FOOTNOTE:

[1] The word "frog" is in O.E. _frocga_ or _frox_, cf. Dutch

_vorsch_, Ger. _Frosch_; Skeat suggests a possible original source in

the root meaning "to jump," "to spring," cf. Ger. _froh_, glad,

joyful and "frolic." The term is also applied to the following

objects: the horny part in the center of a horse's hoof; an

attachment to a belt for suspending a sword, bayonet, &c.; a

fastening for the front of a coat, still used in military uniforms,

consisting of two buttons on opposite sides joined by ornamental

looped braids; and, in railway construction, the point where two

rails cross. These may be various transferred applications of the

name of the animal, but the "frog" of a horse was also called

"frush," probably a corruption of the French name _fourchette_, lit.

little fork. The ornamental braiding is also more probably due to

"frock," Lat. _floccus_.

FROG-BIT, in botany, the English name for a small floating herb known

botanically as _Hydrocharis Morsus-Ranae_, a member of the order

Hydrocharideae, a family of Monocotyledons. The plant has rosettes of

roundish floating leaves, and multiplies like the strawberry plant by

means of runners, at the end of which new leaf-rosettes develop.

Staminate and pistillate flowers are borne on different plants; they

have three small green sepals and three broadly ovate white membranous

petals. The fruit, which is fleshy, is not found in Britain. The plant

occurs in ponds and ditches in England and is rare in Ireland.

FROGMORE, a mansion within the royal demesne of Windsor, England, in the

Home Park, 1 m. S.E. of Windsor Castle. It was occupied by George III.'s

queen, Charlotte, and later by the duchess of Kent, mother of Queen

Victoria, who died here in 1861. The mansion, a plain building facing a

small lake, has in its grounds the mausoleum of the duchess of Kent and

the royal mausoleum. The first is a circular building surrounded with

Ionic columns and rising in a dome, a lower chamber within containing

the tomb, while in the upper chamber is a statue of the duchess. There

is also a bust of Princess Hohenlohe-Langenberg, half-sister of Queen

Victoria; and before the entrance is a memorial erected by the queen to

Lady Augusta Stanley (d. 1876), wife of Dean Stanley. The royal

mausoleum, a cruciform building with a central octagonal lantern, richly

adorned within with marbles and mosaics, was erected (1862-1870) by

Queen Victoria over the tomb of Albert, prince consort, by whose side

the queen herself was buried in 1901. There are also memorials to

Princess Alice and Prince Leopold in the mausoleum. To the south of the

mansion are the royal gardens and dairy.

FROHLICH, ABRAHAM EMANUEL (1796-1865), Swiss poet, was born on the 1st

of February 1796 at Brugg in the canton of Aargau, where his father was

a teacher. After studying theology at Zurich he became a pastor in 1817

and returned as teacher to his native town, where he lived for ten

years. He was then appointed professor of the German language and

literature in the cantonal school at Aarau, which post he lost, however,

in the political quarrels of 1830. He afterwards obtained the post of

teacher and rector of the cantonal college, and was also appointed

assistant minister at the parish church. He died at Baden in Aargau on

the 1st of December 1865. His works are--_170 Fabeln_ (1825);

_Schweizerlieder_ (1827); _Das Evangelium St Johannis, in Liedern_

(1830); _Elegien an Wieg' und Sarg_ (1835); _Die Epopoen; Ulrich

Zwingli_ (1840); _Ulrich von Hutten_ (1845); _Auserlesene Psalmen und

geistliche Lieder fur die Evangelisch-reformirte Kirche des Cantons

Aargau_ (1844); _Uber den Kirchengesang der Protestanten_ (1846);

_Trostlieder_ (1852); _Der Junge Deutsch-Michel_ (1846); _Reimspruche

aus Staat, Schule, und Kirche_ (1820). An edition of his collected

works, in 5 vols., was published at Frauenfeld in 1853. Frohlich is best

known for his two heroic poems, _Ulrich Zwingli_ and _Ulrich von

Hutten_, and especially for his fables, which have been ranked with

those of Hagedorn, Lessing and Gellert.

See the _Life_ by R. Fasi (Zurich, 1907).

FROHSCHAMMER, JAKOB (1821-1893), German theologian and philosopher, was

born at Illkofen, near Regensburg, on the 6th of January 1821. Destined

by his parents for the Roman Catholic priesthood, he studied theology at

Munich, but felt an ever-growing attraction to philosophy. Nevertheless,

after much hesitation, he took what he himself calls the most mistaken

step of his life, and in 1847 entered the priesthood. His keenly logical

intellect, and his impatience of authority where it clashed with his own

convictions, quite unfitted him for that unquestioning obedience which

the Church demanded. It was only after open defiance of the bishop of

Regensburg that he obtained permission to continue his studies at

Munich. He at first devoted himself more especially to the study of the

history of dogma, and in 1850 published his _Beitrage zur

Kirchengeschichte_, which was placed on the Index Expurgatorius. But he

felt that his real vocation was philosophy, and after holding for a

short time an extraordinary professorship of theology, he became

professor of philosophy in 1855. This appointment he owed chiefly to his

work, _Uber den Ursprung der menschlichen Seelen_ (1854), in which he

maintained that the human soul was not implanted by a special creative

act in each case, but was the result of a secondary creative act on the

part of the parents: that soul as well as body, therefore, was subject

to the laws of heredity. This was supplemented in 1855 by the

controversial _Menschenseele und Physiologie_. Undeterred by the offence

which these works gave to his ecclesiastical superiors, he published in

1858 the _Einleitung in die Philosophie und Grundriss der Metaphysik_,

in which he assailed the doctrine of Thomas Aquinas, that philosophy was

the handmaid of theology. In 1861 appeared _Uber die Aufgabe der

Naturphilosophie und ihr Verhaltnis zur Naturwissenschaft_, which was,

he declared, directed against the purely mechanical conception of the

universe, and affirmed the necessity of a creative Power. In the same

year he published _Uber die Freiheit der Wissenschaft_, in which he

maintained the independence of science, whose goal was truth, against

authority, and reproached the excessive respect for the latter in the

Roman Church with the insignificant part played by the German Catholics

in literature and philosophy. He was denounced by the pope himself in an

apostolic brief of the 11th of December 1862, and students of theology

were forbidden to attend his lectures. Public opinion was now keenly

excited; he received an ovation from the Munich students, and the king,

to whom he owed his appointment, supported him warmly. A conference of

Catholic _savants_, held in 1863 under the presidency of Dollinger,

decided that authority must be supreme in the Church. When, however,

Dollinger and his school in their turn started the Old Catholic

movement, Frohschammer refused to associate himself with their cause,

holding that they did not go far enough, and that their declaration of

1863 had cut the ground from under their feet. Meanwhile he had, in

1862, founded the _Athenaum_ as the organ of Liberal Catholicism. For

this he wrote the first adequate account in German of the Darwinian

theory of natural selection, which drew a warm letter of appreciation

from Darwin himself. Excommunicated in 1871, he replied with three

articles, which were reproduced in thousands as pamphlets in the chief

European languages: _Der Fels Petri in Rom_ (1873), _Der Primat Petri

und des Papstes_ (1875), and _Das Christenthum Christi und das

Christenthum des Papstes_ (1876). In _Das neue Wissen und der neue

Glaube_ (1873) he showed himself as vigorous an opponent of the

materialism of Strauss as of the doctrine of papal infallibility. His

later years were occupied with a series of philosophical works, of which

the most important were: _Die Phantasie als Grundprincip des

Weltprocesses_ (1877), _Uber die Genesis der Menschheit und deren

geistige Entwicklung in Religion, Sittlichkeit und Sprache_ (1883), and

_Uber die Organisation und Cultur der menschlichen Gesellschaft_ (1885).

