The Technic of Globe Construction--Materials and Methods
General problems to be met.--Development from the simple
armilla to the complex sphere.--The references of Ptolemy,
Leontius Mechanicus, Alfonso.--Behaim's leadership in
practical globe making.--Materials employed.--Experiments
in map projection.--The beginning and rapid development of
globe-gore construction.--Various examples of early gore
maps.--Equatorial polar and ecliptic polar
mountings.--Special features of celestial globe
maps.--Globe mountings.--Varying sizes of globes.--The
uses of globes.--Moon globes and planetariums.
In this concluding chapter it is not proposed to consider in detail the
technical features of globe construction, as these features have
presented themselves in the long period which has been under review; the
rather to give, somewhat in the nature of a summary, a general word as
to the development of the simple armilla of the ancients, "in continued
succession, receiving ripeness and perfection" in such celestial spheres
as were those of Mohammed ben Helal, of Tycho, of Hondius, or of Blaeu;
into the terrestrial spheres of Schöner, of Mercator, of Greuter, or of
Coronelli.
We have seen that during these years there were problems mechanical,
mathematical, and artistic continually arising, in the solution of which
talent of a high order was often exhibited; problems having to do with
the kind of material to be employed, with the shaping and the graduation
of the rings or circles, with the construction of the supporting bases
which entered into the completed product, with the engraving of the map
on the surface of the metal sphere, or with the designing and the
engraving of the plates for the printing of the map to be used in
covering the prepared ball, and the fitting of the same to its curved
surface.
[Illustration: Fig. 133. Astrolabe.]
The principal astronomical instrument employed by such ancient
astronomers as Eudoxus, Timocharis, and Hipparchus appears to have been
at first but a single metal ring, perhaps of brass. At any rate their
instruments must have been exceedingly simple, perhaps the simplest form
of the astrolabe (Fig. 133), yet they sufficed as aids in the solution
of such astronomical problems as suggested themselves in that early day.
The addition of a second ring to the simple instrument gave further aid
to the observer in his efforts to determine the declination and the
right ascension of any of the heavenly bodies. These rings came to be
considered, the first as a celestial meridian circle, the second as a
celestial horizon circle, and in the passing years others were added to
represent the ecliptic, the colures, the tropics, the polar circles, and
the orbits of the several planets, until we have the fully developed
armillary sphere of a Vopel or a Santucci.[181]
Relative to globes proper in antiquity, it will have been noted that in
general there is an element of uncertainty as to their exact character,
which speaks out in the numerous allusions to them. None has survived to
our day save the Atlante Farnese. This globe of marble is not so mounted
as to permit its revolution, resting as it does upon the shoulders of
the mythical Atlas, yet in its representation of the figures of the
several constellations, then recognized by astronomers, it differs
practically but little from the celestial globes, that is, solid
spheres, constructed a millennium and a half later.[182] We cannot,
however, draw the conclusion from this one example that such globes were
generally looked upon as practical instruments for use in astronomical
studies, yet there clearly were those who did so regard them.
Doubtless the globe or globes to which Ptolemy alludes were intended to
be of practical value. He tells us they should be constructed of brass,
and as before noted, he describes the use and the construction of such
instruments. Like the maps he probably made, though none survives, it is
not difficult, from his description, to reconstruct them. Such celestial
globes as Ptolemy may have prepared were doubtless adjustable, but were
not made to revolve by mechanical device such as we frequently meet with
in globes of the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries, nor were they
like the mechanical contrivance of Archimedes, clearly intended to
represent the movements of the celestial bodies, and perhaps their
movements relative to the earth. No description of Archimedes' mechanism
survives by means of which it could now be reproduced with anything like
a satisfactory degree of certainty.
The allusions of Leontius Mechanicus, referred to in Chapter III, read
like a globe maker's instructions of the eighteenth century. He knew his
Ptolemy whom he followed in the main, but he wrote as one who clearly
did not sense the approaching decline of interest in the physical
sciences.
And what can be said of the methods and the materials for globe making
during the period of the so-called middle ages? The survivals, and these
are only of the later years of the period, are of Arabic origin, which,
without exception, appear to have been intended primarily for use in
astronomical studies. They are either armillary spheres, or metal balls,
on the surface of which are the engraved representations of the starry
heavens, with the figures of the several constellations. Without a known
exception these are of small size, and if furnished at all with
mounting, only that of a simple character. There is reason for thinking
that such astronomical instruments were made in great numbers, and that
they were to be found in practically all Arabic observatories.[183]
The interesting allusions in King Alfonso's 'Libros del Saber de
Astronomia,' from which citations may be found in our Chapter IV, give
us information concerning both methods and materials which might be
employed in globe construction in his day. It is not there stated that
the author had information concerning the actual use of the more than
twenty named materials which might be chosen for their manufacture. He
does, however, lead us to infer that there may have been experiments by
his contemporaries in which trial was made of the fitness of the several
materials named, his conclusion being that wood or brass was the most
suitable.
It has previously been noted that globes appear to have been made now
and then for use in the monastic schools, but we find no detailed
description of their special character. Here and there, it is true, may
be found reference to the adjustability of their parts, and to their
rings which made them serviceable for furthering astronomical studies.
