FOOTNOTES:

[1] "Man-of-war-bird" is also sometimes applied to it, and is perhaps

the older name; but it is less distinctive, some of the larger

Albatrosses being so called, and, in books at least, has generally

passed out of use.

[2] Hence another of the names--"hurricane-bird"--by which this

species is occasionally known.

[3] Captain Taylor, however, found their nests as well on low bushes

of the same tree in the Bay of Fonseca (_Ibis_, 1859, pp. 150-152).

FRIGG, the wife of the god Odin (Woden) in northern mythology. She was

known also to other Teutonic peoples both on the continent (O. H. Ger.

_Friia_, Langobardic _Frea_) and in England, where her name still

survives in Friday (O. E. _Frigedaeg_). She is often wrongly identified

with Freyia. (See TEUTONIC PEOPLES, _ad fin_.)

FRIGIDARIUM, the Latin term (from _frigidus_, cold) applied to the open

area of the Roman thermae, in which there was generally a cold swimming

bath, and sometimes to the bath (see BATHS). From the description given

by Aelius Spartianus (A.D. 297) it would seem that portions of the

frigidarium were covered over by a ceiling formed of interlaced bars of

gilt bronze, and this statement has been to a certain extent

substantiated by the discovery of many tons of T-shaped iron found in

the excavations under the paving of the frigidarium of the thermae of

Caracalla. Dr J. H. Middleton in _The Remains of Ancient Rome_ (1892)

points out that in the part of the enclosure walls are deep sinkings to

receive the ends of the great girders. He suggests that the panels of

the lattice-work ceiling were filled in with concrete made of light

pumice stone.

FRIIS, JOHAN (1494-1570), Danish statesman, was born in 1494, and was

educated at Odense and at Copenhagen, completing his studies abroad. Few

among the ancient Danish nobility occupy so prominent a place in Danish

history as Johan Friis, who exercised a decisive influence in the

government of the realm during the reign of three kings. He was one of

the first of the magnates to adhere to the Reformation and its promoter

King Frederick I. (1523-1533), his apostasy being so richly rewarded out

of the spoils of the plundered Church that his heirs had to restore

property of the value of 1,000,000 kroner. Friis succeeded Claus

Gjoodsen as imperial chancellor in 1532, and held that dignity till his

death. During the ensuing interregnum he powerfully contributed, at the

head of the nobles of Funen and Jutland, to the election of Christian

III. (1533-1559), but in the course of the "Count's War" he was taken

prisoner by Count Christopher, the Catholic candidate for the throne,

and forced to do him homage. Subsequently by judicious bribery he

contrived to escape to Germany, and from thence rejoined Christian III.

He was one of the plenipotentiaries who concluded peace with Lubeck at

the congress of Hamburg, and subsequently took an active part in the

great work of national reconstruction necessitated by the Reformation,

acting as mediator between the Danish and the German parties who were

contesting for supremacy during the earlier years of Christian III.

This he was able to do, as a moderate Lutheran, whose calmness and

common sense contrasted advantageously with the unbridled violence of

his contemporaries. As the first chancellor of the reconstructed

university of Copenhagen, Friis took the keenest interest in spiritual

and scientific matters, and was the first donor of a legacy to the

institution. He also enjoyed the society of learned men, especially of

"those who could talk with him concerning ancient monuments and their

history." He encouraged Hans Svaning to complete Saxo's history of

Denmark, and Anders Vedel to translate Saxo into Danish. His generosity

to poor students was well known; but he could afford to be liberal, as

his share of spoliated Church property had made him one of the

wealthiest men in Denmark. Under King Frederick II. (1559-1588), who

understood but little of state affairs, Friis was well-nigh omnipotent.

He was largely responsible for the Scandinavian Seven Years' War

(1562-70), which did so much to exacerbate the relations between Denmark

and Sweden. Friis died on the 5th of December 1570, a few days before

the peace of Stettin, which put an end to the exhausting and unnecessary

struggle.

FRIMLEY, an urban district in the Chertsey parliamentary division of

Surrey, England, 33 m. W.S.W. from London by the London & South-Western

railway, and 1 m. N. of Farnborough in Hampshire. Pop. (1901) 8409. Its

healthy climate, its position in the sandy heath-district of the west of

Surrey, and its proximity to Aldershot Camp have contributed to its

growth as a residential township. To the east the moorland rises in the

picturesque elevation of Chobham Ridges; and 3 m. N.E. is Bagshot,

another village growing into a residential town, on the heath of the

same name extending into Berkshire. Bisley Camp, to which in 1890 the

meetings of the National Rifle Association were removed from Wimbledon,

is 4 m. E. Coniferous trees and rhododendrons are characteristic

products of the soil, and large nurseries are devoted to their

cultivation.

FRIMONT, JOHANN MARIA PHILIPP, COUNT OF PALOTA, PRINCE OF ANTRODOCCO

(1759-1831), Austrian general, entered the Austrian cavalry as a trooper

in 1776, won his commission in the War of the Bavarian Succession, and

took part in the Turkish wars and in the early campaigns against the

French Revolutionary armies, in which he frequently earned distinction.

At Frankenthal in 1796 he won the cross of Maria Theresa. In the

campaign of 1800 he distinguished himself greatly as a cavalry leader at

Marengo (14th of June), and in the next year became major-general. In

the war of 1805 he was again employed in Italy and won further renown by

his gallantry at the battle of Caldiero. In 1809 he again saw active

service in Italy in the rank of lieutenant field marshal, and in 1812

led the cavalry of Schwarzenberg's corps in the Russian campaign. He

served in the campaigns of 1813-14 in high command, and rendered

conspicuous service at Brienne-La Rothiere and at Arcis-sur-Aube. In

1815 he was commander-in-chief of the Austrians in Italy, and his army

penetrated France as far as Lyons, which was entered on the 11th of

July. With the army of occupation he remained in France for some years,

and in 1819 he commanded at Venice. In 1821 he led the Austrian army

which was employed against the Neapolitan rebels, and by the 24th of

March he had victoriously entered Naples. His reward from King Ferdinand

of Naples was the title of prince of Antrodocco and a handsome sum of

money, and from his own master the rank of general of cavalry. After

this he commanded in North Italy, and was called upon to deal with many

outbreaks of the Italian patriots. He became president of the Aulic

council in 1831, but died a few months later.

FRISCHES HAFF, a lagoon on the Baltic coast of Germany, within the

provinces East and West Prussia, between Danzig and Konigsberg. It is 52

m. in length, from 4 to 12 m. broad, 332 sq. m. in area, and is

separated from the Baltic by a narrow spit or bank of land. This barrier

was torn open by a storm in 1510, and the channel thus formed, now

dredged out to a depth of 22 ft., affords a navigable passage for

vessels. Into the Haff flow the Nogat, the Elbing, the Passarge, the

Pregel and the Frisching, from the last of which the name Frisches Haff

probably arose.

FRISCHLIN, PHILIPP NIKODEMUS (1547-1590), German philologist and poet,

was born on the 22nd of September 1547 at Balingen in Wurttemberg, where

his father was parish minister. He was educated at the university of

Tubingen, where in 1568 he was promoted to the chair of poetry and

history. In 1575 for his comedy of _Rebecca_, which he read at

Regensburg before the emperor Maximilian II., he was rewarded with the

laureateship, and in 1577 he was made a count palatine (_comes

palatinus_) or _Pfalzgraf_. In 1582 his unguarded language and reckless

life made it necessary that he should leave Tubingen, and he accepted a

mastership at Laibach in Carniola, which he held for about two years.

Shortly after his return to the university in 1584, he was threatened

with a criminal prosecution on a charge of immoral conduct, and the

threat led to his withdrawal to Frankfort-on-Main in 1587. For eighteen

months he taught in the Brunswick gymnasium, and he appears also to have

resided occasionally at Strassburg, Marburg and Mainz. From the

last-named city he wrote certain libellous letters, which led to his

being arrested in March 1590. He was imprisoned in the fortress of

Hohenurach, near Reutlingen, where, on the night of the 29th of November

1590, he was killed by a fall in attempting to let himself down from the

window of his cell.

Frischlin's prolific and versatile genius produced a great variety of

works, which entitle him to some rank both among poets and among

scholars. In his Latin verse he often successfully imitated the

classical models; his comedies are not without freshness and vivacity;

and some of his versions and commentaries, particularly those on the

_Georgics_ and _Bucolics_ of Virgil, though now well-nigh forgotten,

were important contributions to the scholarship of his time. There is

no collected edition of his works, but his _Opera poetica_ were

published twelve times between 1535 and 1636. Among those most widely

known may be mentioned the _Hebraeis_ (1590), a Latin epic based on

the Scripture history of the Jews; the _Elegiaca_ (1601), his

collected lyric poetry, in twenty-two books; the _Opera scenica_

(1604) consisting of six comedies and two tragedies (among the former,

_Julius Caesar redivivus_, completed 1584); the _Grammatica Latina_

(1585); the versions of Callimachus and Aristophanes; and the

commentaries on Persius and Virgil. See the monograph of D. F. Strauss

(_Leben und Schriften des Dichters und Philologen Frischlin_, 1856).