His system is based on the unifying principle of imagination

(_Phantasie_), which he extends to the objective creative force of

Nature, as well as to the subjective mental phenomena to which the term

is usually confined. He died at Bad Kreuth in the Bavarian Highlands on

the 14th of June 1893.

In addition to other treatises on theological subjects, Frohschammer

was also the author of _Monaden und Weltphantasie_ and _Uber die

Bedeutung der Einbildungskraft in der Philosophie Kants und Spinozas_

(1879); _Uber die Principien der Aristotelischen Philosophie und die

Bedeutung der Phantasie in derselben_ (1881); _Die Philosophie als

Idealwissenschaft und System_ (1884); _Die Philosophie des Thomas von

Aquino kritisch gewurdigt_ (1889); _Uber das Mysterium Magnum des

Daseins_ (1891); _System der Philosophie im Umriss_, pt. i. (1892).

His autobiography was published in A. Hinrichsen's _Deutsche Denker_

(1888). See also F. Kirchner, _Uber das Grundprincip des

Weltprocesses_ (1882), with special reference to F.; E. Reich,

_Weltanschauung und Menschenleben; Betrachtungen uber die Philosophie

J. Frohschammers_ (1894); B. Munz, _J. Frohschammer, der Philosoph der

Weltphantasie_ (1894) and _Briefe von und uber J. Frohschammer_

(1897); J. Friedrich, _Jakob Frohschammer_ (1896) and _Systematische

und kritische Darstellung der Psychologie J. Frohschammers_ (1899); A.

Attensperger, _J. Frohschammers philosophisches System im Grundriss_

(1899).

FROISSART, JEAN (1338-1410?), French chronicler and raconteur, historian

of his own times. The personal history of Froissart, the circumstances

of his birth and education, the incidents of his life, must all be

sought in his own verses and chronicles. He possessed in his own

lifetime no such fame as that which attended the steps of Petrarch; when

he died it did not occur to his successors that a chapter might well be

added to his _Chronicle_ setting forth what manner of man he was who

wrote it. The village of Lestines, where he was cure, has long forgotten

that a great writer ever lived there. They cannot point to any house in

Valenciennes as the lodging in which he put together his notes and made

history out of personal reminiscences. It is not certain when or where

he died, or where he was buried. One church, it is true, doubtfully

claims the honour of holding his bones. It is that of St Monegunda of

Chimay.

"Gallorum sublimis honos et fama tuorum,

Hic Froissarde, jaces, _si modo forte jaces_."

It is fortunate, therefore, that the scattered statements in his

writings may be so pieced together as to afford a tolerably connected

history of his life year after year. The personality of the man,

independently of his adventures, may be arrived at by the same process.

It will be found that Froissart, without meaning it, has portrayed

himself in clear and well-defined outline. His forefathers were _jures_

(aldermen) of the little town of Beaumont, lying near the river Sambre,

to the west of the forest of Ardennes. Early in the 14th century the

castle and seigneurie of Beaumont fell into the hands of Jean, younger

son of the count of Hainaut. With this Jean, sire de Beaumont, lived a

certain canon of Liege called Jean le Bel, who fortunately was not

content simply to enjoy life. Instigated by his seigneur he set himself

to write contemporary history, to tell "la pure veriteit de tout li fait

entierement al manire de chroniques." With this view, he compiled two

books of chronicles. And the chronicles of Jean le Bel were not the only

literary monuments belonging to the castle of Beaumont. A hundred years

before him Baldwin d'Avernes, the then seigneur, had caused to be

written a book of chronicles or rather genealogies. It must therefore be

remembered that when Froissart undertook his own chronicles he was not

conceiving a new idea, but only following along familiar lines.

Some 20 m. from Beaumont stood the prosperous city of Valenciennes,

possessed in the 14th century of important privileges and a flourishing

trade, second only to places like Bruges or Ghent in influence,

population and wealth. Beaumont, once her rival, now regarded

Valenciennes as a place where the ambitious might seek for wealth or

advancement, and among those who migrated thither was the father of

Foissart. He appears from a single passage in his son's verses to have

been a painter of armorial bearings. There was, it may be noted, already

what may be called a school of painters at Valenciennes. Among them were

Jean and Colin de Valenciennes and Andre Beau-Neveu, of whom Froissart

says that he had not his equal in any country.

The date generally adopted for his birth is 1338. In after years

Froissart pleased himself by recalling in verse the scenes and pursuits

of his childhood. These are presented in vague generalities. There is

nothing to show that he was unlike any other boys, and, unfortunately,

it did not occur to him that a photograph of a schoolboy's life amid

bourgeois surroundings would be to posterity quite as interesting as

that faithful portraiture of courts and knights which he has drawn up in

his _Chronicle_. As it is, we learn that he loved games of dexterity and

skill rather than the sedentary amusements of chess and draughts, that

he was beaten when he did not know his lessons, that with his companions

he played at tournaments, and that he was always conscious--a statement

which must be accepted with suspicion--that he was born

"Loer Dieu et servir le monde."

In any case he was born in a place, as well as at a time, singularly

adapted to fill the brain of an imaginative boy. Valenciennes was then a

city extremely rich in romantic associations. Not far from its walls was

the western fringe of the great forest of Ardennes, sacred to the memory

of Pepin, Charlemagne, Roland and Ogier. Along the banks of the Scheldt

stood, one after the other, not then in ruins, but bright with banners,

the gleam of armour, and the liveries of the men at arms, castles whose

seigneurs, now forgotten, were famous in their day for many a gallant

feat of arms. The castle of Valenciennes itself was illustrious in the

romance of _Perceforest_. There was born that most glorious and most

luckless hero, Baldwin, first emperor of Constantinople. All the

splendour of medieval life was to be seen in Froissart's native city: on

the walls of the Salle le Comte glittered--perhaps painted by his

father--the arms and scutcheons beneath the banners and helmets of

Luxembourg, Hainaut and Avesnes; the streets were crowded with knights

and soldiers, priests, artisans and merchants; the churches were rich

with stained glass, delicate tracery and precious carving; there were

libraries full of richly illuminated manuscripts on which the boy could

gaze with delight; every year there was the _fete_ of the _puy d'Amour

de Valenciennes_, at which he would hear the verses of the competing

poets; there were festivals, masques, mummeries and moralities. And,

whatever there might be elsewhere, in this happy city there was only the

pomp, and not the misery, of war; the fields without were tilled, and

the harvests reaped, in security; the workman within plied his craft

unmolested for good wage. But the eyes of the boy were turned upon the

castle and not upon the town; it was the splendour of the knights which

dazzled him, insomuch that he regarded and continued ever afterwards to

regard a prince gallant in the field, glittering of apparel, lavish of

largesse, as almost a god.