The inference is fair that the globes of these Christian schools were
armillary spheres, and were not solid or hollow balls on the surface of
which the starry firmament or the earth had been depicted.
Behaim's globe of the year 1492 seems to represent a radical departure
in globe construction. His idea appears to have been novel. He employed
a mould in the making of his globe ball, and over the surface of this
completed ball pasted irregular strips of parchment which furnished a
suitable ground for the draughting of the map with its geographical
outlines and its artistic adornments in color. Behaim's globe mounting
was of the simplest character, consisting of a metal meridian circle
within which the sphere could be revolved, a horizon circle of like
material, the whole resting upon a tripod base. Although effort was made
to establish in Nürnberg an institute wherein globe making might be
taught especially, the plan seems not to have carried, and such as were
later produced in this city were merely the output of the mathematical
instrument maker's shop or of the geographical establishments.
Throughout all the early years of the modern period, metal globes
continued to find favor, to the making of which skilled workmen in the
thriving industrial centers of Southern Germany, Southeastern France,
Northern Switzerland, and Northern Italy set themselves. Brass, copper,
silver, and gold were employed very frequently in their construction,
the last-named metals being used in the making of globes primarily for
ornamental purposes.[184] Globes with manuscript maps, as before noted,
seemed to find especial favor in Italy, in the making of which much
artistic skill was displayed. The spheres for such globes were usually
of wood either solid or hollow, of well-fashioned strips of wood, canvas
covered, the whole carefully glued and braced that the spherical shape
might not be affected with time. In the preparation of the sphere to
receive the manuscript map, workmen proceeded much as did Behaim,
pasting over its surface irregular strips of parchment or paper, adding
occasionally a groundwork of paint suitable for taking the sketch of the
draughtsman. As the years passed, and the engraved map found increasing
favor, practically all globe balls, with exceptions as noted above, were
made either of plaster shot through and through with a binding material,
usually of fiber, and fashioned over a mould, or of a preparation of
papier-mâché.
The increasing interest in globes and globe making manifesting itself in
the early years of the sixteenth century led to the devising of methods
for their more rapid construction. If the opening years of the sixteenth
century witnessed a rapid expansion of geographical knowledge, none the
less did they witness an improvement in the making of maps wherein this
expanding knowledge could fittingly be recorded. It is interesting to
note how rapidly change was made from one method of map draughting to
another in the search for a projection which might prove itself to be
altogether suitable. As a result of this striving we have for example
the projection of Donnus Nicolas Germanus employed in his maps of the
geographer Ptolemy, and often referred to as the Donis projection.[185]
Then we find the stereographic meridional[186] and the stereographic
polar,[187] the cordiform single and double[188] which seem to have been
a development from the orthographic projection well represented in the
map of Johannes Stabius (Fig. 45) who appears to have been the first to
give the method prominence. In addition to the projections mentioned
there were many modifications, to suit the notions of the draughtsmen,
which were employed in the early sixteenth century.[189] With the fuller
realization of the fact that the earth is a sphere, the desire
accurately to represent in the maps its spherical surface continued to
seek for expression, an expression that would do least violence to the
fact that the degrees of latitude and longitude vary in length,
particularly those of longitude as one passes from the equator toward
the poles or from the poles toward the equator. If the earth is a sphere
then why could a map so draughted as truly to represent the surface of a
sphere not be counted the most acceptable? This must have been the
argument of those who especially applied themselves to the designing of
maps suitable for a spherical surface, that is, for application to a
globe ball.
Who first conceived the idea of fashioning globe gore maps we do not
know. Fiorini cites evidence[190] that Francesco Rosselli (1445-1510), a
printer of large and small maps in Florence, included in his productions
gore maps to be used in globe construction, and this probably before the
year 1507, but none of his work of this character has come down to us.
The so-called Waldseemüller gores are the oldest known, of which but one
copy is extant.[191] By some they are thought to have been constructed
for his globe to which he refers in his 'Cosmographiae Introductio,' but
they are unsigned and undated. They are somewhat crude and much
manipulation would be required to fit them to the surface of a sphere.
Before the first quarter of the sixteenth century had passed other globe
gore maps made their appearance, such as those undoubtedly the work of
Schöner or of the Schönerian school, or such as the gores of
Boulengier[192] exquisitely engraved and printed, though so far as we
know never used in covering the surface of a sphere.
[Illustration: Fig. 134. Globe Gores of Henricus Glareanus, 1527.]
The artist Albrect Dürer (1471-1528), as we are informed, was one of the
earliest to set himself to the solution of the problem having to do with
the development of a spherical surface into a flat surface, yet he never
seems to have thought an exact mathematical solution possible. It was a
problem, he realized, in which there could be but an approximate
solution. In trying to illustrate what he thought to be the nearest
approach to the same he found himself led to the idea of the globe
gore.[193] Of his illustration, he said, "Die sphera oder ein Kugel wenn
man sie durch jr mittag linien zerschneydet, und in Planum legt, so
gewinnt sie ein Gestalt eines Kam, wie ich das hie hat auffgerissen."