FRISI, PAOLO (1728-1784), Italian mathematician and astronomer, was born

at Milan on the 13th of April 1728. He was educated at the Barnabite

monastery and afterwards at Padua. When twenty-one years of age he

composed a treatise on the figure of the earth, and the reputation which

he soon acquired led to his appointment by the king of Sardinia to the

professorship of philosophy in the college of Casale. His friendship

with Radicati, a man of liberal opinions, occasioned Frisi's removal by

his clerical superiors to Novara, where he was compelled to do duty as a

preacher. In 1753 he was elected a corresponding member of the Paris

Academy of Sciences, and shortly afterwards he became professor of

philosophy in the Barnabite College of St Alexander at Milan. An

acrimonious attack by a young Jesuit, about this time, upon his

dissertation on the figure of the earth laid the foundation of his

animosity against the Jesuits, with whose enemies, including J.

d'Alembert, J. A. N. Condorcet and other Encyclopedists, he later

closely associated himself. In 1756 he was appointed by Leopold,

grand-duke of Tuscany, to the professorship of mathematics in the

university of Pisa, a post which he held for eight years. In 1757 he

became an associate of the Imperial Academy of St Petersburg, and a

foreign member of the Royal Society of London, and in 1758 a member of

the Academy of Berlin, in 1766 of that of Stockholm, and in 1770 of the

Academies of Copenhagen and of Bern. From several European crowned heads

he received, at various times, marks of special distinction, and the

empress Maria Theresa granted him a yearly pension of 100 sequins (L50).

In 1764 he was created professor of mathematics in the palatine schools

at Milan, and obtained from Pope Pius VI. release from ecclesiastical

jurisdiction, and authority to become a secular priest. In 1766 he

visited France and England, and in 1768 Vienna. In 1777 he became

director of a school of architecture at Milan. His knowledge of

hydraulics caused him to be frequently consulted with respect to the

management of canals and other watercourses in various parts of Europe.

It was through his means that lightning-conductors were first introduced

into Italy for the protection of buildings. He died on the 22nd of

November 1784.

His publications include:--_Disquisitio mathematica in causam physicam

figurae et magnitudinis terrae_ (Milan, 1751); _Saggio della morale

filosofia_ (Lugano, 1753); _Nova electricitatis theoria_ (Milan,

1755); _Dissertatio de motu diurno terrae_ (Pisa, 1758);

_Dissertationes variae_ (2 vols. 4to, Lucca, 1759, 1761); _Del modo di

regolare i fiumi e i torrenti_ (Lucca, 1762); _Cosmographia physica et

mathematica_ (Milan, 1774, 1775, 2 vols. 4to, his chief work); _Dell'

architettura, statica e idraulica_ (Milan, 1777); and other treatises.

See Verri, _Memorie ... del signor dom Paolo Frisi_ (Milan, 1787),

4to; Fabbroni, "Elogi d' illustri Italiani," _Atti di Milano_, vol.

ii.; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biograph. litterar. Handworterbuch_, vol. i.

FRISIAN ISLANDS, a chain of islands, lying from 3 to 20 m. from the

mainland, and stretching from the Zuider Zee E. and N. as far as

Jutland, along the coasts of Holland and Germany. They are divided into

three groups:--(1) The West Frisian, (2) the East Frisian, and (3) the

North Frisian.

The chain of the Frisian Islands marks the outer fringe of the former

continental coast-line, and is separated from the mainland by shallows,

known as Wadden or Watten, answering to the _maria vadosa_ of the

Romans. Notwithstanding the protection afforded by sand-dunes and

earthen embankments backed by stones and timber, the Frisian Islands are

slowly but surely crumbling away under the persistent attacks of storm

and flood, and the old Frisian proverb "_de nich will diken mut wiken_"

("who will not build dikes must go away") still holds good. Many of the

Frisian legends and folk-songs deal with the submerged villages and

hamlets, which lie buried beneath the treacherous waters of the Wadden.

Heinrich Heine made use of these legends in his _Nordseebilder_,

composed during a visit to Norderney in 1825. The Prussian and Dutch

governments annually expend large sums for the protection of the

islands, and in some cases the erosion on the seaward side is

counterbalanced by the accretion of land on the inner side, fine sandy

beaches being formed well suited for sea-bathing, which attract many

visitors in summer. The inhabitants of these islands support themselves

by seafaring, pilotage, grazing of cattle and sheep, fishing and a

little agriculture, chiefly potato-growing.

The islands, though well lighted, are dangerous to navigation, and a

glance at a wreck chart will show the entire chain to be densely dotted.

One of the most remarkable disasters was the loss of H.M.S. "La Lutine,"

32 guns, which was wrecked off Vlieland in October 1799, only one hand

being saved, who died before reaching England. "La Lutine," which had

been captured from the French by Admiral Duncan, was carrying a large

quantity of bullion and specie, which was underwritten at Lloyd's. The

Dutch government claimed the wreck and granted one-third of the salvage

to bullion-fishers. Occasional recoveries were made of small quantities

which led to repeated disputes and discussions, until eventually the

king of the Netherlands ceded to Great Britain, for Lloyd's, half the

remainder of the wreck. A Dutch salvage company, which began operations

in August 1857, recovered L99,893 in the course of two years, but it was

estimated that some L1,175,000 are still unaccounted for. The ship's

rudder, which was recovered in 1859, has been fashioned into a chair and

a table, now in the possession of Lloyd's.

West Frisian.

The West Frisian Islands belong to the kingdom of the Netherlands, and

embrace Texel or Tessel (71 sq. m.), Vlieland (19 sq. m.), Terschelling

(41 sq. m.), Ameland (23 sq. m.), Schiermonnikoog (19 sq. m.), as well

as the much smaller islands of Boschplaat and Rottum, which are

practically uninhabited. The northern end of Texel is called Eierland,

or "island of eggs," in reference to the large number of sea-birds' eggs

which are found there. It was joined to Texel by a sand-dike in

1629-1630, and is now undistinguishable from the main island. Texel was

already separated from the mainland in the 8th century, but remained a

Frisian province and countship, which once extended as far as Alkmaar in

North Holland, until it came into the possession of the counts of

Holland. The island was occupied by British troops from August to

December 1799. The village of Oude Schild has a harbour. The island of

Terschelling once formed a separate lordship, but was sold to the states

of Holland. The principal village of West-Terschelling has a harbour. As

early as the beginning of the 9th century Ameland was a lordship of the

influential family of Cammingha who held immediately of the emperor, and

in recognition of their independence the Amelanders were in 1369

declared to be neutral in the fighting between Holland and Friesland,

while Cromwell made the same declaration in 1654 with respect to the war

between England and the United Netherlands. The castle of the Camminghas

in the village of Ballum remained standing till 1810, and finally

disappeared in 1829 after four centuries. This island is joined to the

mainland of Friesland by a stone dike constructed in 1873 for the

purpose of promoting the deposit of mud. The island of Schiermonnikoog

has a village and a lighthouse. Rottum was once the property of the

ancient abbey at Rottum, 8 m. N. of Groningen, of which there are slight

remains.

East Frisian.

With the exception of Wangeroog, which belongs to the grand duchy of

Oldenburg, the East Frisian Islands belong to Prussia. They comprise

Borkum (12-1/2 sq. m.), with two lighthouses and connected by steamer

with Emden and Leer; Memmert; Juist (2-1/4 sq. m.), with two lifeboat

stations, and connected by steamer with Norddeich and Greetsiel;

Norderney (5-1/2 sq. m.); Baltrum, with a lifeboat station; Langeoog (8

sq. m.), connected by steamer with the adjacent islands, and with

Bensersiel on the mainland; Spiekeroog (4 sq. m.), with a tramway for

conveyance to the bathing beach, and connected by steamer with

Carolinenziel; and Wangeroog (2 sq. m.), with a lighthouse and lifeboat

station. All these islands are visited for sea-bathing. In the beginning

of the 18th century Wangeroog comprised eight times its present area.

Borkum and Juist are two surviving fragments of the original island of

Borkum (computed at 380 sq. m.), known to Drusus as _Fabaria_, and to

Pliny as _Burchana_, which was rent asunder by the sea in 1170. Neuwerk

and Scharhorn, situated off the mouth of the Elbe, are islands belonging

to the state of Hamburg. Neuwerk, containing some marshland protected by

dikes, has two lighthouses and a lifeboat station. At low water it can

be reached from Duhnen by carriage.

North Frisian.

About the year 1250 the area of the North Frisian Islands was estimated

at 1065 sq. m.; by 1850 this had diminished to only 105 sq. m. This

group embraces the islands of Nordstrand (17-1/4 sq. m.), which up to

1634 formed one larger island with the adjoining Pohnshallig and

Nordstrandisch-Moor; Pellworm (16-1/4 sq. m.), protected by a circle of

dikes and connected by steamer with Husum on the mainland; Amrum (10-1/2

sq. m.); Fohr (32 sq. m.); Sylt (38 sq. m.); Rom (16 sq. m.), with

several villages, the principal of which is Kirkeby; Fano (21 sq. m.);

and Heligoland (1/4 sq. m.). With the exception of Fano, which is

Danish, all these islands belong to Prussia. In the North Frisian group

there are also several smaller islands called Halligen. These rise

generally only a few feet above the level of the sea, and are crowned by

a single house standing on an artificial mound and protected by a

surrounding dike or embankment.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Staring, _De Bodem van Nederland_ (1856); Blink,

_Nederland en zijne Bewoners_ (1892); P. H. Witkamp, _Aardrijkskundig

Woordenboek van Nederland_ (1895); P. W. J. Teding van Berkhout, _De

Landaanwinning op de Friesche Wadden_ (1869); J. de Vries and T.

Focken, _Ostfriesland_ (1881); Dr D. F. Buitenrust Hettema, _Fryske

Bybleteek_ (Utrecht, 1895); Dr Eugen Traeger, _Die Halligen der

Nordsee_ (Stuttgart, 1892); also _Globus_, vol. lxxviii. (1900), No.