The moon, he says, rules the first four years of life; Mercury the next

ten; Venus follows. He was fourteen when the last goddess appeared to him

in person, as he tells us, after the manner of his time, and informed him

that he was to love a lady, "belle, jone, et gente." Awaiting this happy

event, he began to consider how best to earn his livelihood. They first

placed him in some commercial position--impossible now to say of what

kind--which he simply calls "la marchandise." This undoubtedly means some

kind of buying and selling, not a handicraft at all. He very soon

abandoned merchandise--"car vaut mieux science qu'argens"--and resolved

on becoming a learned clerk. He then naturally began to make verses, like

every other learned clerk. Quite as naturally, and still in the character

of a learned clerk, he fulfilled the prophecy of Venus and fell in love.

He found one day a demoiselle reading a book of romances. He did not know

who she was, but stealing gently towards her, he asked her what book she

was reading. It was the romance of _Cleomades_. He remarks the singular

beauty of her blue eyes and fair hair, while she reads a page or two, and

then--one would almost suspect a reminiscence of Dante--

"Adont laissames nous le lire."

He was thus provided with that essential for soldier, knight or poet, a

mistress--one for whom he could write verses. She was rich and he was

poor; she was nobly born and he obscure; it was long before she would

accept the devotion, even of the conventional kind which Froissart

offered her, and which would in no way interfere with the practical

business of her life. And in this hopeless way, the passion of the young

poet remaining the same, and the coldness of the lady being unaltered,

the course of this passion ran on for some time. Nor was it until the

day of Froissart's departure from his native town that she gave him an

interview and spoke kindly to him, even promising, with tears in her

eyes, that "Doulce Pensee" would assure him that she would have no

joyous day until she should see him again.

He was eighteen years of age; he had learned all that he wanted to

learn; he possessed the mechanical art of verse; he had read the slender

stock of classical literature accessible; he longed to see the world. He

must already have acquired some distinction, because, on setting out for

the court of England, he was able to take with him letters of

recommendation from the king of Bohemia and the count of Hainaut to

Queen Philippa, niece of the latter. He was well received by the queen,

always ready to welcome her own countrymen; he wrote ballades and

virelays for her and her ladies. But after a year he began to pine for

another sight of "la tres douce, simple, et quoie," whom he loved

loyally. Good Queen Philippa, perceiving his altered looks and guessing

the cause, made him confess that he was in love and longed to see his

mistress. She gave him his _conge_ on the condition that he was to

return. It is clear that the young clerk had already learned to

ingratiate himself with princes.

The conclusion of his single love adventure is simply and unaffectedly

told in his _Trettie de l'espinette amoureuse_. It was a passion

conducted on the well-known lines of conventional love; the pair

exchanged violets and roses, the lady accepted ballads; Froissart became

either openly or in secret her recognized lover, a mere title of honour,

which conferred distinction on her who bestowed it, as well as upon him

who received it. But the progress of the amour was rudely interrupted by

the arts of "Malebouche," or Calumny. The story, whatever it was, that

Malebouche whispered in the ear of the lady led to a complete rupture.

The _damoiselle_ not only scornfully refused to speak to her lover or

acknowledge him, but even seized him by the hair and pulled out a

handful. Nor would she ever be reconciled to him again. Years

afterwards, when Froissart writes the story of his one love passage, he

shows that he still takes delight in the remembrance of her, loves to

draw her portrait, and lingers with fondness over the thought of what

she once was to him.

Perhaps to get healed of his sorrow, Froissart began those wanderings

in which the best part of his life was to be consumed. He first visited

Avignon, perhaps to ask for a benefice, perhaps as the bearer of a

message from the bishop of Cambray to pope or cardinal. It was in the

year 1360, and in the pontificate of Innocent VI. From the papal city he

seems to have gone to Paris, perhaps charged with a diplomatic mission.

In 1361 he returned to England after an absence of five years. He

certainly interpreted his leave of absence in a liberal spirit, and it

may have been with a view of averting the displeasure of his

kind-hearted protector that he brought with him as a present a book of

rhymed chronicles written by himself. He says that notwithstanding his

youth, he took upon himself the task "a rimer et a dicter"--which can

only mean to "turn into verse"--an account of the wars of his own time,

which he carried over to England in a book "tout compile,"--complete to

date,--and presented to his noble mistress Philippa of Hainaut, who

joyfully and gently received it of him. Such a rhymed chronicle was no

new thing. One Colin had already turned the battle of Crecy into verse.

The queen made young Froissart one of her secretaries, and he began to

serve her with "beaux ditties et traites amoureux."

Froissart would probably have been content to go on living at ease in

this congenial atmosphere of flattery, praise and caresses, pouring out

his virelays and chansons according to demand with facile monotony, but

for the instigation of Queen Philippa, who seems to have suggested to

him the propriety of travelling in order to get information for more

rhymed chronicles. It was at her charges that Froissart made his first

serious journey. He seems to have travelled a great part of the way

alone, or accompanied only by his servants, for he was fain to beguile

the journey by composing an imaginary conversation in verse between his

horse and his hound. This may be found among his published poems, but it

does not repay perusal. In Scotland he met with a favourable reception,

not only from King David but from William of Douglas, and from the earls

of Fife, Mar, March and others. The souvenirs of this journey are found

scattered about in the chronicles. He was evidently much impressed with

the Scots; he speaks of the valour of the Douglas, the Campbell, the

Ramsay and the Graham; he describes the hospitality and rude life of the

Highlanders; he admires the great castles of Stirling and Roxburgh and

the famous abbey of Melrose. His travels in Scotland lasted for six

months. Returning southwards he rode along the whole course of the Roman

wall, a thing alone sufficient to show that he possessed the true spirit

of an archaeologist; he thought that Carlisle was Carlyon, and

congratulated himself on having found King Arthur's capital; he calls

Westmorland, where the common people still spoke the ancient British

tongue, North Wales; he rode down the banks of the Severn, and returned

to London by way of Oxford--"l'escole d'Asque-Suffort."

In London Froissart entered into the service of King John of France as

secretary, and grew daily more courtly, more in favour with princes and

great ladies. He probably acquired at this period that art, in which he

has probably never been surpassed, of making people tell him all they

knew. No newspaper correspondent, no American interviewer, has ever

equalled this medieval collector of intelligence. From Queen Philippa,

who confided to him the tender story of her youthful and lasting love

for her great husband, down to the simplest knight--Froissart conversed

with none beneath the rank of gentlemen--all united in telling this man

what he wanted to know. He wanted to know everything: he liked the story

of a battle from both sides and from many points of view; he wanted the

details of every little cavalry skirmish, every capture of a castle,

every gallant action and brave deed. And what was more remarkable, he

forgot nothing. "I had," he says, "thanks to God, sense, memory, good

remembrance of everything, and an intellect clear and keen to seize upon

the acts which I could learn." But as yet he had not begun to write in

prose.