"Should one divide the sphere or ball on the line of the equator and
lay this out as a plane, one has the figure of a comb, as is here
shown." Dürer worked out a simple rule for the construction of the globe
biangles,[194] which rule served measurably well for the purpose
intended. While it would not be inappropriate to give here a résumé of
his formula, as well as the formulae of others who set themselves to a
like task, we should in so doing be carried into a field rather more
technical than seems fitting for our purpose.[195]
Two years after Dürer had published his observations on this subject
Henricus Loriti Glareanus (1488-1551) issued a small treatise on
geography,[196] devoting his Chapter XIX bearing title 'De inducendo
papyro in globo' to globe-gore construction. He proposed the employment
of twelve gores or biangles (Fig. 134) so arranged for printing that the
shorter diameter of each should represent 30 degrees of longitude, the
sum therefore representing 360 degrees or the equatorial circumference
of the globe they were intended to cover; the longer diameter of each
gore representing the semicircumference of the globe and extending from
pole to pole, that is, a meridian. We do not know that his formula for
gore construction was closely followed by any globe maker of the period,
nor does Glareanus himself appear to have attempted a practical
application of his method, at least we have no evidence that he ever
actually attempted to construct a globe. He, however, had made an
important contribution toward the solution of the problem of how best to
multiply these instruments which were increasingly recognized as of
great value in geographical and astronomical studies. The general method
of gore map making rapidly found favor despite such practical
difficulties, for example, as arose from the peculiarity inseparable
from the quality inherent in any and all paper, that is, its irregular
expansion when moistened. This difficulty the globe makers, of course,
were continually seeking to overcome or reduce to a minimum, as the
years passed, through a careful selection of paper to be used, through
a more skilful manipulation of the paper made moist by the application
of the paste or glue employed in attaching the map to the surface of the
sphere,[197] and through a more careful working out of the mathematical
problem having to do with the proper proportions of each of the gores.
Dürer had proposed the employment of sixteen segments, Waldseemüller,
Schöner, Boulengier, and Glareanus had thought twelve a more suitable
number. As the years passed we find a preference manifesting itself now
for twelve, now for sixteen, now for eighteen, twenty-four, or
thirty-six with a more common preference for the smaller number. The
several biangles for the maps alluded to above were fashioned to extend
from pole to pole in what we may call the equatorial system; Mercator,
as has been noted, introduced the novel idea of truncating his gores
twenty degrees from each pole, preparing as a covering for the remaining
polar space a circular disc, having the required diameter of forty
degrees.[198] This plan he proposed for the practical reason that a
paper covering for a sphere so constructed could be applied with greater
ease and with greater accuracy than one consisting of complete biangular
figures, remembering the tendency of the paper to expand and the
difficulty in avoiding folds.
As there was much inclination among map makers to experiment in the
matter of map projection so there was an inclination to experiment, as
the years passed, in the matter of design for the globe gores. In the
so-called Da Vinci gores we find them drawn in two groups of four each
(Fig. 135), and instead of the globe biangle we have the globe
equilateral triangle. Their application to a spherical surface could
only have been made with difficulty, if at all; indeed we cannot be
certain that in so outlining a map of the world the draughtsman's
intention was to use it in globe construction. The plan seems never to
have been followed by any of the other map makers, or by any globe
maker. We find an interesting early instance in which the gore map
construction was clearly employed merely as a method for plane map
making, a method having certain very commendable features (Fig. 136).
The author of this map is unknown.
[Illustration: Fig. 135. Gore Map of Leonardo da Vinci, ca. 1515.]
[Illustration: Fig. 136. Anonymous Globe Gores in Plane Map
Construction, ca. 1550.]
In referring to unusual forms in gore construction attention may again
be called to the map of Alonso de Santa Cruz and to that of Antonius
Florianus, in which maps the plan was hemispherical,[199] the central
point in the construction of each hemisphere, a northern and a southern,
being the pole, the circumference of the circle in which the thirty-six
gores were drawn, representing the equator. But again we do not know
that such a gore map was ever employed in globe construction though the
method, it seems, would lend itself to that end.
It can be readily understood that numerous modifications in the matter
of globe-gore construction and their application to the surface of the
sphere, more or less detailed in character, were introduced as the years
passed, but the modifications were by no means at all times in the line
of improvement.[200] The technical skill of the present day does not
surpass that which one occasionally finds exhibited in the work of some
three hundred years ago.
In the matter of geographical record terrestrial globe maps stand with
the plane maps of the same period. While they are by no means as
numerous as the plane maps, there attaches to them an importance no less
historically significant. Not infrequently they give us records not to
be found elsewhere. In their general features, differences can hardly be
said to exist between plane maps and globe maps. In the matter of
adornment there is similarity; each following the practice of the time
when constructed. As pictures and legends hold a place of prominence,
particularly on mediaeval maps,[201] so even to the close of the period
we have had under consideration, that is, the end of the eighteenth
century, these adornments have place on globe maps, sometimes few,
sometimes many, the same, if in picture, exhibiting the inhabitants of
land and sea, if merely a legend, giving information of geographical
importance on the terrestrial globe and of astronomical importance on
the celestial, these legends being often placed in an artistic cartouch.