15; P. Axelsen, in _Deut. Rundschau fur Geog. u. Statistik_ (1898);

Christian Jensen, _Vom Dunenstrand der Nordsee und vom Wattenmeer_

(Schleswig, 1901), which contains a bibliography; _Osterloh, Wangeroog

und sein Seebad_ (Emden, 1884); Zwickert, _Fuhrer durch das Nordseebad

Wangeroog_ (Oldenburg, 1894); Nellner, _Die Nordseeinsel Spickeroog_

(Emden, 1884); Tongers, _Die Nordseeinsel Langeoog_ (2nd ed., Norden,

1892); Meier, _Die Nordseeinsel Borkum_ (10th ed., Emden, 1894);

Herquet, _Die Insel Borkum_, &c. (Emden, 1886); Scherz, _Die

Nordseeinsel Juist_ (2nd ed., Norden, 1893); von Bertouch, _Vor 40

Jahren: Natur und Kultur auf der Insel Nordstrand_ (Weimar, 1891); W.

G. Black, _Heligoland and the Islands of the North Sea_ (Glasgow,

1888).

FRISIANS (Lat. _Frisii_; in Med. Lat. _Frisones_, _Frisiones_,

_Fresones_; in their own tongue _Fresa_, _Fresen_), a people of Teutonic

(Low-German) stock, who in the first century of our era were found by

the Romans in occupation of the coast lands stretching from the mouth of

the Scheldt to that of the Ems. They were nearly related both by speech

and blood to the Saxons and Angles, and other Low German tribes, who

lived to the east of the Ems and in Holstein and Schleswig. The first

historical notices of the Frisians are found in the _Annals_ of Tacitus.

They were rendered (or a portion of them) tributary by Drusus, and

became _socii_ of the Roman people. In A.D. 28 the exactions of a Roman

official drove them to revolt, and their subjection was henceforth

nominal. They submitted again to Cn. Domitius Corbulo in the year 47,

but shortly afterwards the emperor Claudius ordered the withdrawal of

all Roman troops to the left bank of the Rhine. In 58 they attempted

unsuccessfully to appropriate certain districts between the Rhine and

the Yssel, and in 70 they took part in the campaign of Claudius Civilis.

From this time onwards their name practically disappears. As regards

their geographical position Ptolemy states that they inhabited the coast

above the Bructeri as far as the Ems, while Tacitus speaks of them as

adjacent to the Rhine. But there is some reason for believing that the

part of Holland which lies to the west of the Zuider Zee was at first

inhabited by a different people, the Canninefates, a sister tribe to the

Batavi. A trace of this people is perhaps preserved in the name

Kennemerland or Kinnehem, formerly applied to the same district.

Possibly, therefore, Tacitus's statement holds good only for the period

subsequent to the revolt of Civilis, when we hear of the Canninefates

for the last time.

In connexion with the movements of the migration period the Frisians are

hardly ever mentioned, though some of them are said to have surrendered

to the Roman prince Constantius about the year 293. On the other hand we

hear very frequently of Saxons in the coast regions of the Netherlands.

Since the Saxons (Old Saxons) of later times were an inland people, one

can hardly help suspecting either that the two nations have been

confused or, what is more probable, that a considerable mixture of

population, whether by conquest or otherwise, had taken place. Procopius

(_Goth._ iv. 20) speaks of the Frisians as one of the nations which

inhabited Britain in his day, but we have no evidence from other sources

to bear out his statement. In Anglo-Saxon poetry mention is frequently

made of a Frisian king named Finn, the son of Folcwalda, who came into

conflict with a certain Hnaef, a vassal of the Danish king Healfdene,

about the middle of the 5th century. Hnaef was killed, but his followers

subsequently slew Finn in revenge. The incident is obscure in many

respects, but it is perhaps worth noting that Hnaef's chief follower,

Hengest, may quite possibly be identical with the founder of the Kentish

dynasty. About the year 520 the Frisians are said to have joined the

Frankish prince Theodberht in destroying a piratical expedition which

had sailed up the Rhine under Chocilaicus (Hygelac), king of the Gotar.

Towards the close of the century they begin to figure much more

prominently in Frankish writings. There is no doubt that by this time

their territories had been greatly extended in both directions. Probably

some Frisians took part with the Angles and Saxons in their sea-roving

expeditions, and assisted their neighbours in their invasions and

subsequent conquest of England and the Scottish lowlands.

The rise of the power of the Franks and the advance of their dominion

northwards brought on a collision with the Frisians, who in the 7th

century were still in possession of the whole of the seacoast, and

apparently ruled over the greater part of modern Flanders. Under the

protection of the Frankish king Dagobert (622-638), the Christian

missionaries Amandus (St Amand) and Eligius (St Eloi) attempted the

conversion of these Flemish Frisians, and their efforts were attended

with a certain measure of success; but farther north the building of a

church by Dagobert at Trajectum (Utrecht) at once aroused the fierce

hostility of the heathen tribesmen of the Zuider Zee. The "free"

Frisians could not endure this Frankish outpost on their borders.

Utrecht was attacked and captured, and the church destroyed. The first

missionary to meet with any success among the Frisians was the

Englishman Wilfrid of York, who, being driven by a storm upon the coast,

was hospitably received by the king, Adgild or Adgisl, and was allowed

to preach Christianity in the land. Adgild appears to have admitted the

overlordship of the Frankish king, Dagobert II. (675). Under his

successor, however, Radbod (Frisian Redbad), an attempt was made to

extirpate Christianity and to free the Frisians from the Frankish

subjection. He was, however, beaten by Pippin of Heristal in the battle

of Dorstadt (689), and was compelled to cede West Frisia (_Frisia

citerior_) from the Scheldt to the Zuider Zee to the conqueror. On

Pippin's death Radbod again attacked the Franks and advanced as far as

Cologne, where he defeated Charles Martel, Pippin's natural son.

Eventually, however, Charles prevailed and compelled the Frisians to

submit. Radbod died in 719, but for some years his successors struggled

against the Frankish power. A final defeat was, however, inflicted upon

them by Charles Martel in 734, which secured the supremacy of the Franks

in the north, though it was not until the days of Charles the Great

(785) that the subjection of the Frisians was completed. Meanwhile

Christianity had been making its conquests in the land, mainly through

the lifelong labours and preaching of the Englishman Willibrord, who

came to Frisia in 692 and made Utrecht his headquarters. He was

consecrated (695) at Rome archbishop of the Frisians, and on his return

founded a number of bishoprics in the northern Netherlands, and

continued his labours unremittingly until his death in 739. It is an

interesting fact that both Wilfrid and Willibrord appear to have found

no difficulty from the first in preaching to the Frisians in their

native dialect, which was so nearly allied to their own Anglo-Saxon

tongue. The see of Utrecht founded by Willibrord has remained the chief

see of the Northern Netherlands from his day to our own. Friesland was

likewise the scene of a portion of the missionary labours of a greater

than Willibrord, the famous Boniface, the Apostle of the Germans, also

an Englishman. It was at Dokkum in Friesland that he met a martyr's

death (754).

Charles the Great granted the Frisians important privileges under a code

known as the _Lex Frisionum_, based upon the ancient laws of the

country. They received the title of freemen and were allowed to choose

their own _podestat_ or imperial governor. In the _Lex Frisionum_ three

districts are clearly distinguished: West Frisia from the Zwin to the

Flie; Middle Frisia from the Flie to the Lauwers; East Frisia from the

Lauwers to the Weser. At the partition treaty of Verdun (843) Frisia

became part of Lotharingia or Lorraine; at the treaty of Mersen (870) it

was divided between the kingdoms of the East Franks (Austrasia) and the

West Franks (Westrasia); in 880 the whole country was united to

Austrasia; in 911 it fell under the dominion of Charles the Simple, king

of the West Franks, but the districts of East Frisia asserted their

independence and for a long time governed themselves after a very simple

democratic fashion. The history of West Frisia gradually loses itself in

that of the countship of Holland and the see of Utrecht (see HOLLAND and

UTRECHT).

The influence of the Frisians during the interval between the invasion

of Britain and the loss of their independence must have been greater

than is generally recognized. They were a seafaring people and engaged

largely in trade, especially perhaps the slave trade, their chief

emporium being Wyk te Duurstede. During the period in question there is

considerable archaeological evidence for intercourse between the west

coast of Norway and the regions south of the North Sea, and it is worth

noting that this seems to have come to an end early in the 9th century.

Probably it is no mere accident that the first appearance, or rather

reappearance, of Scandinavian pirates in the west took place shortly

after the overthrow of the Frisians. Since Radbod's dominions extended

from Duerstede to Heligoland his power must have been by no means

inconsiderable.

Besides the Frisians discussed above there is a people called North

Frisians, who inhabit the west coast of Schleswig. At present a Frisian

dialect is spoken only between Tondern and Husum, but formerly it

extended farther both to the north and south. In historical times these

North Frisians were subjects of the Danish kingdom and not connected in

any way with the Frisians of the empire. They are first mentioned by

Saxo Grammaticus in connexion with the exile of Knud V. Saxo recognized

that they were of Frisian origin, but did not know when they had first

settled in this region. Various opinions are still held with regard to

the question; but it seems not unlikely that the original settlers were

Frisians who had been expelled by the Franks in the 8th century. Whether

the North Frisian language is entirely of Frisian origin is somewhat

doubtful owing to the close relationship which Frisian bears to English.

The inhabitants of the neighbouring islands, Sylt, Amrum and Fohr, who

speak a kindred dialect, have apparently never regarded themselves as

Frisians, and it is the view of many scholars that they are the direct

descendants of the ancient Saxons.

In 1248 William of Holland, having become emperor, restored to the

Frisians in his countship their ancient liberties in reward for the

assistance they had rendered him in the siege of Aachen; but in 1254

they revolted, and William lost his life in the contest which ensued.