At the age of twenty-nine, in 1366, Froissart once more left England.

This time he repaired first to Brussels, whither were gathered together

a great concourse of minstrels from all parts, from the courts of the

kings of Denmark, Navarre and Aragon, from those of the dukes of

Lancaster, Bavaria and Brunswick. Hither came all who could "rimer et

dicter." What distinction Froissart gained is not stated; but he

received a gift of money, as appears from the accounts: "uni Fritsardo,

dictori, qui est cum regina Angliae, dicto die, VI. mottones."

After this congress of versifiers, he made his way to Brittany, where he

heard from eye-witnesses and knights who had actually fought there

details of the battles of Cocherel and Auray, the Great Day of the

Thirty and the heroism of Jeanne de Montfort. Windsor Herald told him

something about Auray, and a French knight, one Antoine de Beaujeu, gave

him the details of Cocherel. From Brittany he went southwards to Nantes,

La Rochelle and Bordeaux, where he arrived a few days before the visit

of Richard, afterwards second of that name. He accompanied the Black

Prince to Dax, and hoped to go on with him into Spain, but was

despatched to England on a mission. He next formed part of the

expedition which escorted Lionel duke of Clarence to Milan, to marry the

daughter of Galeazzo Visconti. Chaucer was also one of the prince's

suite. At the wedding banquet Petrarch was a guest sitting among the

princes.

From Milan Froissart, accepting gratefully a _cotte hardie_ with 20

florins of gold, set out upon his travels in Italy. At Bologna, then in

decadence, he met Peter king of Cyprus, from whose follower and

minister, Eustache de Conflans, he learned many interesting particulars

of the king's exploits. He accompanied Peter as far as Venice, where he

left him after receiving a gift of 40 ducats. With them and his _cotte

hardie_, still lined we may hope with the 20 florins, Froissart betook

himself to Rome. The city was then at its lowest point: the churches

were roofless; there was no pope; there were no pilgrims; there was no

splendour; and yet, says Froissart sadly,

"Ce furent jadis en Rome

Li plus preu et li plus sage homme,

Car par sens tons les arts passerent."

It was at Rome that he learned of the death of his friend King Peter of

Cyprus, and, worse still, an irreparable loss to him, that of the good

Queen Philippa, of whom he writes, in grateful remembrance--

"Propices li soit Diex a l'ame!

J'en suis bien tenus de pryer

Et ses larghesces escuyer,

Car elle me fist et crea."

Philippa dead, Froissart looked around for a new patron. Then he

hastened back to his own country and presented himself, with a new book

in French, to the duchess of Brabant, from whom he received the sum of

16 francs, given in the accounts as paid _uni Frissardo dictatori_. The

use of the word _uni_ does not imply any meanness of position, but is

simply an equivalent to the modern French _sieur_. Froissart may also

have found a patron in Yolande de Bar, grandmother of King Rene of

Anjou. In any case he received a substantial gift from some one in the

shape of the benefice of Lestines, a village some three or four miles

from the town of Binche. Also, in addition to his cure, he got placed

upon the duke of Brabant's pension list, and was entitled to a yearly

grant of grain and wine, with some small sum in money.

It is clear, from Froissart's own account of himself, that he was by no

means a man who would at the age of four or five and thirty be contented

to sit down at ease to discharge the duties of parish priest, to say

mass, to bury the dead, to marry the villagers and to baptize the young.

In those days, and in that country, it does not seem that other duties

were expected. Preaching was not required, godliness of life, piety,

good works, and the graces of a modern ecclesiastic were not looked for.

Therefore, when Froissart complains to himself that the taverns of

Lestines got 500 francs of his money, we need not at once set him down

as either a bad priest or exceptionally given to drink. The people of

the place were greatly addicted to wine; the _taverniers de Lestines_

proverbially sold good wine; the Flemings were proverbially of a joyous

disposition--

"Ceux de Hainaut chantent a pleines gorges."

Froissart, the parish priest of courtly manners, no doubt drank with

the rest, and listened if they sang his own, not the coarse country

songs. Mostly he preferred the society of Gerard d'Obies, provost of

Binche, and the little circle of knights within that town. Or--for it

was not incumbent on him to be always in residence--he repaired to the

court of Coudenberg, and became "moult frere et accointe" with the duke

of Brabant. And then came Gui de Blois, one of King John's hostages in

London in the old days. He had been fighting in Prussia with the

Teutonic knights, and now, a little tired of war, proposed to settle

down for a time in his castle of Beaumont. This prince was a member of

the great house of Chatillon. He was count of Blois, of Soissons and of

Chimay. He had now, about the year 1374, an excellent reputation as a

good captain. In him Froissart, who hastened to resume acquaintance,

found a new patron. More than that, it was this sire de Beaumont, in

emulation of his grandfather, the patron of Jean le Bel, who advised

Froissart seriously to take in hand the history of his own time.

Froissart was then in his thirty-sixth year. For twenty years he had

been rhyming, for eighteen he had been making verses for queens and

ladies. Yet during all this time he had been accumulating in his

retentive brain the materials for his future work.

He began by editing, so to speak, that is, by rewriting with additions,

the work of Jean le Bel; Gui de Blois, among others, supplied him with

additional information. His own notes, taken from information obtained

in his travels, gave him more details, and when in 1374 Gui married

Marie de Namur, Froissart found in the bride's father, Robert de Namur,

one who had himself largely shared in the events which he had to relate.

He, for instance, is the authority for the story of the siege of Calais

and the six burgesses. Provided with these materials, Froissart remained

at Lestines, or at Beaumont, arranging and writing his chronicles.

During this period, too, he composed his _Espinette amoureuse_, and the

_Joli Buisson de jonesce_, and his romance of _Meliador_. He also became

chaplain to the count of Blois, and obtained a canonry of Chimay. After

this appointment we hear nothing more of Lestines, which he probably

resigned.

In these quiet pursuits he passed twelve years, years of which we hear

nothing, probably because there was nothing to tell. In 1386 his travels

began again, when he accompanied Gui to his castle at Blois, in order to

celebrate the marriage of his son Louis de Dunois with Marie de Berry.

He wrote a _pastourelle_ in honour of the event. Then he attached

himself for a few days to the duke of Berry, from whom he learned

certain particulars of current events, and then, becoming aware of what

promised to be the most mighty feat of arms of his time, he hastened to

Sluys in order to be on the spot. At this port the French were

collecting an enormous fleet, and making preparations of the greatest

magnitude in order to repeat the invasion of William the Conqueror. They

were tired of being invaded by the English and wished to turn the

tables. The talk was all of conquering the country and dividing it among

the knights, as had been done by the Normans. It is not clear whether

Froissart intended to go over with the invaders; but as his sympathies

are ever with the side where he happens to be, he exhausts himself in

admiration of this grand gathering of ships and men. "Any one," he says,

"who had a fever would have been cured of his malady merely by going to

look at the fleet." But the delays of the duke of Berry, and the arrival

of bad weather, spoiled everything. There was no invasion of England. In

Flanders Froissart met many knights who had fought at Rosebeque, and

could tell him of the troubles which in a few years desolated that

country, once so prosperous. He set himself to ascertain the history

with as much accuracy as the comparison of various accounts by

eye-witnesses and actors would allow. He stayed at Ghent, among those

ruined merchants and mechanics, for whom, as one of the same class, he

felt a sympathy never extended to English or French, perhaps quite as

unfortunate, and he devotes no fewer than 300 chapters to the Flemish

troubles, an amount out of all proportion to the comparative importance

of the events. This portion of the chronicle was written at

Valenciennes. During this residence in his birthplace his verses were

crowned at the "puys d'amour" of Valenciennes and Tournay.

