Paris and of other Academies the
most celebrated in Europe." In addition to the above legend one finds
the following inscription: "On a pris la longitude des villes
principales des Tables de M^{ur} Philippe de La Hire. Les autres villes
ou il n' a point d'observations sont icy places en la même distance des
villes principales dans la quelle on les voit dans les cartes de M.
Guillaume de l'Isle." "The longitudes of the principal towns have been
taken from the tables of M^{ur} Philippe de La Hire.[155] The other towns
which have not been located from observation are placed at the same
distance from the principal towns as they are located on the maps of M.
Guillaume de l'Isle."
It seems probable that this globe was constructed in France, and from
the particular references to La Hire and Delisle one may infer, as noted
above, that it belongs to the early eighteenth century. Parallels and
meridians are drawn on the surface of the globe at intervals of ten
degrees, and one conspicuous wind rose with sixteen radiating lines is
placed in latitude 30 degrees north and longitude 350 degrees counting
from the prime meridian, which passes through the Island of Ferro. This
globe, it is thought, came to the Siena Library about the year 1810, at
the time of French rule in Tuscany, together with the library of the
Convent of S. Augustine, but how it came to have place in the Augustine
convent is unknown.
The second Sienese terrestrial globe, like the one just described,
probably belongs to about the same date.[156] It has the following
legend conspicuously placed: "Globo terracqueo corretto et accresciuto
secondo le nuove scoperte. Anno 1744. In Roma nella Calcografia del
R:C:A: al Piè di Marmo." "Terrestrial globe corrected and enlarged
according to recent discoveries. 1744. In Rome in the engraving
establishment of R. C. A. at the foot of the marble." The globe ball is
of wood, having a diameter of about 50 cm. Additional information
concerning this globe it has not been possible to obtain. Copies of it
may be found in the Biblioteca Comunale of Imola, in that of Osimo, in
that of Savignano, and in the Seminario Vescovile of Ivrea.
[Illustration: Fig. 126b. Celestial Globe of Johann Puschner, 1730.]
In the Museo di Strumenti Antichi of Florence there is a well-preserved
armillary sphere,[157] having the usual large circles the outer one
measuring about 15 cm. in diameter, of four lesser ones and of these
there are two small ones representing the sun and the moon. The
meridian and the equator are graduated, as is likewise the ecliptic,
having engraved on its surface the names of the principal winds in the
Italian language, and the ecliptic having engraved in Latin on its
surface the names of the signs of the zodiac. On one of the arms which
supports the horizon circle is the author and date legend, reading,
"Joseph Torricelli F. Florentiae 1739." Fiorini thinks it probable that
Joseph was a relative of Evangelista Torricelli, inventor of the
barometer.
Pietro Maria da Vinchio, a monk of the order of St. Francis, deserves a
word of special praise for the skill with which he labored as a map and
globe maker about the middle of the eighteenth century.[158] He seems to
have followed in the main the work of Moroncelli, and that of the
unknown maker of the Cusani globe, yet he should be counted a workman
possessing greater technical ability. His first pair of globes have a
diameter of about 60 cm. The mounting consists of a meridian and a
horizon circle of wood, the whole resting on a somewhat elaborate wooden
base. The gores with which he covered his spheres are in each instance
eighteen in number, but each gore has been cut into three sections--at
the parallel of 40 degrees, both north and south, and also at the
parallel of 80 degrees, the polar spaces having the usual circular disc
covering. The terrestrial globes have represented on their surfaces the
polar and the tropical circles, also the ecliptic and the equator,
together with the several parallels and meridians at intervals of ten
degrees. Artistic wind roses are placed at each of the equinoctial
points, each with points representing the eight principal directions.
The title legend reads, "Globus terrestris juxta geographicas mappas
novissime editas accurate descriptus, in quibus, exactiori observatione
praemissa, errores multiplices sunt emendati, qui in veteri geographia
detinebantur impressi. F. Petri Mariae a Vinchio opus et labor 1739."
"Terrestrial globe accurately delineated according to the most recent
geographical maps in which, by more exact observations, numerous errors
are corrected which continued to be printed in the old geography. Fra
Peter Maria a Vinchio, his work and labor, 1739."