After many struggles West Friesland became completely subdued, and was

henceforth virtually absorbed in the county of Holland. But the

Frieslanders east of the Zuider Zee obstinately resisted repeated

attempts to bring them into subjection. In the course of the 14th

century the country was in a state of anarchy; petty lordships sprang

into existence, the interests of the common weal were forgotten or

disregarded, and the people began to be split up into factions, and

these were continually carrying on petty warfare with one another. Thus

the Fetkoopers (Fatmongers) of Oostergoo had endless feuds with the

Schieringers (Eelfishers) of Westergoo.

This state of affairs favoured the attempts of the counts of Holland to

push their conquests eastward, but the main body of the Frisians was

still independent when the countship of Holland passed into the hands of

Philip the Good of Burgundy. Philip laid claim to the whole country, but

the people appealed to the protection of the empire, and Frederick III.,

in August 1457, recognized their direct dependence on the empire and

called on Philip to bring forward formal proof of his rights. Philip's

successor, Charles the Bold, summoned an assembly of notables at

Enkhuizen in 1469, in order to secure their homage; but the conference

was without result, and the duke's attention was soon absorbed by other

and more important affairs. The marriage of Maximilian of Austria with

the heiress of Burgundy was to be productive of a change in the fortunes

of that part of Frisia which lies between the Vlie and the Lauwers. In

1498 Maximilian reversed the policy of his father Frederick III., and

detached this territory, known afterwards as the province of Friesland,

from the empire. He gave it as a fief to Albert of Saxony, who

thoroughly crushed out all resistance. In 1523 it fell with all the rest

of the provinces of the Netherlands under the strong rule of the emperor

Charles, the grandson of Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy.

That part of Frisia which lies to the east of the Lauwers had a divided

history. The portion which lies between the Lauwers and the Ems after

some struggles for independence had, like the rest of the country, to

submit itself to Charles. It became ultimately the province of the town

and district of Groningen (Stadt en Landen) (see GRONINGEN). The

easternmost part between the Ems and the Weser, which had since 1454

been a county, was ruled by the descendants of Edzard Cirksena, and was

attached to the empire. The last of the Cirksenas, Count Charles Edward,

died in 1744 and in default of heirs male the king of Prussia took

possession of the county.

The province of Friesland was one of the seven provinces which by the

treaty known as the Union of Utrecht bound themselves together to resist

the tyranny of Spain. From 1579 to 1795 Friesland remained one of the

constituent parts of the republic of the United Provinces, but it always

jealously insisted on its sovereign rights, especially against the

encroachments of the predominant province of Holland. It maintained

throughout the whole of the republican period a certain distinctiveness

of nationality, which was marked by the preservation of a different

dialect and of a separate stadtholder. Count William Lewis of

Nassau-Siegen, nephew and son-in-law of William the Silent, was chosen

stadtholder, and through all the vicissitudes of the 17th and 18th

centuries the stadtholdership was held by one of his descendants.

Frederick Henry of Orange was stadtholder of six provinces, but not of

Friesland, and even during the stadtholderless periods which followed

the deaths of William II. and William III. of Orange the Frisians

remained stanch to the family of Nassau-Siegen. Finally, by the

revolution of 1748, William of Nassau-Siegen, stadtholder of Friesland

(who, by default of heirs male of the elder line, had become William

IV., prince of Orange), was made hereditary stadtholder of all the

provinces. His grandson in 1815 took the title of William I., king of

the Netherlands. The male line of the "Frisian" Nassaus came to an end

with the death of King William III. in 1890.

BIBLIOGRAPHY--See Tacitus, _Ann._ iv. 72 f., xi. 19 f., xiii. 54;

_Hist._ iv. 15 f.; _Germ._ 34; Ptolemy, _Geogr._ ii. 11, S 11; Dio

Cassius liv. 32; Eumenius, _Paneg._ iv. 9; the Anglo-Saxon poems,

Finn, Beowulf and Widsith; _Fredegarii Chronici continuatio_ and

various German Annals; _Gesta regum Francorum_; Eddius, _Vita

Wilfridi_, cap. 25 f.; Bede, _Hist. Eccles_, iv. 22, v. 9 f.; Alcuin,

_Vita Willebrordi_; I. Undset, _Aarbger for nordisk Oldkyndighed_

(1880), p. 89 ff. (cf. E. Mogk in Paul's _Grundriss d. germ.

Philologie_ ii. p. 623 ff.); Ubbo Emmius, _Rerum Frisicarum historia_

(Leiden, 1616); Pirius Winsemius, _Chronique van Vriesland_ (Franoker,

1822); C. Scotanus, _Beschryvinge end Chronyck van des Heerlickheydt

van Frieslandt_ (1655); _Groot Placaat en Charter-boek van Friesland_

(ed. Baron C. F. zu Schwarzenberg) (5 vols., Leeuwarden, 1768-1793);

T. D. Wiarda, _Ost-frieschische Gesch._ (vols. i.-ix., Aurich, 1791)

(vol. x., Bremen, 1817); J. Dirks, _Geschiedkundig onderzoek van den

Koophandel der Friezen_ (Utrecht, 1846); O. Klopp, _Gesch.

Ostfrieslands_ (3 vols., Hanover, 1854-1858); Hooft van Iddekinge,

_Friesland en de Friezen in de Middeleeuwen_ (Leiden, 1881); A.

Telting, _Het Oudfriesche Stadrecht_ (The Hague, 1882); P. J. Blok,

_Friesland im Mittelalter_ (Leer, 1891).

FRITH (or FRYTH), JOHN (c. 1503-1533), English Reformer and Protestant

martyr, was born at Westerham, Kent. He was educated at Eton and King's

College, Cambridge, where Gardiner, afterwards bishop of Winchester, was

his tutor. At the invitation of Cardinal Wolsey, after taking his degree

he migrated (December 1525) to the newly founded college of St

Frideswide or Cardinal College (now Christ Church), Oxford. The

sympathetic interest which he showed in the Reformation movement in

Germany caused him to be suspected as a heretic, and led to his

imprisonment for some months. Subsequently he appears to have resided

chiefly at the newly founded Protestant university of Marburg, where he

became acquainted with several scholars and reformers of note,

especially Patrick Hamilton (q.v.). Frith's first publication was a

translation of Hamilton's _Places_, made shortly after the martyrdom of

its author; and soon afterwards the _Revelation of Antichrist_, a

translation from the German, appeared, along with _A Pistle to the

Christen Reader_, by "Richard Brightwell" (supposed to be Frith), and

_An Antithesis wherein are compared togeder Christes Actes and our Holye

Father the Popes_, dated "at Malborow in the lande of Hesse," 12th July

1529. His _Disputacyon of Purgatorye_, a treatise in three books,

against Rastell, Sir T. More and Fisher (bishop of Rochester)

respectively, was published at the same place in 1531. While at Marburg,

Frith also assisted Tyndale, whose acquaintance he had made at Oxford

(or perhaps in London) in his literary labours. In 1532 he ventured back

to England, apparently on some business in connexion with the prior of

Reading. Warrants for his arrest were almost immediately issued at the

instance of Sir T. More, then lord chancellor. Frith ultimately fell

into the hands of the authorities at Milton Shore in Essex, as he was on

the point of making his escape to Flanders. The rigour of his

imprisonment in the Tower was somewhat abated when Sir T. Audley

succeeded to the chancellorship, and it was understood that both

Cromwell and Cranmer were disposed to show great leniency. But the

treacherous circulation of a manuscript "lytle treatise" on the

sacraments, which Frith had written for the information of a friend, and

without any view to publication, served further to excite the hostility

of his enemies. In consequence of a sermon preached before him against

the "sacramentaries," the king ordered that Frith should be examined; he

was afterwards tried and found guilty of having denied, with regard to

the doctrines of purgatory and of transubstantiation, that they were

necessary articles of faith. On the 23rd of June 1533 he was handed over

to the secular arm, and at Smithfield on the 4th of July following he

was burnt at the stake. During his captivity he wrote, besides several

letters of interest, a reply to More's letter against Frith's "lytle

treatise"; also two tracts entitled _A Mirror or Glass to know thyself_,

and _A Mirror or Looking-glass wherein you may behold the Sacrament of

Baptism_.

Frith is an interesting and so far important figure in English

ecclesiastical history as having been the first to maintain and defend

that doctrine regarding the sacrament of Christ's body and blood, which

ultimately came to be incorporated in the English communion office.

Twenty-three years after Frith's death as a martyr to the doctrine of

that office, that "Christ's natural body and blood are in Heaven, not

here," Cranmer, who had been one of his judges, went to the stake for

the same belief. Within three years more, it had become the publicly

professed faith of the entire English nation.

See A. a Wood, _Athenae Oxonienses_ (ed. P. Bliss, 1813), i. p. 74;

John Foxe, _Acts and Monuments_ (ed. G. Townshend, 1843-1849), v. pp.

1-16 (also Index); G. Burnet, _Hist. of the Reformation of the Church

of England_ (ed. N. Pocock, 1865), i. p. 273; L. Richmond, _The

Fathers of the English Church_, i. (1807); _Life and Martyrdom of John

Frith_ (London, 1824), published by the Church of England Tract

Society; Deborah Alcock, _Six Heroic Men_ (1906).