This part of his work finished, he considered what to do next. There was

small chance of anything important happening in Picardy or Hainault, and

he determined on making a journey to the south of France in order to

learn something new. He was then fifty-one years of age, and being

still, as he tells us, in his prime, "of an age, strength, and limbs

able to bear fatigue," he set out as eager to see new places as when, 33

years before, he rode through Scotland and marvelled at the bravery of

the Douglas. What he had, in addition to strength, good memory and good

spirits, was a manner singularly pleasing and great personal force of

character. This he does not tell us, but it comes out abundantly in his

writings; and, which he does tell us, he took a singular delight in his

book. "The more I work at it," he says, "the better am I pleased with

it."

On this occasion he rode first to Blois; on the way he fell in with two

knights who told him of the disasters of the English army in Spain; one

of them also informed him of the splendid hospitalities and generosity

of Gaston Phoebus, count of Foix, on hearing of which Froissart resolved

to seek him out. He avoided the English provinces of Poitou and Guienne,

and rode southwards through Berry, Auvergne and Languedoc. Arrived at

Foix he discovered that the count was at Orthez, whither he proceeded in

company with a knight named Espaing de Lyon, who, Froissart found, had

not only fought, but could describe.

The account of those few days' ride with Espaing de Lyon is the most

charming, the most graphic, and the most vivid chapter in the whole of

Froissart. Every turn of the road brings with it the sight of a ruined

castle, about which this knight of many memories has a tale or a

reminiscence. The whole country teems with fighting stories. Froissart

never tires of listening nor the good knight of telling. "Sainte Marie!"

cries Froissart in mere rapture. "How pleasant are your tales, and how

much do they profit me while you relate them! And you shall not lose

your trouble, for they shall all be set down in memory and remembrance

in the history which I am writing." Arrived at length at Orthez,

Froissart lost no time in presenting his credentials to the count of

Foix. Gaston Phoebus was at this time fifty-nine years of age. His wife,

from whom he was separated, was that princess, sister of Charles of

Navarre, with whom Guillaume de Machault carried on his innocent and

poetical amour. The story of the miserable death of his son is well

known, and may be read in Froissart. But that was already a tale of the

past, and the state which the count kept up was that of a monarch. To

such a prince such a visitor as Froissart would be in every way welcome.

Mindful no doubt of those paid clerks who were always writing verses,

Froissart introduced himself as a chronicler. He could, of course,

rhyme, and in proof he brought with him his romance of _Meliador_; but

he did not present himself as a wandering poet. The count received him

graciously, speedily discovered the good qualities of his guest, and

often invited him to read his _Meliador_ aloud in the evening, during

which time, says Froissart, "nobody dared to say a word, because he

wished me to be heard, such great delight did he take in listening."

Very soon Froissart, from reader of a romance, became raconteur of the

things he had seen and heard; the next step was that the count himself

began to talk of affairs, so that the notebook was again in requisition.

There was a good deal, too, to be learned of people about the court. One

knight recently returned from the East told about the Genoese occupation

of Famagosta; two more had been in the fray of Otterbourne; others had

been in the Spanish wars.

Leaving Gaston at length, Froissart assisted at the wedding of the old

duke of Berry with the youthful Jeanne de Bourbon, and was present at

the grand reception given to Isabeau of Bavaria by the Parisians. He

then returned to Valenciennes, and sat down to write his fourth book. A

journey undertaken at this time is characteristic of the thorough and

conscientious spirit in which he composed his work; it illustrates also

his restless and curious spirit. While engaged in the events of the year

1385 he became aware that his notes taken at Orthez and elsewhere on the

affairs of Castile and Portugal were wanting in completeness. He left

Valenciennes and hastened to Bruges, where, he felt certain, he should

find some one who would help him. There was, in fact, at this great

commercial centre, a colony of Portuguese. From them he learned that a

certain Portuguese knight, Dom Juan Fernand Pacheco, was at the moment

in Middelburg on the point of starting for Prussia. He instantly

embarked at Sluys, reached Middelburg in time to catch this knight,

introduced himself, and conversed with him uninterruptedly for the space

of six days, getting his information on the promise of due

acknowledgment. During the next two years we learn little of his

movements. He seems, however, to have had trouble with his seigneur Gui

de Blois, and even to have resigned his chaplaincy. Froissart is tender

with Gui's reputation, mindful of past favours and remembering how great

a lord he is. Yet the truth is clear that in his declining years the

once gallant Gui de Blois became a glutton and a drunkard, and allowed

his affairs to fall into the greatest disorder. So much was he crippled

with debt that he was obliged to sell his castle and county of Blois to

the king of France. Froissart lays all the blame on evil counsellors.

"He was my lord and master," he says simply, "an honourable lord and of

great reputation; but he trusted too easily in those who looked for

neither his welfare nor his honour." Although canon of Chimay and

perhaps cure of Lestines as well, it would seem as if Froissart was not

able to live without a patron. He next calls Robert de Namur his

seigneur, and dedicates to him, in a general introduction, the whole of

his chronicles. We then find him at Abbeville, trying to learn all about

the negotiations pending between Charles VI. and the English. He was

unsuccessful, either because he could not get at those who knew what was

going on, or because the secret was too well kept. He next made his last

visit to England, where, after forty years' absence, he naturally found

no one who remembered him. Here he gave King Richard a copy of his

"traites amoureux," and got favour at court. He stayed in England some

months, seeking information on all points from his friends Henry

Chrystead and Richard Stury, from the dukes of York and Gloucester, and

from Robert the Hermit.

On his return to France, he found preparations going on for that unlucky

crusade, the end of which he describes in his _Chronicle_. It was headed

by the count of Nevers. After him floated many a banner of knights,

descendants of the crusaders, who bore the proud titles of duke of

Athens, duke of Thebes, sire de Sidon, sire de Jericho. They were going

to invade the sultan's empire by way of Hungary; they were going to

march south; they would reconquer the holy places. And presently we read

how it all came to nothing, and how the slaughtered knights lay dead

outside the city of Nikopoli. In almost the concluding words of the

_Chronicle_ the murder of Richard II. of England is described. His death

ends the long and crowded _Chronicle_, though the pen of the writer

struggles through a few more unfinished sentences.

The rest is vague tradition. He is said to have died at Chimay; it is

further said that he died in poverty so great that his relations could

not even afford to carve his name upon the headstone of his tomb; not

one of his friends, not even Eustache Deschamps, writes a line of regret

in remembrance; the greatest historian of his age had a reputation so

limited that his death was no more regarded than that of any common monk

or obscure priest. We would willingly place the date of his death, where

his _Chronicle_ stops, in the year 1400; but tradition assigns the date

of 1410. What date more fitting than the close of the century for one

who has made that century illustrious for ever?