The celestial globe, similar in its construction in practically every
respect to the preceding, has its system of circles represented
according to the equatorial system instead of the ecliptic system. All
of the Ptolemaic constellations are represented, the figures of the
several constellations being very artistically painted. Its dedication
reads, "Il[=l]mo ac Re[=v]mo D. D. Petro Hieronymo Caravadossi Episcopo
Casalensi Ordinis Praedicatorum parvum hoc Firmamentum dicatum a F.
Petro Maria de Vinchio Ord. Min. Stric. Obser. operis auctor. 1745."
"Dedicated to the Illustrious and Reverend D. D. Peter Hieronymus
Caravadossi Bishop of Casale of the Preaching Friars, by Fra. Peter
Maria de Vinchio of the Strict Minorite Order, who is the author of this
work, in the year 1745." The pair just described may be found in the
Biblioteca Seminario Maggiore of Casale Monferrato. Fiorini is of the
opinion that these globes, presented to the learned Father Pietro
Girolamo Caravadossi of the Preaching Friars, Bishop of Casale, must
have been given by him to the seminary library, that they might serve in
the education of the priests. It is even probable that the two globes
came to the library by a direct clause in the will of the bishop, since
it is known that he bequeathed to the same library all of his books and
an annual sum, that the library might be used not only by the members of
the seminary but by the general public as well.
Not long after the completion of the pair just described, da Vinchio
undertook the construction of a second and larger pair. These he began
in the year 1746 and completed in the year 1751. These globes have a
diameter of about 105 cm. Like the preceding they are of papier-mâché.
Each is furnished with a meridian and a horizon circle of wood, and a
somewhat elaborate supporting base. On the parchment covering of the
spheres the maps have been drawn by hand. On the terrestrial globe the
meridians and the parallels are represented at intervals of ten degrees.
Place names, the names of the seas and of the rivers are in the Italian
language or in the language of the country claiming possession. Very
many of the discoveries are referred to in appropriate legends. The
title and date legend reads "D. O. M. Globus terraqueus Juxta
geographicas mappas novissime editas accurate descriptus, in quibus,
exactiori observatione praemissa, longitudinum, latitudinumque punctis
verius universe compertis, errores multiplices sunt emendati, qui in
veteri geographia detinebantur impressi. Inferius scripti mens, labor,
ars, et opus. F. Petrus Maria a Vinchio. In Conventu S. M. de Templo
Casalis annis 1746-1747-1748." "D. O. M. Terrestrial globe accurately
described according to the latest geographical maps in which by a more
exact observation and by a truer location of the points of longitude and
latitude many errors have been corrected which continued to be printed
in the old geographies. What follows is the work and labor of Fra. Peter
Maria a Vinchio, made in the Convent of Santa Maria at the Temple in
Casale in the years 1746-1747-1748."
The celestial globe is similarly mounted, having a title legend which
reads "Globus coelestis Circa quem spectabiliores, magisque obviae
stellae juxta dispositionem et situm, longitudinis scilicet ac
latitudinis grad[=u], in quo ab Auctore Universi in Firmamento sunt
positae, dispositae inspiciuntur; singulis tamen figuris a Poetis
ideatis, ab Astromomis diductae, et assignatae novissime auctus. F.
Maria a Vinchio O. M. S. O. Anno 1750.--Opifex.--1751." "Celestial globe
in which are to be seen more clearly and more distinctly set forth the
stars according to their places and positions, that is, their degrees of
longitude and latitude where they have been placed in the firmament by
the Creator of the Universe. To which have been added the figures of the
constellations idealized by the poets, brought to earth and assigned
their true places by astronomers. F. Maria a Vinchio of the Strict
Order of the Minorites maker. In the year 1750-1751."
The figures of the constellations are well drawn and are colored, the
names of these constellations being given in Latin. This pair of Maria's
globes may be found in the Biblioteca Municipale of Alessandria, in
which town he probably lived at the time of their construction, and
probably at the convent of the Capuchin monks.