FRITH, WILLIAM POWELL (1819-1909), English painter, was born at

Aldfield, in Yorkshire, on the 9th of January 1819. His parents moved in

1826 to Harrogate, where his father became landlord of the Dragon Inn,

and it was then that the boy began his general education at a school at

Knaresborough. Later he went for about two years to a school at St

Margaret's, near Dover, where he was placed specially under the

direction of the drawing-master, as a step towards his preparation for

the profession which his father had decided on as the one that he wished

him to adopt. In 1835 he was entered as a student in the well-known art

school kept by Henry Sass in Bloomsbury, from which he passed after two

years to the Royal Academy schools. His first independent experience was

gained in 1839, when he went about for some months in Lincolnshire

executing several commissions for portraits; but he soon began to

attempt compositions, and in 1840 his first picture, "Malvolio,

cross-gartered before the Countess Olivia," appeared at the Royal

Academy. During the next few years he produced several notable

paintings, among them "Squire Thornhill relating his town adventures to

the Vicar's family," and "The Village Pastor," which established his

reputation as one of the most promising of the younger men of that time.

This last work was exhibited in 1845, and in the autumn of that year he

was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy. His promotion to the rank

of Academician followed in 1853, when he was chosen to fill the vacancy

caused by Turner's death. The chief pictures painted by him during his

tenure of Associateship were: "An English Merry-making in the Olden

Time," "Old Woman accused of Witchcraft," "The Coming of Age," "Sancho

and Don Quixote," "Hogarth before the Governor of Calais," and the

"Scene from Goldsmith's 'Good-natured Man,'" which was commissioned in

1850 by Mr Sheepshanks, and bequeathed by him to the South Kensington

Museum. Then came a succession of large compositions which gained for

the artist an extraordinary popularity. "Life at the Seaside," better

known as "Ramsgate Sands," was exhibited in 1854, and was bought by

Queen Victoria; "The Derby Day," in 1858; "Claude Duval," in 1860; "The

Railway Station," in 1862; "The Marriage of the Prince of Wales,"

painted for Queen Victoria, in 1865; "The Last Sunday of Charles II.,"

in 1867; "The Salon d'Or," in 1871; "The Road to Ruin," a series, in

1878; a similar series, "The Race for Wealth," shown at a gallery in

King Street, St James's, in 1880; "The Private View," in 1883; and "John

Knox at Holyrood," in 1886. Frith also painted a considerable number of

portraits of well-known people. In 1889 he became an honorary retired

academician. His "Derby Day" is in the National Gallery of British Art.

In his youth, in common with the men by whom he was surrounded, he had

leanings towards romance, and he scored many successes as a painter of

imaginative subjects. In these he proved himself to be possessed of

exceptional qualities as a colourist and manipulator, qualities that

promised to earn for him a secure place among the best executants of the

British School. But in his middle period he chose a fresh direction.

Fascinated by the welcome which the public gave to his first attempts to

illustrate the life of his own times, he undertook a considerable series

of large canvases, in which he commented on the manners and morals of

society as he found it. He became a pictorial preacher, a painter who

moralized about the everyday incidents of modern existence; and he

sacrificed some of his technical variety. There remained, however, a

remarkable sense of characterization, and an acute appreciation of

dramatic effect. Frith died on the 2nd of November 1909.

Frith published his _Autobiography and Reminiscences_ in 1887, and

_Further Reminiscences_ in 1889.

FRITILLARY (_Fritillaria_: from Lat. _fritillus_, a chess-board, so

called from the chequered markings on the petals), a genus of hardy

bulbous plants of the natural order Liliaceae, containing about 50

species widely distributed in the northern hemisphere. The genus is

represented in Britain by the fritillary or snake's head, which occurs

in moist meadows in the southern half of England, especially in

Oxfordshire. A much larger plant is the crown imperial (_F.

imperialis_), a native of western Asia and well known in gardens. This

grows to a height of about 3 ft., the lower part of the stoutish stem

being furnished with leaves, while near the top is developed a crown of

large pendant flowers surmounted by a tuft of bright green leaves like

those of the lower part of the stem, only smaller. The flowers are

bell-shaped, yellow or red, and in some of the forms double. The plant

grows freely in good garden soil, preferring a deep well-drained loam,

and is all the better for a top-dressing of manure as it approaches the

flowering stage. Strong clumps of five or six roots of one kind have a

very fine effect. It is a very suitable subject for the back row in

mixed flower borders, or for recesses in the front part of shrubbery

borders. It flowers in April or early in May. There are a few named

varieties, but the most generally grown are the single and double

yellow, and the single and double red, the single red having also two

variegated varieties, with the leaves striped respectively with white

and yellow.

"Fritillary" is also the name of a kind of butterfly.

FRITZLAR, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Cassel,

on the left bank of the Eder, 16 m. S.W. from Cassel, on the railway

Wabern-Wildungen. Pop. (1905) 3448. It is a prettily situated

old-fashioned place, with an Evangelical and two Roman Catholic

churches, one of the latter, that of St Peter, a striking medieval

edifice. As early as 732 Boniface, the apostle of Germany, established

the church of St Peter and a small Benedictine monastery at Frideslar,

"the quiet home" or "abode of peace." Before long the school connected

with the monastery became famous, and among its earlier scholars it

numbered Sturm, abbot of Fulda, and Megingod, second bishop of Wurzburg.

When Boniface found himself unable to continue the supervision of the

society himself, he entrusted the office to Wigbert of Glastonbury, who

thus became the first abbot of Fritzlar. In 774 the little settlement

was taken and burnt by the Saxons; but it evidently soon recovered from

the blow. For a short time after 786 it was the seat of the bishopric of

Buraburg, which had been founded by Boniface in 741. At the diet of

Fritzlar in 919 Henry I. was elected German king. In the beginning of

the 13th century the village received municipal rights; in 1232 it was

captured and burned by the landgrave Conrad of Thuringia and his allies;

in 1631 it was taken by William of Hesse; in 1760 it was successfully

defended by General Luckner against the French; and in 1761 it was

occupied by the French and unsuccessfully bombarded by the Allies. As a

principality Fritzlar continued subject to the archbishopric of Mainz

till 1802, when it was incorporated with Hesse. From 1807 to 1814 it

belonged to the kingdom of Westphalia; and in 1866 passed with Hesse

Cassel to Prussia.

FRIULI (in the local dialect, _Furlanei_), a district at the head of the

Adriatic Sea, at present divided between Italy and Austria, the Italian

portion being included in the province of Udine and the district of

Portogruaro, and the Austrian comprising the province of Gorz and

Gradiska, and the so-called Idrian district. In the north and east

Friuli includes portions of the Julian and Carnic Alps, while the south

is an alluvial plain richly watered by the Isonzo, the Tagliamento, and

many lesser streams which, although of small volume during the dry

season, come down in enormous floods after rain or thaw. The

inhabitants, known as Furlanians, are mainly Italians, but they speak a

dialect of their own which contains Celtic elements. The area of the

country is about 3300 sq. m.; it contains about 700,000 inhabitants.

Friuli derives its name from the Roman town of _Forum Julii_, or

_Forojulium_, the modern Cividale, which is said by Paulus Diaconus to

have been founded by Julius Caesar. In the 2nd century B.C. the district

was subjugated by the Romans, and became part of Gallia Transpadana.

During the Roman period, besides Forum Julii, its principal towns were

Concordia, Aquileia and Vedinium. On the conquest of the country by the

Lombards during the 6th century it was made one of their thirty-six

duchies, the capital being Forum Julii or, as they called it, Civitas

Austriae. It is needless to repeat the list of dukes of the Lombard

line, from Gisulf (d. 611) to Hrothgaud, who fell a victim to his

opposition to Charlemagne about 776; their names and exploits may be

read in the _Historia Langobardorum_ of Paulus Diaconus, and they were

mainly occupied in struggles with the Avars and other barbarian peoples,

and in resisting the pretensions of the Lombard kings. The discovery,

however, of Gisulf's grave at Cividale, in 1874, is an interesting proof

of the historian's authenticity. Charlemagne filled Hrothgaud's place

with one of his own followers, and the frontier position of Friuli gave

the new line of counts, dukes or margraves (for they are variously

designated) the opportunity of acquiring importance by exploits against

the Bulgarians, Slovenians and other hostile peoples to the east. After

the death of Charlemagne Friuli shared in general in the fortunes of

northern Italy. In the 11th century the ducal rights over the greater

part of Friuli were bestowed by the emperor Henry IV. on the patriarch

of Aquileia; but towards the close of the 14th century the nobles called

in the assistance of Venice, which, after defeating the archbishop,

afforded a new illustration of Aesop's well-known fable, by securing

possession of the country for itself. The eastern part of Friuli was

held by the counts of Gorz till 1500, when on the failure of their line

it was appropriated by the German king, Maximilian I., and remained in

the possession of the house of Austria until the Napoleonic wars. By the

peace of Campo Formio in 1797 the Venetian district also came to

Austria, and on the formation of the Napoleonic kingdom of Italy in 1805

the department of Passariano was made to include the whole of Venetian

and part of Austrian Friuli, and in 1809 the rest was added to the

Illyrian provinces. The title of duke of Friuli was borne by Marshal

Duroc. In 1815 the whole country was recovered by the emperor of

Austria, who himself assumed the ducal title and coat of arms; and it

was not till 1866 that the Venetian portion was again ceded to Italy by

the peace of Prague. The capital of the country is Udine, and its arms

are a crowned eagle on a field azure.

See Manzano, _Annali del Friuli_ (Udine, 1858-1879); and _Compendio di

storia friulana_ (Udine, 1876); Antonini, _Il Friuli orientale_

(Milan, 1865); von Zahn, _Friaulische Studien_ (Vienna, 1878); Pirona,

_Vocabolario friulino_ (Venice, 1869); and L. Fracassetti, _La

Statistica etnografica del Friuli_ (Udine, 1903). (T. As.)