Among his friends were Guillaume de Machault, Eustache Deschamps, the

most vigorous poet of this age of decadence, and Cuvelier, a follower of

Bertrand du Guesclin. These alliances are certain. It is probable that

he knew Chaucer, with whom Deschamps maintained a poetical

correspondence; there is nothing to show that he ever made the

acquaintance of Christine de Pisan. Froissart was more proud of his

poetry than his prose. Posterity has reversed this opinion, and though a

selection of his verse has been published, it would be difficult to find

an admirer, or even a reader, of his poems. The selection published by

Buchon in 1829 consists of the _Dit dou florin_, half of which is a

description of the power of money; the _Debat dou cheval et dou

levrier_, written during his journey in Scotland; the _Dittie de la

flour de la Margherite_; a _Dittie d'amour_ called _L'Orlose amoureus_,

in which he compares himself, the imaginary lover, with a clock; the

_Espinette amoureuse_, which contains a sketch of his early life, freely

and pleasantly drawn, accompanied by rondeaux and virelays; the _Buisson

de jonesce_, in which he returns to the recollections of his own youth;

and various smaller pieces. The verses are monotonous; the thoughts are

not without poetical grace, but they are expressed at tedious length. It

would be, however, absurd to expect in Froissart the vigour and verve

possessed by none of his predecessors. The time was gone when Marie de

France, Ruteboeuf and Thibaut de Champagne made the 13th-century

language a medium for verse of which any literature might be proud.

Briefly, Froissart's poetry, unless the unpublished portion be better

than that before us, is monotonous and mechanical. The chief merit it

possesses is in simplicity of diction. This not infrequently produces a

pleasing effect.

As for the character of his _Chronicle_, little need be said. There has

never been any difference of opinion on the distinctive merits of this

great work. It presents a vivid and faithful drawing of the things done

in the 14th century. No more graphic account exists of any age. No

historian has drawn so many and such faithful portraits. They are, it is

true, portraits of men as they seemed to the writer, not of men as they

were. Froissart was uncritical; he accepted princes by their appearance.

Who, for instance, would recognize in his portrait of Gaston Phoebus de

Foix the cruel voluptuary, stained with the blood of his own son, which

we know him to have been? Froissart, again, had no sense of historical

responsibility; he was no judge to inquire into motives and condemn

actions; he was simply a chronicler. He has been accused by French

authors of lacking patriotism. Yet it must be remembered that he was

neither a Frenchman nor an Englishman, but a Fleming. He has been

accused of insensibility to suffering. Indignation against oppression

was not, however, common in the 14th century; why demand of Froissart a

quality which is rare enough even in our own time? Yet there are moments

when, as in describing the massacre of Limoges, he speaks with tears in

his voice.

Let him be judged by his own aims. "Before I commence this book," he

says, "I pray the Saviour of all the world, who created every thing out

of nothing, that He will also create and put in me sense and

understanding of so much worth, that this book, which I have begun, I

may continue and persevere in, so that all those who shall read, see,

and hear it may find in it delight and pleasance." To give delight and

pleasure, then, was his sole design.

As regards his personal character, Froissart depicts it himself for us.

Such as he was in youth, he tells us, so he remained in more advanced

life; rejoicing mightily in dances and carols, in hearing minstrels and

poems; inclined to love all those who love dogs and hawks; pricking up

his ears at the uncorking of bottles,--"Car au voire prens grand

plaisir"; pleased with good cheer, gorgeous apparel and joyous society,

but no commonplace reveller or greedy voluptuary,--everything in

Froissart was ruled by the good manners which he set before all else;

and always eager to listen to tales of war and battle. As we have said

above, he shows, not only by his success at courts, but also by the

whole tone of his writings, that he possessed a singularly winning

manner and strong personal character. He lived wholly in the present,

and had no thought of the coming changes. Born when chivalrous ideas

were most widely spread, but the spirit of chivalry itself, as

inculcated by the best writers, in its decadence, he is penetrated with

the sense of knightly honour, and ascribes to all his heroes alike those

qualities which only the ideal knight possessed.

The first edition of Froissart's Chronicles was published in Paris. It

bears no date; the next editions are those of the years 1505, 1514,

1518 and 1520. The edition of Buchon, 1824, was a continuation of one

commenced by Dacier. The best modern editions are those of Kervyn de

Lettenhove (Brussels, 1863-1877) and Simeon Luce (Paris, 1869-1888);

for bibliography see Potthast, _Bibliotheca hist. medii aevi_, i.

(Berlin, 1896). An abridgment was made in Latin by Belleforest, and

published in 1672. An English translation was made by Bouchier, Lord

Berners, and published in London, 1525. See the "Tudor Translations"

edition of Berners (Nutt, 1901), with introduction by W. P. Ker; and

the "Globe" edition, with introduction by G. C. Macaulay. The

translation by Thomas Johnes was originally published in 1802-1805.

For Froissart's poems see Scheler's text in K. de Lettenhove's

complete edition; _Meliador_ has been edited by Longnon for the

Societe des Anciens Textes (1895-1899). See also Madame Darmesteter

(Duclaux), _Froissart_ (1894). (W. Be.)

FROME, a market town in the Frome parliamentary division of

Somersetshire, England, 107 m. W. by S. of London by the Great Western

railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 11,057. It is unevenly built on

high ground above the river Frome, which is here crossed by a stone

bridge of five arches. It was formerly called Frome or Froome Selwood,

after the neighbouring forest of Selwood; and the country round is still

richly wooded and picturesque. The parish church of St John the Baptist,

with its fine tower and spire, was built about the close of the 14th

century, and, though largely restored, has a beautiful chancel, Lady

chapel and baptistery. Fragments of Norman work are left; the interior

is elaborately adorned with sculptures and stained glass. The

market-hall, museum, school of art, and a free grammar school, founded

under Edward VI., may be noted among buildings and institutions. The

chief industries are brewing and art metal-working, also printing,

metal-founding, and the manufacture of cloth, silk, tools and cards for

wool-dressing. Dairy farming is largely practised in the neighbourhood.

Selwood forest was long a favourite haunt of brigands, and even in the

18th century gave shelter to a gang of coiners and highwaymen.

The Saxon occupation of Frome (From) is the earliest of which there is

evidence, the settlement being due to the foundation of a monastery by

Aldhelm in 705. A witenagemot was held there in 934, so that Frome must

already have been a place of some size. At the time of the Domesday

Survey the manor was owned by King William. Local tradition asserts that

Frome was a medieval borough, and the reeve of Frome is occasionally

mentioned in documents after the reign of Edward I., but there is no

direct evidence that Frome was a borough and no trace of any charter

granted to it. It was not represented in parliament until given one

member by the Reform Act of 1832. Separate representation ceased in

1885. Frome was never incorporated. A charter of Henry VII. to Edmund

Leversedge, then lord of the manor, granted the right to have fairs on

the 22nd of July and the 21st of September. In the 18th century two

other fairs on the 24th of February and the 25th of November were held.