Prefixed to his 'Select Mechanical Exercises,' first issued in the year
1773, James Ferguson (1710-1776), Scotch experimental philosopher,
physicist, and astronomer (Fig. 127), gives us a most interesting
specimen of autobiography.[159] It is a remarkable story of native
genius and of self-instruction. Herein he tells us how the child of poor
parents, with an unquenchable desire for scientific knowledge, proceeded
in his early years, step by step, until at length he attained to a
position of great renown, not only in his own country but as well in
other lands. He tells of his early interest in simple mechanical
problems and of his attempts at the solution of the same, but what is of
special interest here, he relates how it was he became interested in
geography and in the construction of globes and orreries. From a
description of a globe he had found in 'Gordon's Geographical Grammar,'
as he tells us, "I made a globe in three weeks turning the ball thereof
out of a piece of wood." This he covered with paper and delineated
thereon the map of the world. He was happy to find, as he says, "that by
using the globe, which was the first I ever saw, I could solve the
problems." In his second attempt at globe making, his boyish ingenuity
particularly exhibited itself. Finding two large globular stones on the
top of a neighbor's gate-posts, he painted on one of these, with oil
colors, a map of the terrestrial globe, and on the other a map of the
celestial, from a planisphere of the stars which he had copied on paper
from a celestial globe belonging to a neighboring gentleman. "The poles
of the painted globes stood toward the poles of the heavens. On each
the twenty-four hours were placed around the equinoctial so as to show
the time of day when the sun shone out, by the boundary where the half
of the globe at any time enlightened by the sun was parted from the
other half in the shade: the enlightened parts of the terrestrial globe
answering to the like enlightened parts of the earth at all times: so
that whenever the sun shone on the globe one might see to what place the
sun was then rising, to what place it was setting, and all the places
where it was then day or night, throughout the earth."
[Illustration: Fig. 127. Portrait of James Ferguson.]
Turning his attention especially to the movements of the stars, he
contrived an orrery to show the motions of the earth and the moon, of
the sun and the planets, both diurnal and annual, and it was in his
first literary attempt, published in the year 1746, that he described
'The Use of a New Orrery.' Ferguson published many works on scientific
subjects, lectured extensively before learned societies, was honored
with the royal bounty of King George III, and became a member of the
Royal Society without initiatory or annual fees.
Of globes constructed by Ferguson other than those he contrived in his
boyhood days, eight copies are known. In the collection of The Hispanic
Society of America (Fig. 127a), there appears to be a unique example of
his first published globe work, constructed perhaps as early as the year
1750, since it records the route followed by the Englishman, George
Anson, in circumnavigating the earth in his expedition or expeditions of
the years 1740-1744, and omits reference to the expeditions of Captain
Cook. The terrestrial globe, a solid wooden ball, 7 cm. in diameter, is
enclosed in a black leather covering, on the inner surface of which is
pasted an engraved gore map of the celestial sphere. It appears to be
constructed as were those referred to by Moxon in his catalogue of
globes which were "made and sold by himself on Ludgate Hill," that is,
"concave hemispheres of the Starry Orb which serve for a case to a
Terrestrial Globe of 3 inches in diameter, made portable for the
Pocket." The covering of this Ferguson globe is made to open on the line
of the celestial equator. In a neat cartouch placed in the North Pacific
is the author and title legend reading, "A New Globe of the Earth by
James Ferguson." The meridians are drawn at intervals of fifteen
degrees, the prime meridian passing through Greenwich, and the parallels
are drawn at intervals of ten degrees, being graduated on the meridian
of 145 degrees west, excepting the tropics and the polar circles, which
are drawn in their proper latitudes, respectively 23-1/2 degrees from
the equator and 23-1/2 degrees from the poles. Ferguson followed such
geographical records as were laid down by Hondius in his world map of
the year 1611, or by Greuter in his globe map of the year 1632 in the
North Pacific region, indicating there the existence of a great expanse
of ocean, between northwest North America and northeast Asia. "Anian
St." is marked as separating a somewhat indefinitely outlined coast from
America. The Antarctic continent is altogether omitted; the only
inscription appearing in that region is "The South Pole." Geographical
names are as numerous as one could expect to find them on a globe of
such small dimensions.