To the printed or engraved globe map, color was generally added by hand
with an effect often very artistic, in contrast with which the modern
machine methods of color printing are deplorably crude.
On most terrestrial globe maps meridian circles are represented at
intervals of ten, twenty, or thirty degrees, the prime meridian on which
the degrees of latitude are marked being usually made very conspicuous,
and to the close of the period under consideration usually made to pass
through the Cape Verde Islands or the Canaries, a point always to be
carefully noted in attempting to get a reading for the longitude of any
particular place. Parallels are usually drawn at intervals similar to
those of meridians, the equator on which the degrees of longitude are
marked, the tropics, and the polar circles being always conspicuous. The
ecliptic or zodiac is usually indicated encircling the globe from the
solstitial point on the tropics, intersecting the equator at the two
opposite equinoctial points, through which as through the solstitial
points the colures are made to pass.
Hues states that "Those lines which a ship, following the direction of
the Magnetic Needle, describeth on the surface of the Sea, Petrus Nonius
calleth in the Latin Rumbos, borrowing the appellation of his Countrymen
the Portugals; which word, since it is now generally received by learned
writers to express them by, we also will use the same," that is, rhumbs
or rhumb-lines.
[Illustration: Fig. 137. Portrait of Johann Hevelius (Hevel).]
These were represented on the globe, first by Mercator, by greater or
lesser circles or "winding lines," and were intended to be of aid to
seamen in navigating from port to port across the great oceans. In their
representation on the globe map cognizance was taken of the fact that
all meridians of all places pass through both poles, crossing the
equator therefore at right angles and all other circles parallel to it,
and that if the navigator's course is in any other direction than toward
one of the poles he is continually changing his horizon and his
meridian. The rhumbs as drawn were made to cut all meridians of all
places at equal angles and to respect the same quarters of the world,
that is, direction, whatever the horizon. Rhumbs can represent great
circles only when they coincide with the equator or with any
meridian.[202]
In the matter of draughting, printing, and mounting celestial globe gore
maps the method employed may in general be said to be identical with
that followed in terrestrial globe construction. It should, however, be
noted that in pasting the gores on the surface of the sphere they were
often so applied as to have their points or angles meet at the pole of
the ecliptic, in what may be called the ecliptic system, instead of
applying them to meet at the poles of the equator, the globe itself
being generally so mounted as to revolve in the equatorial system, its
poles of revolution being attached to the meridian circle.[203]
The figures of the several constellations were usually drawn with care,
occasionally with high artistic taste, as those drawn by Hevelius (Fig.
137) and copied by Gerhard and Leonhard Valk for their celestial globes
(Fig. 138). The several stars represented on the map, the majority of
them being either lettered or named, were usually from the first to the
sixth magnitude, each represented in its proportional size, while an
explanatory table for the several magnitudes was usually given on some
one of the gores. The stars and the figures of the several
constellations, let it be noted, were not made to appear on the surface
of the sphere, with rare exceptions, in their relative location as they
appear to the observer who beholds them from his position on the surface
of the earth, but are reversed. To the astronomer the earth is but a
point in space, to the layman, so far as mere appearance is concerned,
it is the center about which the starry heavens appear to revolve. With
the pole (north for us in the northern hemisphere) as the center of the
dial face the stars appear to move in a direction the reverse of that in
which the hands of a clock are made to move. The astronomer, that is,
the celestial globe maker, thinks of himself as placed beyond the
vaulted heavens in which the stars appear to be located, and as looking
down upon this vaulted dome as on the surface of his celestial globe. An
illustration may here well serve us. As one observes serves Ursa Major
on any starry night, which constellation we commonly call the Great
Dipper, the bowl of the dipper, which is located in the body and flank
of the bear, leads in its apparent motion around the pole star, being
followed by the handle of the dipper or the tail of the bear (Fig. 139).
On the surface of the celestial sphere, however, the position of bowl
and handle was usually reversed, the constellation appearing as it would
to the beholder who finds himself beyond the stars. Naturally the
planets could not be represented on the surface of a solid celestial
sphere; only in the armillary sphere or the orrery could they find
place. In these instruments we generally find them represented, each
with its circle or orbit properly given, and relatively properly placed.
[Illustration: Fig. 138. Constellation Ursa Major.]