FROBEN [FROBENIUS], JOANNES (c. 1460-1527), German printer and scholar,

was born at Hammelburg in Bavaria about the year 1460. After completing

his university career at Basel, where he made the acquaintance of the

famous printer Johannes Auerbach (1443-1513), he established a printing

house in that city about 1491, and this soon attained a European

reputation for accuracy and for taste. In 1500 he married the daughter

of the bookseller Wolfgang Lachner, who entered into partnership with

him. He was on terms of friendship with Erasmus (q.v.), who not only had

his own works printed by him, but superintended Frobenius's editions of

St Jerome, St Cyprian, Tertullian, Hilary of Poitiers and St Ambrose.

His _Neues Testament_ in Greek (1516) was used by Luther for his

translation. Frobenius employed Hans Holbein to illuminate his texts. It

was part of his plan to print editions of the Greek Fathers. He did not,

however, live to carry out this project, but it was very creditably

executed by his son Jerome and his son-in-law Nikolaus Episcopius.

Frobenius died in October 1527. His work in Basel made that city in the

16th century the leading centre of the German book trade. An extant

letter of Erasmus, written in the year of Frobenius's death, gives an

epitome of his life and an estimate of his character; and in it Erasmus

mentions that his grief for the death of his friend was far more

poignant than that which he had felt for the loss of his own brother,

adding that "all the apostles of science ought to wear mourning." The

epistle concludes with an epitaph in Greek and Latin.

FROBISHER, SIR MARTIN (c. 1535-1594), English navigator and explorer,

fourth child of Bernard Frobisher of Altofts in the parish of Normanton,

Yorkshire, was born some time between 1530 and 1540. The family came

originally from North Wales. At an early age he was sent to a school in

London and placed under the care of a kinsman, Sir John York, who in

1544 placed him on board a ship belonging to a small fleet of

merchantmen sailing to Guinea. By 1565 he is referred to as Captain

Martin Frobisher, and in 1571-1572 as being in the public service at sea

off the coast of Ireland. He married in 1559. As early as 1560 or 1561

Frobisher had formed a resolution to undertake a voyage in search of a

North-West Passage to Cathay and India. The discovery of such a route

was the motive of most of the Arctic voyages undertaken at that period

and for long after, but Frobisher's special merit was in being the first

to give to this enterprise a national character. For fifteen years he

solicited in vain the necessary means to carry his project into

execution, but in 1576, mainly by help of the earl of Warwick, he was

put in command of an expedition consisting of two tiny barks, the

"Gabriel" and "Michael," of about 20 to 25 tons each, and a pinnace of

10 tons, with an aggregate crew of 35.

He weighed anchor at Blackwall, and, after having received a good word

from Queen Elizabeth at Greenwich, set sail on the 7th of June, by way

of the Shetland Islands. Stormy weather was encountered in which the

pinnace was lost, and some time afterwards the "Michael" deserted; but

stoutly continuing the voyage alone, on the 28th of July the "Gabriel"

sighted the coast of Labrador in lat. 62 deg. 2' N. Some days later the

mouth of Frobisher Bay was reached, and a farther advance northwards

being prevented by ice and contrary winds, Frobisher determined to sail

westward up this passage (which he conceived to be a strait) to see

"whether he mighte carrie himself through the same into some open sea on

the backe syde." Butcher's Island was reached on the 18th of August, and

some natives being met with here, intercourse was carried on with them

for some days, the result being that five of Frobisher's men were

decoyed and captured, and never more seen. After vainly trying to get

back his men, Frobisher turned homewards, and reached London on the 9th

of October.

Among the things which had been hastily brought away by the men was some

"black earth," and just as it seemed as if nothing more was to come of

this expedition, it was noised abroad that the apparently valueless

"black earth" was really a lump of gold ore. It is difficult to say how

this rumour arose, and whether there was any truth in it, or whether

Frobisher was a party to a deception, in order to obtain means to carry

out the great idea of his life. The story, at any rate, was so far

successful; the greatest enthusiasm was manifested by the court and the

commercial and speculating world of the time; and next year a much more

important expedition than the former was fitted out, the queen lending

the "Aid" from the royal navy and subscribing L1000 towards the expenses

of the expedition. A Company of Cathay was established, with a charter

from the crown, giving the company the sole right of sailing in every

direction but the east; Frobisher was appointed high admiral of all

lands and waters that might be discovered by him. On the 26th of May

1577 the expedition, consisting, besides the "Aid," of the ships

"Gabriel" and "Michael," with boats, pinnaces and an aggregate

complement of 120 men, including miners, refiners, &c., left Blackwall,

and sailing by the north of Scotland reached Hall's Island at the mouth

of Frobisher Bay on the 17th of July. A few days later the country and

the south side of the bay was solemnly taken possession of in the

queen's name. Several weeks were now spent in collecting ore, but very

little was done in the way of discovery, Frobisher being specially

directed by his commission to "defer the further discovery of the

passage until another time." There was much parleying and some

skirmishing with the natives, and earnest but futile attempts made to

recover the men captured the previous year. The return was begun on the

23rd of August, and the "Aid" reached Milford Haven on the 23rd of

September; the "Gabriel" and "Michael," having separated, arrived later

at Bristol and Yarmouth.

Frobisher was received and thanked by the queen at Windsor. Great

preparations were made and considerable expense incurred for the

assaying of the great quantity of "ore" (about 200 tons) brought home.

This took up much time, and led to considerable dispute among the

various parties interested. Meantime the faith of the queen and others

remained strong in the productiveness of the newly discovered territory,

which she herself named _Meta Incognita_, and it was resolved to send

out a larger expedition than ever, with all necessaries for the

establishment of a colony of 100 men. Frobisher was again received by

the queen at Greenwich, and her Majesty threw a fine chain of gold

around his neck. On the 31st of May 1578 the expedition, consisting in

all of fifteen vessels, left Harwich, and sailing by the English Channel

on the 20th of June reached the south of Greenland, where Frobisher and

some of his men managed to land. On the 2nd of July the foreland of

Frobisher Bay was sighted, but stormy weather and dangerous ice

prevented the rendezvous from being gained, and, besides causing the

wreck of the barque "Dennis" of 100 tons, drove the fleet unwittingly up

a new (Hudson) strait. After proceeding about 60 m. up this "mistaken

strait," Frobisher with apparent reluctance turned back, and after many

bufferings and separations the fleet at last came to anchor in Frobisher

Bay. Some attempt was made at founding a settlement, and a large

quantity of ore was shipped; but, as might be expected, there was much

dissension and not a little discontent among so heterogeneous a company,

and on the last day of August the fleet set out on its return to

England, which was reached in the beginning of October. Thus ended what

was little better than a fiasco, though Frobisher himself cannot be held

to blame for the result; the scheme was altogether chimerical, and the

"ore" seems to have been not worth smelting.

In 1580 Frobisher was employed as captain of one of the queen's ships in

preventing the designs of Spain to assist the Irish insurgents, and in

the same year obtained a grant of the reversionary title of clerk of the

royal navy. In 1585 he commanded the "Primrose," as vice-admiral to Sir

F. Drake in his expedition to the West Indies, and when soon afterwards

the country was threatened with invasion by the Spanish Armada,

Frobisher's name was one of four mentioned by the lord high admiral in a

letter to the queen of "men of the greatest experience that this realm

hath," and for his signal services in the "Triumph," in the dispersion

of the Armada, he was knighted. He continued to cruise about in the

Channel until 1590, when he was sent in command of a small fleet to the

coast of Spain. In 1591 he visited his native Altofts, and there married

his second wife, a daughter of Lord Wentworth, becoming at the same time

a landed proprietor in Yorkshire and Notts. He found, however, little

leisure for a country life, and the following year took charge of the

fleet fitted out by Sir Walter Raleigh to the Spanish coast, returning

with a rich prize. In November 1594 he was engaged with a squadron in

the siege and relief of Brest, when he received a wound at Fort Crozon

from which he died at Plymouth on the 22nd of November. His body was

taken to London and buried at St Giles', Cripplegate. Though he appears

to have been somewhat rough in his bearing, and too strict a

disciplinarian to be much loved, Frobisher was undoubtedly one of the

most able seamen of his time and justly takes rank among England's great

naval heroes.

See Hakluyt's _Voyages_; the Hakluyt Society's _Three Voyages of

Frobisher_; Rev. F. Jones's _Life of Frobisher_ (1878); Julian

Corbett, _Drake and the Tudor Navy_ (1898).

FROCK, originally a long, loose gown with broad sleeves, more especially

that worn by members of the religious orders. The word is derived from

the O. Fr. _froc_, of somewhat obscure origin; in medieval Lat.

_froccus_ appears also as _floccus_, which, if it is the original, as Du

Cange suggests (_literula mutata_), would connect the word with "flock"

(q.v.), properly a tuft of wool. Another suggestion refers the word to

the German _Rock_, a coat (cf. "rochet"), which in some rare instances

is found as _hrock_. The formal stripping off of the frock became part

of the ceremony of degradation or deprivation in the case of a condemned

monk; hence the expression "to unfrock" (med. Lat. _defrocare_, Fr.

_defroquer_) used of the degradation of monks and of priests from holy

orders. In the middle ages "frock" was also used of a long loose coat

worn by men and of a coat of mail, the "frock of mail." In something of

this sense the word survived into the 19th century for a coat with long

skirts, now called the "frock coat." The word in now chiefly used in

English for a child's or young girl's dress, of body and skirt, but is

frequently used of a woman's dress. Du Cange (_Glossarium_, s.v.