The figures on the celestial map pasted on the inner surface of the
terrestrial globe covering representing the several constellations have
been very artistically drawn. Both the terrestrial and the celestial
parts of this combination globe are remarkably well preserved. A second
and later example of this Ferguson globe may be found in the Harvard
University Library, once belonging to Ebenezer Storer of the class of
1747. It came into the possession of the University in the year 1914. In
addition to the globes of Ferguson, just described, two pairs are known,
dated each 1782, subsequent to the author's death, it will be noted,
each having a diameter of 30 cm. These are mounted in the usual manner
with wooden horizon and brass meridian circles, with support base
columns of wood. On the terrestrial globes English is the language
employed, while all names of the constellations on the celestial globes
are in Latin. As on the small terrestrial globe in The Hispanic
Society's collection, the route of Admiral Anson is indicated, omitting
that of Captain Cook, and numerous brief legends are given referring to
various geographical discoveries. One pair of these globes may be found
in the Biblioteca Comunale of Palermo and the other pair in the
Osservatorio Meteorico of Syracuse.
[Illustration: Fig. 127a. Pocket Globe of James Ferguson, 1750 (?).]
[Illustration: Fig. 127b. Terrestrial Globe of Herman Moll, 1705.]
NOTES
[117] This society was founded in the year 1666 by Louis XIV, after
the model of the Royal Society of London. It was liberally endowed
and supported, its members devoting themselves to the science of
physics, mathematics, astronomy, botany, zoology, and medicine. The
observatory, founded in the year 1667, was an adjunct of the
society.
[118] Niceron, J. F. "Delisle." (In: Mémoires pour servir à
l'histoire des Hommes illustres dans la république des lettres.
Paris, 1729. Vol. 1, p. 214.); Fontenelle, B. le B. de. Éloge des
académiciens. À la Haye, 1731. Vol. II, pp. 324-339; Sandier, C. Die
Reformation der Kartographie um 1700. München, 1905. pp. 14-21.
[119] Not that there is less of interest in physical, in commercial,
in descriptive geography, but that there is a decided tendency in
this day to stress what is sometimes called human geography, which
consists in emphasizing the relation of geographical study to real
life.
[120] This work appears to have established his reputation. In the
year 1702 he became a member of the Academy, not as a
geographer--this department was not established until the year
1730--but as an astronomer under Cassini. Sandler, loc. cit.; Vivien
de Saint-Martin, M. Histoire de la géographie. Paris, 1875. p. 423.
This last-named author says: "La Mappemonde de Guillaume Delisle et
ses cartes particulières des quarte partiée du monde, publiées en
1700, remenèrent enfin pour la première fois à leurs véritables
places et à leurs dimensions réelles les parties orientales de
l'ancien continent. Quelle que fussent les améliorations de détail
que dût recevoir par la suit la carte du monde,--et ces
améliorations etaient immens,--l'honneur d'en avoir apéré la réforme
radical suffit pour éterniser le nom Guillaume Delisle."
[121] Sandler, op. cit. This was an error having its origin in
Ptolemy's geography, as set down in the Ptolemy maps. The two most
significant errors in the Ptolemaic cartography were (a) the
representation of the Indian Ocean as an enclosed sea; (b) the too
great extension in longitude given to the Mediterranean Sea. A
correction of the first of these errors followed quickly after the
discovery of the sea route to the Indies of the East. As a result
incident to the second error the Asiatic regions were extended much
too far eastward, the maps as late as the seventeenth century
showing the coast of China to lie at least twenty-five degrees too
far in that direction. The invention of the telescope in the first
decade of the seventeenth century and of the pendulum clock about
the middle of the century made possible a more accurate
determination of the location of places, and an improvement in map
construction soon followed. See also Wolf, Geschichte, pp. 355-362;
369-373.
[122] Wolf, op. cit., pp. 400-403. This came to be but one of the
many methods employed in the effort to determine longitude. One of
the most interesting and most recent is that in which wireless
telegraphy has been called into service. See Hoogewerff, Capt. J.A.
Washington-Paris Longitude by radio signals by F.B. Littell and G.A.
Hill. (In: Astronomical Journal. Albany, 1915.)