In the geographical records as they appear on the several terrestrial
globe maps, it is to be admitted that the authors, with rare exceptions,
undertook to set down what they thought to be fact, shall we say the
real tangible geographical fact or facts. The maker of the star map, on
the contrary, clearly gave his imagination play, not in his attempt to
mark in the proper location the several stars as they came to be known
and catalogued, but in the draughting of the figures of the several
constellations. The imaginative figures of the ancients, of Eudoxus, of
Aratus, of Ptolemy and others survived throughout the period we have had
under consideration, and to the forty-eight constellations of Ptolemy
others from time to time were added until more than one hundred have
been named and figured. In general the several constellations, as the
various astronomers and makers of star maps have conceived them, may be
said to be identical, while some of the names which have been proposed
have been accepted but for a time only and then rejected. Some of the
groups to which names have been given have later been divided, thus
giving rise to a new group name and to the draughting of an appropriate
figure for this new group.[204]
Attention has been called to certain suggested changes in the names of
constellations as given by the ancients, as for example those suggested
by the Venerable Bede, by Johannes Bayer, by Julius Schiller proposing
that biblical or Christian names should be substituted for pagan names,
and for these changes there was of course suggested an appropriate
change in the figures for the several constellations. The proposal of
Erhard Weigel has likewise been noted urging a substitution of the
several coats of arms or heraldic devices of the European dynasties for
the figures which had been so long and so generally accepted. There
seems scarcely to be the need of stating that the names and figures of
the ancients remain.[205]
A comparison of the work of the several artists who have set their hand
to the draughting of figures for the numerous constellations is not
without interest. Attention may here be directed in passing to the
decidedly oriental cast of these figures as they appear on Arabic
globes.[206]
It is to be regretted that in the present very practical or scientific
day the star map, wanting the figures of the constellations or giving
them in but the faintest outline, has come to supplant the artistic and
not unscientific creations of earlier years.
The earliest references we have to globes, that is, to solid balls or
spheres, make mention of their mountings, that is, to their encasing
circles and their bases. The simplest mounting consisted of but a
meridian and a horizon circle with probably a simple supporting base.
The earliest spheres were doubtless made to revolve just as the globes
of today, around their polar axes which turn within sockets firmly
attached to the meridian circle. This meridian circle of brass or wood
was usually graduated from one to ninety degrees, that is, from the
equator to the poles, and being adjustable relative to the horizon
circle, a globe could be set with a polar elevation for any desired
latitude. Those who have had occasion to refer to the construction and
the uses of the globe more or less in detail, make mention of what they
call its threefold position. In the first of these positions either pole
may be at the vertical point, the equator and the horizon being parallel
or coinciding. This they termed a parallel sphere. In the second
position the equator and the horizon circle are set at right angles.
This they called a right sphere. In the third position, which was called
an oblique sphere, the pole could be set at any elevation from zero to
ninety degrees, counting from the horizon circle. In illustration of
this third position it may be said that for the latitude of New York
City, the north pole of the globe should be elevated 40 degrees 48
minutes above this circle.
More conspicuous by reason of its width and importance in the mounting
of the globe than the meridian is the horizon circle. It is through
notches in this circle at the north and south points that the meridian
circle passes, the notches also serving as gauges to keep the meridian
from inclining more to the one side of the horizon circle than to the
other. On the upper surface of this circle there were usually
represented several concentric circles, the same being either engraved
thereon, if it were of metal, and printed or pasted thereon if of wood,
just as the globe map proper which covered the surface of the sphere.
The number of concentric circles, and the information carried in each,
varied, nor was the order of the circles invariably the same. Those
globes giving fullest information exhibit ten or more of these circles.
That one which was innermost and next to the body of the globe was
divided into twelve parts, each part carrying the name of one of the
signs of the zodiac with its character, and each divided into thirty
equal parts or degrees, these being numbered by tens, as 0, 10, 20, 30.
Next to the circle of signs, always remembering that the order might
vary, was that containing the calendar including the names of the
months, as January, February, March, etc., the days of the week being
either distinguished by numbers or names. The old calendar was likewise
usually given and so represented as to show the beginning of each month
ten days earlier than in the new calendar. Here also were given the
names of the church festival days. In the next circle were the names of
the winds or directions, and first the Greek, Latin or Italian names of
the eight, twelve or sixteen winds, as Greco, Libeccio, Ponente,
Maestro, and next the names or initials of the thirty-two compass
directions, the same generally in English or Dutch abbreviations. It may
further be noted that a compass was often fixed in the horizon circle's
upper face.
[Illustration: Fig. 138. Constellation of Orion by Hevelius.]
A complete globe was further furnished with a quadrant of altitude,
ninety degrees in length, this being attached at one end to the meridian
circle, yet movable to any degree of the meridian, though commonly set
at the zenith. This quadrant served for measuring altitudes or for
finding amplitudes or azimuths.
The small hour circle,[207] fitted to the meridian, its center being the
pole and for us the north, was marked with the twenty-four hours of the
day, each hour being again divided into halves and quarters. An index
attached to the axis of the globe pointed out successively the hours as
the globe was revolved. The use of this hour circle was to indicate the
time of the successive mutations, including the rising and the setting
of the celestial bodies and the time of their passing successively the
meridians.
As a compass was often set into the horizon circle so also we frequently
find a large or small compass set into that plate which in certain
globes was employed as a support, tying together, as it were, the lower
extremities of the base columns.[208]
It will have been noted that the globes referred to in the preceding
pages varied greatly as to size, from the small ball representing the
earth, and but a few centimeters in diameter, to be found in the center
of those armillary spheres representing the Ptolemaic geocentric system,
to the great globe of Coronelli fifteen feet in diameter constructed for
Louis XIV of France. With rare exceptions metal globes were made small
in size. Those globe balls or spheres, in the construction of which a
mould was employed, usually had a diameter under 50 cm., although we
find some of them twice this size. Such spheres had the advantage of
lightness though often were frail in structure and liable to lose their
perfect sphericity.