_flocus_) quotes an early use of the word for a woman's garment

(_Miracula S. Udalrici_, ap. Mabillon, _Acta Sanctorum Benedict_, saec.

v. p. 466). Here a woman, possessed of a devil, is cured, and sends her

garments to the tomb of the saint, and a dalmatic is ordered to be made

out of the flocus or _frocus_. "Frock" also appears in the "smock

frock," once the typical outer garment of the English peasant. It

consists of a loose shirt of linen or other material, worn over the

other clothes and hanging to about the knee; its characteristic feature

is the "smocking," a puckered honeycomb stitching round the neck and

shoulders.

FROEBEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST (1782-1852), German philosopher,

philanthropist and educational reformer, was born at Oberweissbach, a

village of the Thuringian forest, on the 21st of April 1782. Like

Comenius, with whom he had much in common, he was neglected in his

youth, and the remembrance of his own early sufferings made him in after

life the more eager in promoting the happiness of children. His mother

he lost in his infancy, and his father, the pastor of Oberweissbach and

the surrounding district, attended to his parish but not to his family.

Friedrich soon had a stepmother, and neglect was succeeded by

stepmotherly attention; but a maternal uncle took pity on him, and gave

him a home for some years at Stadt-Ilm. Here he went to the village

school, but like many thoughtful boys he passed for a dunce. Throughout

life he was always seeking for hidden connexions and an underlying unity

in all things. Nothing of the kind was to be perceived in the piecemeal

studies of the school, and Froebel's mind, busy as it was for itself,

would not work for the masters. His half-brother was therefore thought

more worthy of a university education, and Friedrich was apprenticed for

two years to a forester (1797-1799).

Left to himself in the Thuringian forest, Froebel began to study nature,

and without scientific instruction he obtained a profound insight into

the uniformity and essential unity of nature's laws. Years afterwards

the celebrated Jahn (the "Father Jahn" of the German gymnasts) told a

Berlin student of a queer fellow he had met, who made out all sorts of

wonderful things from stones and cobwebs. This queer fellow was Froebel;

and the habit of making out general truths from the observation of

nature, especially from plants and trees, dated from the solitary

rambles in the forest. No training could have been better suited to

strengthen his inborn tendency to mysticism; and when he left the

forest at the early age of seventeen, he seems to have been possessed by

the main ideas which influenced him all his life. The conception which

in him dominated all others was the unity of nature; and he longed to

study natural sciences that he might find in them various applications

of nature's universal laws. With great difficulty he got leave to join

his elder brother at the university of Jena, and there for a year he

went from lecture-room to lecture-room hoping to grasp that connexion of

the sciences which had for him far more attraction than any particular

science in itself. But Froebel's allowance of money was very small, and

his skill in the management of money was never great, so his university

career ended in an imprisonment of nine weeks for a debt of thirty

shillings. He then returned home with very poor prospects, but much more

intent on what he calls the course of "self-completion"

(_Vervollkommnung meines selbst_) than on "getting on" in a worldly

point of view. He was sent to learn farming, but was recalled in

consequence of the failing health of his father. In 1802 the father

died, and Froebel, now twenty years old, had to shift for himself. It

was some time before he found his true vocation, and for the next three

and a half years we find him at work now in one part of Germany now in

another--sometimes land-surveying, sometimes acting as accountant,

sometimes as private secretary; but in all this his "outer life was far

removed from his inner life," and in spite of his outward circumstances

he became more and more conscious that a great task lay before him for

the good of humanity. The nature of the task, however, was not clear to

him, and it seemed determined by accident. While studying architecture

in Frankfort-on-Main, he became acquainted with the director of a model

school, who had caught some of the enthusiasm of Pestalozzi. This friend

saw that Froebel's true field was education, and he persuaded him to

give up architecture and take a post in the model school. In this school

Froebel worked for two years with remarkable success, but he then

retired and undertook the education of three lads of one family. In this

he could not satisfy himself, and he obtained the parents' consent to

his taking the boys to Yverdon, near Neuchatel, and there forming with

them a part of the celebrated institution of Pestalozzi. Thus from 1807

till 1809 Froebel was drinking in Pestalozzianism at the fountain-head,

and qualifying himself to carry on the work which Pestalozzi had begun.

For the science of education had to deduce from Pestalozzi's experience

principles which Pestalozzi himself could not deduce. And "Froebel, the

pupil of Pestalozzi, and a genius like his master, completed the

reformer's system; taking the results at which Pestalozzi had arrived

through the necessities of his position, Froebel developed the ideas

involved in them, not by further experience but by deduction from the

nature of man, and thus he attained to the conception of true human

development and to the requirements of true education" (Schmidt's

_Geschichte der Padagogik_).

Holding that man and nature, inasmuch as they proceed from the same

source, must be governed by the same laws, Froebel longed for more

knowledge of natural science. Even Pestalozzi seemed to him not to

"honour science in her divinity." He therefore determined to continue

the university course which had been so rudely interrupted eleven years

before, and in 1811 he began studying at Gottingen, whence he proceeded

to Berlin. But again his studies were interrupted, this time by the king

of Prussia's celebrated call "to my people." Though not a Prussian,

Froebel was heart and soul a German. He therefore responded to the call,

enlisted in Lutzow's corps, and went through the campaign of 1813. But

his military ardour did not take his mind off education. "Everywhere,"

he writes, "as far as the fatigues I underwent allowed, I carried in my

thoughts my future calling as educator; yes, even in the few engagements

in which I had to take part. Even in these I could gather experience for

the task I proposed to myself." Froebel's soldiering showed him the

value of discipline and united action, how the individual belongs not to

himself but to the whole body, and how the whole body supports the

individual.

Froebel was rewarded for his patriotism by the friendship of two men

whose names will always be associated with his, Langethal and

Middendorff. These young men, ten years younger than Froebel, became

attached to him in the field, and were ever afterwards his devoted

followers, sacrificing all their prospects in life for the sake of

carrying out his ideas.

At the peace of Fontainebleau (signed in May 1814) Froebel returned to

Berlin, and became curator of the museum of mineralogy under Professor

Weiss. In accepting this appointment from the government he seemed to

turn aside from his work as educator; but if not teaching he was

learning. More and more the thought possessed him that the one thing

needful for man was unity of development, perfect evolution in

accordance with the laws of his being, such evolution as science

discovers in the other organisms of nature. He at first intended to

become a teacher of natural science, but before long wider views dawned

upon him. Langethal and Middendorff were in Berlin, engaged in tuition.

Froebel gave them regular instruction in his theory, and at length,

counting on their support, he resolved to set about realizing his own

idea of "the new education." This was in 1816. Three years before one of

his brothers, a clergyman, had died of fever caught from the French

prisoners. His widow was still living in the parsonage at Griesheim, a

village on the Ilm. Froebel gave up his post, and set out for Griesheim

on foot, spending his very last groschen on the way for bread. Here he

undertook the education of his orphan niece and nephews, and also of two

more nephews sent him by another brother. With these he opened a school

and wrote to Middendorff and Langethal to come and help in the

experiment. Middendorff came at once, Langethal a year or two later,

when the school had been moved to Keilhau, another of the Thuringian

villages, which became the Mecca of the new faith. In Keilhau Froebel,

Langethal, Middendorff and Barop, a relation of Middendorff's, all

married and formed an educational community. Such zeal could not be

fruitless, and the school gradually increased, though for many years its

teachers, with Froebel at their head, were in the greatest straits for

money and at times even for food. After fourteen years' experience he

determined to start other institutions to work in connexion with the

parent institution at Keilhau, and being offered by a private friend the

use of a castle on the Wartensee, in the canton of Lucerne, he left

Keilhau under the direction of Barop, and with Langethal he opened the

Swiss institution. The ground, however, was very ill chosen. The

Catholic clergy resisted what they considered as a Protestant invasion,

and the experiment on the Wartensee and at Willisau in the same canton,

to which the institution was moved in 1833, never had a fair chance. It

was in vain that Middendorff at Froebel's call left his wife and family

at Keilhau, and laboured for four years in Switzerland without once

seeing them. The Swiss institution never flourished. But the Swiss

government wished to turn to account the presence of the great educator;

so young teachers were sent to Froebel for instruction, and finally

Froebel moved to Burgdorf (a Bernese town of some importance, and famous

from Pestalozzi's labours there thirty years earlier) to undertake the

establishment of a public orphanage and also to superintend a course of

teaching for schoolmasters. The elementary teachers of the canton were

to spend three months every alternate year at Burgdorf, and there

compare experiences, and learn of distinguished men such as Froebel and

Bitzius. In his conferences with these teachers Froebel found that the

schools suffered from the state of the raw material brought into them.

Till the school age was reached the children were entirely neglected.

Froebel's conception of harmonious development naturally led him to

attach much importance to the earliest years, and his great work on _The

Education of Man_, published as early as 1826, deals chiefly with the

child up to the age of seven. At Burgdorf his thoughts were much

occupied with the proper treatment of young children, and in scheming

for them a graduated course of exercises, modelled on the games in which

he observed them to be most interested. In his eagerness to carry out

his new plans he grew impatient of official restraints; so he returned

to Keilhau, and soon afterwards opened the first _Kindergarten_ or

"Garden of Children," in the neighbouring village of Blankenburg (1837).

Firmly convinced of the importance of the Kindergarten for the whole

human race, Froebel described his system in a weekly paper (his

_Sonntagsblatt_) which appeared from the middle of 1837 till 1840. He

also lectured in great towns; and he gave a regular course of

instruction to young teachers at Blankenburg. But although the

principles of the Kindergarten were gradually making their way, the

first Kindergarten was failing for want of funds. It had to be given up,

and Froebel, now a widower (he had lost his wife in 1839), carried on

his course for teachers first at Keilhau, and from 1848, for the last

four years of his life, at or near Liebenstein, in the Thuringian

forest, and in the duchy of Meiningen. It is in these last years that

the man Froebel will be best known to posterity, for in 1849 he

attracted within the circle of his influence a woman of great

intellectual power, the baroness von Marenholtz-Bulow, who has given us

in her _Recollections of Friedrich Froebel_ the only lifelike portrait

we possess.