[123] See "Nolin" and "Delisle." (In: Mémoire pour l'histoire des
sciences et des beaux arts. Trévoux, 1702. p. 166.); "Nolin." (In:
Nouvelle biographie.); Lelewel. Géographie du moyen âge, II. p. 202;
Sandler, op. cit., p. 15.
[124] Sandler, op. cit., reproduces Delisle's world map of 1700, pl.
iv.
[125] Wolf, op. cit., pp. 449-452; Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire
des sciences et a celle de l'observatoire royal de Paris. Paris,
1810. pp. 255-309; "Cassini, Jean-Dominique." (In: Nouvelle
biographie.) In this last article may be found a long list of
Cassini's publications.
[126] "Gassendi, Pierre." (In: Nouvelle biographie.) Gassendi
achieved distinction for his works on astronomical subjects. In the
year 1645 he was appointed Professor of Mathematics in the Collège
Royal of Paris, a position he held with interruptions until his
death.
[127] The term "Precession of the Equinoxes," as used in astronomy,
refers to the slow retrograde motion of the equinoctial point to the
west, or contrary to the order of the signs of the zodiac, this
precession being estimated by Hipparchus to be one degree in one
hundred years; in sixty-nine years by Ptolemy; in sixty-six years by
Albategnius; in seventy years by Cassini, but it is now estimated to
be one degree in about seventy and one half years. For one complete
revolution of this equinoctial point through the twelve signs of the
zodiac Hipparchus estimated a period of 36,000 years would be
required; according to Ptolemy a period of 24,840 years; according
to Albategnius 23,760 years; according to Cassini 25,200 years;
whereas the period is now estimated to be a little more than 25,800
years. An important consequence of the precession of the equinoxes
lies in the fact that the zodiacal constellations do not agree with
the signs with which they coincided in ancient times, i.e., in the
beginnings of astronomical science. The first star of Aries, which
at the time of Eudoxus was at the intersection of the equator and
the ecliptic, or at the equinoctial colure, has continued to
increase its position in longitude. At the time of Ptolemy this was
6 degrees 40 minutes. Its longitude is now about 31 degrees, which
places it entirely out of its original sign.
[128] Among the more important works of Cassini bearing upon this
particular subject may be mentioned, Méthode pour trouver la
différence des longitudes des lieux par les observations
correspondantes des phases des éclipses de soleil 1670. (In:
Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences. Paris, 1733. Vol. I, p.
133.); La méthode de déterminer les longitudes des lieux de la terre
par les observations des satellites de Jupiter. (In: Mémoires de
l'Académie. Paris, 1743. Vol. X, p. 569.); De la méthode de
déterminer les longitudes des lieux de la terre par les
observations des satellites de Jupiter. (In: Observations physiques
et mathématiques. Paris, 1688. pp. 232-278.); Les hypothèses et les
tables des satellites de Jupiter, réformees sur de nouvelles
observations. (In: Mémoires de l'Académie, 1693. Paris, 1730. Vol.
VIII, p. 363.); Méthode de déterminer les longitudes des lieux de la
terre par des étoiles fixes et des planètes par la Lune. (In:
Mémoires de l'Académie. Paris, 1703.)
[129] See p. 349 of Bion's work referred to below, n. 22.
[130] Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences. Paris, 1727.
[131] Fiorini. Sfere terrestri e celesti. pp. 401-402.
[132] Zedler, J. H. Groses universallexikon aller Wissenschaften und
Kunste. Leipzig-Halle, 1745. Vol. 46, p. 153; Günther, Erd- und
Himmelsgloben, p. 107, n. 1, reports that two of his Atlases, one of
which is a particularly fine example of work representing
astronomical geography, may be found in the K. Hof und
Staatsbibliothek of München. More than one hundred and twenty-five
maps of Gerhard and Leonhard Valk are listed by Phillips in his
excellent work on Atlases in the Library of Congress. See index.
[133] Praxis astronomiae utrisque ut et geographiae exercita per
usum Globi coelestis et terrestris tum et Planetolabii. Amstelodami,
sumptibus Gerhardi Valk Calcographi apud quem prostant una globis et
Planetolabio. n. d.