[Illustration: Fig. 140. Terrestrial Globe Gores by Johannes
Oterschaden, ca. 1675.]
In the matter of special ornamentation or decoration, to be observed in
globe mountings, individual taste was given unlimited freedom to express
itself, and in certain instances it will have been noted that these
mountings were exceedingly elaborate.
Primarily we may say that globes were constructed for the useful purpose
of promoting geographical and astronomical studies, generally recording
the latest and best geographical or astronomical information and in form
superior to that which could be set down on the plane map, but they also
had a place of importance, secondary we may call it, on account of their
decorative value. They came to be considered almost essential as
adornments for the libraries of princes, of prosperous patricians, and
of plodding students, and their mountings were often especially
fashioned for the places they were to occupy. They seemed to lend an air
of scholarly respectability; to suggest that their possessors wished to
pay, certainly a modicum of homage to the sciences which globes were
calculated to promote.
A brief concluding word may well be added touching those globes which
may of course be classed as celestial, but which are known as moon
globes and planetariums or orreries. There could be no practical value
in an attempt to set forth a map of the surface of the stars, nor of the
planets while our knowledge is so limited, although Schiaparelli has
undertaken, with measurable success, to map the surface of Mars,[209]
and it would be next in order to construct a Mars globe. Of the surface
of our moon much is known and maps of it have been constructed, as
indeed have been moon globes. We are informed that about the middle of
the seventeenth century the Danish astronomer, Hevelius, who designed so
successfully star maps, entertained the idea of constructing a moon
globe,[210] but we do not know that he set his hand to the work. A
century later it appears that the French astronomer La Hire actually
completed a moon globe,[211] but it has been possible to obtain only the
briefest reference to it.
Tobias Mayer of Nürnberg, a contemporary of La Hire, set himself to the
draughting of gore maps[212] intended for use in the manufacture of
moon globes. Mayer found employment in the Homann establishment of
Nürnberg, being regarded as an exceedingly skilful draughtsman, able to
sketch on his draughting sheet that which he saw through his telescope.
His plan contemplated the making of twelve gores or segments, six for
the northern half of the moon and six for the southern. His plan, of
course, would enable him to represent but one side of the moon,--that
turned toward the earth,--although it appeared that he contemplated the
addition of two segments on which, in at least a fragmentary manner, he
was to represent what we may call the border of the opposite side of the
moon. Mayer seems not to have completed his work, since we find nowhere
an example of his finished product.
It was not until near the close of the eighteenth that we again meet
with an attempt to construct a moon globe and it seems that the task was
accomplished by the Englishman, John Russel. It was in the year 1796
that he proposed to raise by subscription the necessary funds for making
his undertaking a success. His globe has a diameter of 12 inches,[213]
and was furnished with the necessary adjustable shield that the moon's
waxing and waning could be represented. That this moon globe was
actually constructed, although no copy has been located, we are informed
by Wolf. Such attempts as were made in the nineteenth century with a
good measure of success do not here call for consideration.
It has been previously noted that the so-called globe of Archimedes may
have been a sort of planetarium, and that during the middle ages such
instruments were constructed and employed in astronomical instruction.
None, however, have come down to us out of those early years.
Astronomers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, as we know,
made frequent use of planetariums, such for example as were constructed
by the Dutch astronomer, Christiaan Haygens (1629-1695) for the
illustration of planetary motion according to the Copernican system.
Each of the planets was represented in his machine by a small ball,
attached to an arm, which could be made to move through an orbit around
the sun. In the more complicated machines the several planetary moons,
such as the moons of Jupiter, were represented and were made to perform
their proper motions.
[Illustration: Fig. 141. Celestial Globe Gores by Johannes Oterschaden,
ca. 1675.]
[Illustration: Fig. 142. Engraved Sections for Globe Horizon Circle by
Johannes Oterschaden, ca. 1675.]
In the eighteenth century the instrument maker, George Graham
(1675-1751), constructed a complicated planetarium, in honor of Charles
Boyle, Earl of Orrery (1676-1731), which he called an orrery. His
machines, varying much in the character of construction, were especially
popular in the eighteenth century. The nineteenth century saw them
frequently in use for purposes of instruction and the regret may well be
expressed that for serious purposes they seem to have lost favor.
[Illustration: Fig. 143. The Orrery.]
NOTES
[181] See Fig. 56, I, 116.
[182] Compare for example Figs. 8 and 89.
[183] Consult the 'Fihrist' referred to in Chap. III, n. 4.
[184] Note such examples as the globe of Robertus de Bailly, I, 108,
the Lenox globe, I, 72, the Nancy globe, I, 102, and the Morgan
globe in the Metropolitan Museum, I, 200.
[185] See Fig. 3.
[186] See Fig. 43.
[187] See Apianus' Cosmographicus liber.
[188] As for example the World map of Mercator of the year 1538, an
original copy of which may be found in the New York Public Library,
also a copy in the Library of The American Geographical Society.