Cattle fairs are now held on the last Wednesday in February and

November, and a cheese fair on the last Wednesday in September. The

Wednesday market is held under the charter of Henry VII. There is also a

Saturday cattle market. The manufacture of woollen cloth has been

established since the 15th century, Frome being the only Somerset town

in which this staple industry has flourished continuously.

FROMENTIN, EUGENE (1820-1876), French painter, was born at La Rochelle

in December 1820. After leaving school he studied for some years under

Louis Cabat, the landscape painter. Fromentin was one of the earliest

pictorial interpreters of Algeria, having been able, while quite young,

to visit the land and people that suggested the subjects of most of his

works, and to store his memory as well as his portfolio with the

picturesque and characteristic details of North African life. In 1849 he

obtained a medal of the second class. In 1852 he paid a second visit to

Algeria, accompanying an archaeological mission, and then completed that

minute study of the scenery of the country and of the habits of its

people which enabled him to give to his after-work the realistic

accuracy that comes from intimate knowledge. In a certain sense his

works are not more artistic results than contributions to ethnological

science. His first great success was produced at the Salon of 1847, by

the "Gorges de la Chiffa." Among his more important works are--"La Place

de la breche a Constantine" (1849); "Enterrement Maure" (1853);

"Bateleurs negres" and "Audience chez un chalife" (1859); "Berger

kabyle" and "Courriers arabes" (1861); "Bivouac arabe," "Chasse au

faucon," "Fauconnier arabe" (now at Luxembourg) (1863); "Chasse au

heron" (1865); "Voleurs de nuit" (1867); "Centaurs et arabes attaques

par une lionne" (1868); "Halte de muletiers" (1869); "Le Nil" and "Un

Souvenir d'Esneh" (1875). Fromentin was much influenced in style by

Eugene Delacroix. His works are distinguished by striking composition,

great dexterity of handling and brilliancy of colour. In them is given

with great truth and refinement the unconscious grandeur of barbarian

and animal attitudes and gestures. His later works, however, show signs

of an exhausted vein and of an exhausted spirit, accompanied or caused

by physical enfeeblement. But it must be observed that Fromentin's

paintings show only one side of a genius that was perhaps even more

felicitously expressed in literature, though of course with less

profusion. "Dominique," first published in the _Revue des deux mondes_

in 1862, and dedicated to George Sand, is remarkable among the fiction

of the century for delicate and imaginative observation and for

emotional earnestness. Fromentin's other literary works are--_Visites

artistiques_ (1852); _Simples Pelerinages_ (1856); _Un Ete dans le

Sahara_ (1857); _Une Annee dans le Sahel_ (1858); and _Les Maitres

d'autrefois_ (1876). In 1876 he was an unsuccessful candidate for the

Academy. He died suddenly at La Rochelle on the 27th of August 1876.

FROMMEL, GASTON (1862-1906), Swiss theologian, professor of theology in

the university of Geneva from 1894 to 1906. An Alsatian by birth, he

belonged mainly to French Switzerland, where he spent most of his life.

He may best be described as continuing the spirit of Vinet (q.v.) amid

the mental conditions marking the end of the 19th century. Like Vinet,

he derived his philosophy of religion from a peculiarly deep experience

of the Gospel of Christ as meeting the demands of the moral

consciousness; but he developed even further than Vinet the

psychological analysis of conscience and the method of verifying every

doctrine by direct reference to spiritual experience. Both made much of

moral individuality or personality as the crown and criterion of

reality, believing that its correlation with Christianity, both

historically and philosophically, was most intimate. But while Vinet

laid most stress on the liberty from human authority essential to the

moral consciousness, the changed needs of the age caused Frommel to

develop rather the aspect of man's dependence as a moral being upon

God's spiritual initiative, "the conditional nature of his liberty."

"Liberty is not the primary, but the secondary characteristic" of

conscience; "before being free, it is the subject of obligation." On

this depends its objectivity as a real revelation of the Divine Will.

Thus he claimed that a deeper analysis carried one beyond the human

subjectivity of even Kant's categorical imperative, since consciousness

of obligation was "une experience imposee sous le mode de l'absolu." By

his use of _imposee_ Frommel emphasized the priority of man's sense of

obligation to his consciousness either of self or of God. Here he

appealed to the current psychology of the subconscious for confirmation

of his analysis, by which he claimed to transcend mere intellectualism.

In his language on this fundamental point he was perhaps too jealous of

admitting an ideal element as implicit in the feeling of obligation.

Still he did well in insisting on priority to self-conscious thought as

a mark of metaphysical objectivity in the case of moral, no less than of

physical experience. Further, he found in the Christian revelation the

same characteristics as belonged to the universal revelation involved in

conscience, viz. God's sovereign initiative and his living action in

history. From this standpoint he argued against a purely psychological

type of religion (_agnosticisme religieux_, as he termed it)--a tendency

to which he saw even in A. Sabatier and the _symbolo-fideisme_ of the

Paris School--as giving up a real and unifying faith. His influence on

men, especially the student class, was greatly enhanced by the religious

force and charm of his personality. Finally, like Vinet, he was a man of

letters and a penetrating critic of men and systems.

LITERATURE.--G. Godet, _Gaston Frommel_ (Neuchatel, 1906), a compact

sketch, with full citation of sources; cf. H. Bois, in _Sainte-Croix_

for 1906, for "L'Etudiant et le professeur." A complete edition of his

writings was begun in 1907. (J. V. B.)

FRONDE, THE, the name given to a civil war in France which lasted from

1648 to 1652, and to its sequel, the war with Spain in 1653-59. The word

means a sling, and was applied to this contest from the circumstance

that the windows of Cardinal Mazarin's adherents were pelted with stones

by the Paris mob. Its original object was the redress of grievances, but

the movement soon degenerated into a factional contest among the nobles,

who sought to reverse the results of Richelieu's work and to overthrow

his successor Mazarin. In May 1648 a tax levied on judicial officers of

the parlement of Paris was met by that body, not merely with a refusal

to pay, but with a condemnation of earlier financial edicts, and even

with a demand for the acceptance of a scheme of constitutional reforms

framed by a committee of the parlement. This charter was somewhat

influenced by contemporary events in England. But there is no real

likeness between the two revolutions, the French parlement being no more

representative of the people than the Inns of Court were in England. The

political history of the time is dealt with in the article FRANCE:

_History_, the present article being concerned chiefly with the military

operations of what was perhaps the most costly and least necessary civil

war in history.