These seemed likely to be Froebel's most peaceful days. He married again

in 1851, and having now devoted himself to the training of women as

educators, he spent his time in instructing his class of young female

teachers. But trouble came upon him from a quarter whence he least

expected it. In the great year of revolutions (1848) Froebel had hoped

to turn to account the general eagerness for improvement, and

Middendorff had presented an address on Kindergartens to the German

parliament. Besides this, a nephew of Froebel's, Professor Karl Froebel

of Zurich, published books which were supposed to teach socialism. True,

the uncle and nephew differed so widely that the "new Froebelians" were

the enemies of "the old," but the distinction was overlooked, and

Friedrich and Karl Froebel were regarded as the united advocates of some

new thing. In the reaction which soon set in, Froebel found himself

suspected of socialism and irreligion, and in 1851 the "cultus-minister"

Von Raumer issued an edict forbidding the establishment of schools

"after Friedrich and Karl Froebel's principles" in Prussia. This was a

heavy blow to the old man, who looked to the government of the

"_Cultus-staat_" Prussia for support, and was met with denunciation.

Whether from the worry of this new controversy, or from whatever cause,

Froebel did not long survive the decree. His seventieth birthday was

celebrated with great rejoicings in May 1852, but he died on the 21st of

June, and was buried at Schweina, a village near his last abode,

Marienthal, near Bad-Liebenstein.

"All education not founded on religion is unproductive." This conviction

followed naturally from Froebel's conception of the unity of all things,

a unity due to the original Unity from whom all proceed and in whom all

"live, move and have their being." As man and nature have one origin

they must be subject to the same laws. Hence Froebel, like Comenius two

centuries before him, looked to the course of nature for the principles

of human education. This he declares to be his fundamental belief: "In

the creation, in nature and the order of the material world, and in the

progress of mankind, God has given us the true type (_Urbild_) of

education." As the cultivator creates nothing in the trees and plants,

so the educator creates nothing in the children,--he merely superintends

the development of inborn faculties. So far Froebel agrees with

Pestalozzi; but in one respect he went beyond him. Pestalozzi said that

the faculties were developed by exercise. Froebel added that the

function of education was to develop the faculties by arousing

_voluntary activity_. Action proceeding from inner impulse

(_Selbsttatigkeit_) was the one thing needful.

The prominence which Froebel gave to action, his doctrine that man is

primarily a doer and even a creator, and that he learns only through

"self-activity," has its importance all through education. But it was to

the first stage of life that Froebel paid the greatest attention. He

held with Rousseau that each age has a completeness of its own, and that

the perfection of the later stage can be attained only through the

perfection of the earlier. If the infant is what he should be as an

infant, and the child as a child, he will become what he should be as a

boy, just as naturally as new shoots spring from the healthy plant.

Every stage, then, must be cared for and tended in such a way that it

may attain its own perfection. Impressed with the immense importance of

the first stage, Froebel like Pestalozzi devoted himself to the

instruction of mothers. But he would not, like Pestalozzi, leave the

children entirely in the mother's hands. Pestalozzi held that the child

belonged to the family; Fichte, on the other hand, claimed it for

society and the state. Froebel, whose mind delighted in harmonizing

apparent contradictions, and who taught that "all progress lay through

opposites to their reconciliation," maintained that the child belonged

both to the family and to society, and he would therefore have children

spend some hours of the day in a common life and in well-organized

common employments. These assemblies of children he would not call

schools, for the children in them ought not to be old enough for

schooling. So he invented the name _Kindergarten_, garden of children,

and called the superintendents "children's gardeners." He laid great

stress on every child cultivating its own plot of ground, but this was

not his reason for the choice of the name. It was rather that he thought

of these institutions as enclosures in which young human plants are

nurtured. In the Kindergarten the children's employment should be

_play_. But any occupation in which children delight is play to them;

and Froebel invented a series of employments, which, while they are in

this sense play to the children, have nevertheless, as seen from the

adult point of view, a distinct educational object. This object, as

Froebel himself describes it, is "to give the children employment in

agreement with their whole nature, to strengthen their bodies, to

exercise their senses, to engage their awakening mind, and through their

senses to bring them acquainted with nature and their fellow creatures;

it is especially to guide aright the heart and the affections, and to

lead them to the original ground of all life, to unity with themselves."

Froebel's own works are: _Menschenerziehung_ ("Education of Man"),

(1826), which has been translated into French and English; _Padagogik

d. Kindergartens_; _Kleinere Schriften_ and _Mutter- und Koselieder_;

collected editions have been edited by Wichard Lange (1862) and

Friedrich Seidel (1883).

A. B. Hauschmann's _Friedrich Frobel_ is a lengthy and unsatisfactory

biography. An unpretentious but useful little book is _F. Froebel, a

Biographical Sketch_, by Matilda H. Kriege, New York (Steiger). A very

good account of Froebel's life and thoughts is given in Karl Schmidt's

_Geschichte d. Padagogik_, vol. iv.; also in Adalbert Weber's

_Geschichte d. Volksschulpad. u. d. Kleinkindererziehung_ (Weber

carefully gives authorities). For a less favourable account see K.

Strack's _Geschichte d. deutsch. Volksschulwesens_. Frau von

Marenholtz-Bulow published her _Erinnerungen an F. Frobel_ (translated

by Mrs. Horace Mann, 1877). This lady, the chief interpreter of

Froebel, has expounded his principles in _Das Kind u. sein Wesen_ and

_Die Arbeit u. die neue Erziehung_. H. Courthope Bowen has written a

memoir (1897) in the "Great Educators" series. In England Miss Emily

A. E. Shirreff has published _Principles of Froebel's System_, and a

short sketch of Froebel's life. See also Dr Henry Barnard's _Papers on

Froebel's Kindergarten_ (1881); R. H. Quick, _Educational Reformers_

(1890). (R. H. Q.)

FROG,[1] a name in zoology, of somewhat wide application, strictly for

an animal belonging to the family _Ranidae_, but also used of some other

families of the order _Ecaudata_ or the sub-class Batrachia (q.v.).

Frogs proper are typified by the common British species, _Rana

temporaria_, and its allies, such as the edible frog, _R. esculenta_,

and the American bull-frog _R. catesbiana_. The genus _Rana_ may be

defined as firmisternal Ecaudata with cylindrical transverse processes

to the sacral vertebra, teeth in the upper jaw and on the vomer, a

protrusible tongue which is free and forked behind, a horizontal pupil

and more or less webbed toes. It includes about 200 species, distributed

over the whole world with the exception of the greater part of South

America and Australia. Some of the species are thoroughly aquatic and

have fully webbed toes, others are terrestrial, except during the

breeding season, others are adapted for burrowing, by means of the

much-enlarged and sharp-edged tubercle at the base of the inner toe,

whilst not a few have the tips of the digits dilated into disks by which

they are able to climb on trees. In most of the older classifications

great importance was attached to these physiological characters, and a

number of genera were established which, owing to the numerous annectent

forms which have since been discovered, must be abandoned. The arboreal

species were thus associated with the true tree-frogs, regardless of

their internal structure. We now know that such adaptations are of

comparatively small importance, and cannot be utilized for establishing

groups higher than genera in a natural or phylogenetic classification.

The tree-frogs, _Hylidae_, with which the arboreal _Ranidae_ were

formerly grouped, show in their anatomical structure a close resemblance

to the toads, _Bufonidae_, and are therefore placed far away from the

true frogs, however great the superficial resemblance between them.

Some frogs grow to a large size. The bull-frog of the eastern United

States and Canada, reaching a length of nearly 8 in. from snout to vent,

long regarded as the giant of the genus, has been surpassed by the

discovery of _Rana guppyi_ (8-1/2 in.) in the Solomon Islands, and of

_Rana goliath_ (10 in.) in South Cameroon.

The family _Ranidae_ embraces a large number of genera, some of which

are very remarkable. Among these may be mentioned the hairy frog of West

Africa, _Trichobatrachus robustus_, some specimens of which have the

sides of the body and of the hind limbs covered with long villosities,

the function of which is unknown, and its ally _Gampsosteonyx batesi_,

in which the last phalanx of the fingers and toes is sharp, claw-like

and perforates the skin. To this family also belong the _Rhacophorus_ of

eastern Asia, arboreal frogs, some of which are remarkable for the

extremely developed webs between the fingers and toes, which are

believed to act as a parachute when the frog leaps from the branches of

trees (flying-frog of A. R. Wallace), whilst others have been observed

to make aerial nests between leaves overhanging water, a habit which is

shared by their near allies the _Chiromantis_ of tropical Africa.

_Dimorphognathus_, from West Africa, is the unique example of a sexual

dimorphism in the dentition, the males being provided with a series of

large sharp teeth in the lower jaw, which in the female, as in most

other members of the family, is edentulous. The curious horned frog of

the Solomon Islands, _Ceratobatrachus guentheri_, which can hardly be

separated from the _Ranidae_, has teeth in the lower jaw in both sexes,

whilst a few forms, such as _Dendrobates_ and _Cardioglossa_, which on

this account have been placed in a distinct family, have no teeth at

all, as in toads. These facts militate strongly against the importance

which was once attached to the dentition in the classification of the

tailless batrachians.