[189] D'Avezac, M. A. P. Coup d'oeil historique sur la projection
des cartes de géographie. (In: Bulletin de la Société de Géographie
de Paris. Paris, 1863, pp. 274 ff.); Breusing, A. Das Verebnen der
Kugeloberfläche. Leipzig, 1892; Zondervan, H. Allgemeine
Kartenkunde. Leipzig, 1891; Fiorini, M. Le projezioni delle carte
geografiche. Bologna, 1881. The literature relative to map
projection is very extensive.
[190] Fiorini. Sfere terrestri e celesti. pp. 93-102.
[191] See Fig. 32.
[192] See Fig. 40.
[193] Dürer, A. Underweysung der Mesung mit dem Zirkel und
Richtscheyd, in Linien ebnen und ganzen Corporen. Nürnberg, 1525.
[194] Buchlein, pp. 5 ff.
[195] Consult Günther. Erd- und Himmelsgloben. pp. 72-73; Kästner.
Geschichte der Mathematik. Vol. I, p. 684. See Günther, op. cit.,
chaps, vii, x, xii, xiii, xiv, with numerous references.
[196] Henrici Glareani poetae laureati de geographia liber unus.
Basileae, 1527.
[197] There is an interesting bit of information given by Coronelli
in his 'Epitome Cosmografica' relative to the making of an adhesive
material for use in the mounting of globe maps.
[198] See Fig. 61.
[199] See Figs. 59 and 66.
[200] Such, for example, as might consist of zonal strips, one for
the torrid, one for each of the temperate, and one for each of the
polar zones. Such strips perhaps could not properly be termed gores.
[201] Pictures are a particularly striking feature of the cloister
maps of the middle ages. The idea of such adornments may have come
down from Greek or Roman days. Plutarch tells us in his 'Theseus'
that "Geographers crowd into the edge of their maps parts of the
world about which they have no knowledge, adding notes in the
margins to the effect that only deserts full of wild beasts and
impassable marshes lie beyond." Jonathan Swift, humorously referring
to maps of the early period, writes:
"So geographers in Afric maps With savage pictures fill their gaps
And o'er unhabitable downs Place elephants for want of towns."
The early map makers as illustrators should be an interesting theme
for a special monograph.
[202] Nonius, P. De arte atque ratione navigandi. Conimbriae, 1573,
lib. II, c. xxi, xxiv; Hues. Tractatus de Globis (Hakluyt Soc.
Pub.). pp. 127-147.
[203] For illustration of the method, see Fig. 89.
[204] Burritt, L. H. The geography of the heavens. New York, 1833;
Allen, R. H. Star names and their meanings; Wolf. Geschichte der
Astronomie. pp. 188-191, 420-427; Olcott, W. T. Starlore of all
ages. New York, 1911.
[205] The literature relating to this particular branch of astronomy
is extensive. Wolf, loc. cit., with references.
[206] See especially Fig. 13.
[207] See Fig. 121a.
[208] See Fig. 88.
[209] Wolf, R. Handbuch der Astronomie, ihre Geschichte und
Litteratur. Zürich, 1893. pp. 451 ff.; Frobesius. Bibliographie
Selenographorum. Helmstädt, 1718.
[210] Hevelius, J. Selenographiae sive Lunae descriptio. Danzig,
1647. pp. 492 ff.; Béziat, L. C. La vie et les travaux de Jean
Hévélius.
[211] Lalande. Bibliographie astronomique, "La Hire."
[212] Mayer, T. Abhandlung über die Umwälzung des Mondes um seine
Achse und die scheinbare Bewegung der Mondflecke. Nürnberg, 1750;
same, Bericht von den Mondskugeln, welche bei der kosmographischen
Gesellschaft in Nürnberg aus neuen Beobachtungen verfertigt
werden. Nürnberg, 1750.
[213] Russel, J. A description of the selenographia, an apparatus
for exhibiting the phaenomena of the moon; together with an account
of some of the purposes to which it may be applied. London, 1797. In
his effort to obtain funds for the construction of his globe he
issued an announcement which he called a "Proposal for publishing by
subscription a Globe of the Moon."
[Illustration: Printer's Mark of the Blaeu Press]
Bibliographical List
The following bibliographical list includes the works referred
to in the body of the foregoing pages, with certain additions of
those touching incidentally globe making and globe makers. It is a
suggestive list, not one that can be called exhaustive. Practically all
those works in which the subject of geography and of astronomy has
been treated historically may be consulted with interest and profit.
AA, A. J. V. D. Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden. Haarlem,
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ABRAHAM BEN CHIJAH. Liber de Sphaera. 1105. MS.
ABULFEDA, I. E. I. Takwim al Boldan (Geography). Tr. by M. Reinaud
into French. Paris, 1848-1883.
ADAMS, G. A treatise describing and explaining the construction and
the use of new celestial and terrestrial globes, designed to
illustrate in the most easy manner the phenomena of the earth and
heavens. London, 1766.
Astronomical and geographical essays. London, 1795.
A treatise on the construction of globes. London, 1769.
Geometrical and geographical essays, containing a description of
mathematical instruments. London, 1791.