[134] There is considerable doubt as to the date assigned to the
Valk globes in the Königliche Museum of Cassel, and to those in the
Germanisches Nationalmuseum of Nürnberg. See reference to these
above, p. 150.
[135] "Senex, John," with appended short bibliographical list. (In:
Dictionary of National Biography.)
[136] See reference below, Chap. XIII, to Adams.
[137] "Bion, Nicolas," with portrait. (In: Nouvelle biographie.
Paris, 1853.)
[138] Bion, Nicolas. Usage des globes célestes et terrestres, et des
sphères, suivant les différents systèmes du monde. Paris, 1699. This
work was reissued no less than six times before 1751, there being
added to the title in the sixth edition, "Précédé d'un Traité de
Cosmographie. Sixième édition, revue et corrigée par le Sieur N.
Bion, ingénieur du Roi pour les instruments de Mathématique, sur le
Quai de l'Orloge du Palais, au Soleil d'or, où trouvé des Sphères et
des Globes de toutes façons"; same author. Traité de la construction
et des principaux usages des instruments de mathématique. Paris,
1752. Bion's work was translated into English by Edward Stone and
published in London, 1723, under the title 'Bion's construction and
principal use of mathematical instruments.'
[139] See p. 142.
[140] Fiorini, op. cit., pp. 402-405.
[141] Fiorini, op. cit., pp. 430-431.
[142] "Seutter, Mattheus." (In: Allgemeine deutsche Biographie.);
Sandler, C. Mattheus Seuter und seine Landkarten. (In: Mitteilungen
des Vereins für Erdkunde zu Leipzig. Leipzig, 1894. pp. 5-38.) This
article contains a brief biography, a list of his several map
publications, his colaborers, and a special consideration of his
landkarten.
[143] See the list as given by Sandler, op. cit.
[144] "Morden, Robert." (In: Dictionary of National Biography.)
[145] Morden, R. An introduction to astronomy, geography,
navigation, etc., made easy by the description and uses of the
coelestial and terrestrial globes, in seven parts. London, 1702. A
list of his maps and principal geographical works is given in the
article referred to in note 28. See also British Museum Catalogue of
Printed Books and Maps.
[146] l'Éloge de l'Abbé Nollet. (In: Histoire de l'Académie Royale
des Sciences. Paris, 1773. p. 121.); Querard, J. M. La France
Littéraire. Paris, 1826-1842. 10 vols. Vol. VI, p. 444; "Nollet,
l'Abbé, Jean Antoine." (In: Nouvelle biographie.)
[147] Fiorini, op. cit., pp. 407-409.
[148] "Doppelmayr, Johann Gabriel." (In: Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie.)
[149] Street, T. Astronomia Carolina. A new theory of the celestial
motions. London, 1661.
[150] This was a translation of Bion's Traité de la construction et
des principaux usages des instruments de mathématique, to which he
gave a general title 'Neueröfnete mathematische Werkschule.'
Leipzig, 1713. To the title of a later edition of this translation
was prefixed, "Dritte Eröfnung," Nürnberg, 1741. The reference is to
a technical school of Nürnberg.
[151] Doppelmayr, Johann Gabriel. Historische Nachricht von
nürnbergischen Mathematiscis und Künstlern. Nürnberg, 1730.
[152] Doppelmayr, op. cit.
[153] Fiorini, op. cit., p. 394.
[154] Fiorini, op. cit., pp. 414-415.
[155] A noted French geometrician, professor of mathematics at the
Collège Royal de France, and at l'Académie d'Architecture,
1640-1718.
[156] Fiorini, op. cit., p. 415.
[157] Fiorini, op. cit., pp. 431-432.
[158] Fiorini, op. cit., pp. 410-414.
[159] Ferguson, James. Select mechanical exercises with a short
account of the life of the author by himself. London, 1773;
"Ferguson, James." (In: A biographical dictionary of eminent
Scotsmen, originally edited by Robert Chambers, revised by Rev.
Thos. Thompson. London, 1856.); "Ferguson, James." (In: Dictionary
of National Biography.) The last two articles contain extensive
references to Ferguson's works, many of which are of a high order of
merit.
[Illustration: Ship. _From Jodocus Hondius' World map, 1611_]