AKERMAN, A. Globes céleste et terrestre de vingt-deux pouces. Upsala,
1766.
ALBERTUS MAGNUS (Albert of Bollstädt). Opera omnia. Ed. by P. Jammy.
Leyden, 1651. 21 vols.
ALFONSO X. Libros del Saber de Astronomia del Rey D. Alfonso X de
Castilla. Ed. by Don Manuel Rico y Sinobas. Madrid, 1863-1867. 5 vols.
ALLEN, R. H. Star names and their meanings. New York, 1899.
ALLGEMEINE DEUTSCHE BIOGRAPHIE. Leipzig.
ALLGEMEINE GEOGRAPHISCHE EPHEMERIDEN. See ZACH, F. V.
AMARI, M. Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia. Firenze, 1868.
AMERICAN SCENIC AND HISTORIC PRESERVATION SOCIETY. Fifteenth Annual
Report. New York, 1910.
ANDREA, M. J. L. Zweifache Sternkugel oder Himmelskugel. n. p., 1724.
ANNALES DE GÉOGRAPHIE. Paris, 1891--.
ANNUARIO ASTRO-METEOROLOGICO con efemeridi nautichi. Venezia, 1882--.
ANONYMOUS. Treatise of the use of globes celestial and terrestrial.
London, 1647.
ANONYMOUS. W. J. Blaeus Antheil an der Bestimmung der Erdlangen.
Stuttgart, 1875.
Portraits des hommes et des femmes illustrés par renaissance, n. p.,
1792.
ARATUS. The Phaenomena and Diosemia of Aratus. Tr. by J. Lamb. London,
1847.
ARCHAEOLOGIA. London, 1865.
ARCHER, G. M. Henry Hudson, the Navigator. (In: Hakluyt Society
Publications. London, 1860.)
ARCO, C. DE. Delle arti e degli artifici di Mantova. Mantova, 1857.
ARISTOTLE. De Coelo. Tr. by T. Taylor, with title On the Heavens from
the Greek with copious elucidations. London, 1807.
ARX, J. V. Geschichte des Kantons St. Gallen. St. Gallen, 1810.
ASCHBACH, J. Die Wiener Universität und ihre Humanisten im Zeitalters
Kaiser Maximilians I. Wien, 1877.
ASSEMANI, G. Globus coelestis cufico-arabicus Veliterni Musei
Borgiani. Patavii, 1790.
AUSLAND, DAS. Stuttgart, 1828--.
AVERDUNK, H. and MULLER-REINHARD, J. Gerhard Mercator und die
Geographen unter seinen Nachkommen. (In: Petermanns Mitteilungen.
Gotha, 1914. Ergänzungsheft, Nr. 182.)
AVEZAC, M. A. P. DE. Notice des découvertes faites au moyen âge dans
l'Ocean Atlantique. Paris, 1845.
Coup d'oeil historique sur la projection des cartes. (In: Bulletin
de la Société de Géographie. Paris, 1863.)
Martin Hylacomylus Waltzemüller, ses ouvrages et ses collaborateurs.
Paris, 1867.
Sur un globe terrestre trouvé à Laon, antérieur à la découverte de
l'Amérique. (In: Bulletin de la Société de Géographie. Paris, 1860.)
AZURARA, G. E. DE. The Chronicle of the discovery and conquest of
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BACON, R. Opus Maius. Oxford, 1897.
BADIA, J. DEL. Egnazio Danti cosmografo e matematico. Firenze, 1882.
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DEL BADIA, J. Egnazio Danti cosmografo e matematico. Firenze, 1882.
BAGLIONE, G. Le vite de pittori, scultori, architetti et intagliatori
dal pontificato di Gregorio XIII del 1572 fino a tempo di Papa Urbano
VIII nel 1642. Napoli, 1733.
BAILLY, F. The catalogues of Ptolemy, Ulug Beigh, Tycho Brahe, Halley,
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mathematischen Wissenschaften auf den deutschen Universitäten im XVI
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See Gomez, E.
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1663-1671. 12 vols.
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BREUSING, A. Gerhard Kremer, genannt Mercator, der deutsche Geograph.
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Frankfurt, 1883.
Das Verebnen der Kugelfläche. Bremen, 1893.
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des différens systèmes, avec l'usage des globes. Paris, 1774.
BRITISH MUSEUM CATALOGUE OF PRINTED BOOKS. London, 1841--.
BRITTEN, F. J. Old clocks and watches and their makers. London, 1899.
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BULLETIN OF THE AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. New York, 1852--.
BULLETIN DE LA SOCIÉTÉ DE GÉOGRAPHIE D'ANVERS. Anvers, 1876--.
BULLETIN DE LA SOCIÉTÉ DE GÉOGRAPHIE DE PARIS. Paris, 1822--.
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Les hypothèses et les tables des satellites de Jupiter reformées sur
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Méthode de déterminer les longitudes des lieux de la terre par des
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CASTELLANI. Catalogo rageonato delle più rare o più importanti opera
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CATALOGUE GÉNÉRAL DES MANUSCRITS DES BIBLIOTHÈQUES PUBLIQUES DE
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