The military record of the first or "parliamentary" Fronde is almost

blank. In August 1648, strengthened by the news of Conde's victory at

Lens, Mazarin suddenly arrested the leaders of the parlement, whereupon

Paris broke into insurrection and barricaded the streets. The court,

having no army at its immediate disposal, had to release the prisoners

and to promise reforms, and fled from Paris on the night of the 22nd of

October. But the signing of the peace of Westphalia set free Conde's

army, and by January 1649 it was besieging Paris. The peace of Rueil was

signed in March, after little blood had been shed. The Parisians, though

still and always anti-cardinalist, refused to ask for Spanish aid, as

proposed by their princely and noble adherents, and having no prospect

of military success without such aid, submitted and received

concessions. Thenceforward the Fronde becomes a story of sordid

intrigues and half-hearted warfare, losing all trace of its first

constitutional phase. The leaders were discontented princes and

nobles--Monsieur (Gaston of Orleans, the king's uncle), the great Conde

and his brother Conti, the duc de Bouillon and his brother Turenne. To

these must be added Gaston's daughter, Mademoiselle de Montpensier (La

grande Mademoiselle), Conde's sister, Madame de Longueville, Madame de

Chevreuse, and the astute intriguer Paul de Gondi, later Cardinal de

Retz. The military operations fell into the hands of war-experienced

mercenaries, led by two great, and many second-rate, generals, and of

nobles to whom war was a polite pastime. The feelings of the people at

large were enlisted on neither side.

This peace of Rueil lasted until the end of 1649. The princes, received

at court once more, renewed their intrigues against Mazarin, who, having

come to an understanding with Monsieur, Gondi and Madame de Chevreuse,

suddenly arrested Conde, Conti and Longueville (January 14, 1650). The

war which followed this _coup_ is called the "Princes' Fronde." This

time it was Turenne, before and afterwards the most loyal soldier of his

day, who headed the armed rebellion. Listening to the promptings of his

Egeria, Madame de Longueville, he resolved to rescue her brother, his

old comrade of Freiburg and Nordlingen. It was with Spanish assistance

that he hoped to do so; and a powerful army of that nation assembled in

Artois under the archduke Leopold, governor-general of the Spanish

Netherlands. But the peasants of the country-side rose against the

invaders, the royal army in Champagne was in the capable hands of Cesar

de Choiseul, comte du Plessis-Praslin, who counted fifty-two years of

age and thirty-six of war experience, and the little fortress of Guise

successfully resisted the archduke's attack. Thereupon, however, Mazarin

drew upon Plessis-Praslin's army for reinforcements to be sent to

subdue the rebellion in the south, and the royal general had to retire.

Then, happily for France, the archduke decided that he had spent

sufficient of the king of Spain's money and men in the French quarrel.

The magnificent regular army withdrew into winter quarters, and left

Turenne to deliver the princes with a motley host of Frondeurs and

Lorrainers. Plessis-Praslin by force and bribery secured the surrender

of Rethel on the 13th of December 1650, and Turenne, who had advanced to

relieve the place, fell back hurriedly. But he was a terrible opponent,

and Plessis-Praslin and Mazarin himself, who accompanied the army, had

many misgivings as to the result of a lost battle. The marshal chose

nevertheless to force Turenne to a decision, and the battle of

Blanc-Champ (near Somme-Py) or Rethel was the consequence. Both sides

were at a standstill in strong positions, Plessis-Praslin doubtful of

the trustworthiness of his cavalry, Turenne too weak to attack, when a

dispute for precedence arose between the _Gardes francaises_ and the

_Picardie_ regiment. The royal infantry had to be rearranged in order of

regimental seniority, and Turenne, seeing and desiring to profit by the

attendant disorder, came out of his stronghold and attacked with the

greatest vigour. The battle (December 15, 1650) was severe and for a

time doubtful, but Turenne's Frondeurs gave way in the end, and his

army, as an army, ceased to exist. Turenne himself, undeceived as to the

part he was playing in the drama, asked and received the young king's

pardon, and meantime the court, with the _maison du roi_ and other loyal

troops, had subdued the minor risings without difficulty (March-April

1651). Conde, Conti and Longueville were released, and by April 1651 the

rebellion had everywhere collapsed. Then followed a few months of hollow

peace and the court returned to Paris. Mazarin, an object of hatred to

all the princes, had already retired into exile. "Le temps est un galant

homme," he remarked, "laissons le faire!" and so it proved. His absence

left the field free for mutual jealousies, and for the remainder of the

year anarchy reigned in France. In December 1651 Mazarin returned with a

small army. The war began again, and this time Turenne and Conde were

pitted against one another. After the first campaign, as we shall see,

the civil war ceased, but for several other campaigns the two great

soldiers were opposed to one another, Turenne as the defender of France,

Conde as a Spanish invader. Their personalities alone give threads of

continuity to these seven years of wearisome manoeuvres, sieges and

combats, though for a right understanding of the causes which were to

produce the standing armies of the age of Louis XIV. and Frederick the

Great the military student should search deeply into the material and

moral factors that here decided the issue.

The debut of the new Frondeurs took place in Guyenne (February-March

1652), while their Spanish ally, the archduke Leopold William, captured

various northern fortresses. On the Loire, whither the centre of gravity

was soon transferred, the Frondeurs were commanded by intriguers and

quarrelsome lords, until Conde's arrival from Guyenne. His bold

trenchant leadership made itself felt in the action of Bleneau (7th

April 1652), in which a portion of the royal army was destroyed, but

fresh troops came up to oppose him, and from the skilful dispositions

made by his opponents Conde felt the presence of Turenne and broke off

the action. The royal army did likewise. Conde invited the commander of

Turenne's rearguard to supper, chaffed him unmercifully for allowing the

prince's men to surprise him in the morning, and by way of farewell

remarked to his guest, "Quel dommage que des braves gens comme nous se

coupent la gorge pour un faquin"--an incident and a remark that

thoroughly justify the iron-handed absolutism of Louis XIV. There was no

hope for France while tournaments on a large scale and at the public's

expense were fashionable amongst the _grands seigneurs_. After Bleneau

both armies marched to Paris to negotiate with the parlement, de Retz

and Mlle de Montpensier, while the archduke took more fortresses in

Flanders, and Charles IV., duke of Lorraine, with an army of plundering

mercenaries, marched through Champagne to join Conde. As to the latter,

Turenne manoeuvred past Conde and planted himself in front of the

mercenaries, and their leader, not wishing to expend his men against the

old French regiments, consented to depart with a money payment and the

promise of two tiny Lorraine fortresses. A few more manoeuvres, and the

royal army was able to hem in the Frondeurs in the Faubourg St Antoine

(2nd July 1652) with their backs to the closed gates of Paris. The

royalists attacked all along the line and won a signal victory in spite

of the knightly prowess of the prince and his great lords, but at the

critical moment Gaston's daughter persuaded the Parisians to open the

gates and to admit Conde's army. She herself turned the guns of the

Bastille on the pursuers. An insurrectional government was organized in

the capital and proclaimed Monsieur lieutenant-general of the realm.

Mazarin, feeling that public opinion was solidly against him, left

France again, and the bourgeois of Paris, quarrelling with the princes,

permitted the king to enter the city on the 21st of October 1652.

Mazarin returned unopposed in February 1653.

The Fronde as a civil war was now over. The whole country, wearied of

anarchy and disgusted with the princes, came to look to the king's party

as the party of order and settled government, and thus the Fronde

prepared the way for the absolutism of Louis XIV. The general war

continued in Flanders, Catalonia and Italy wherever a Spanish and a

French garrison were face to face, and Conde with the wreck of his army

openly and definitely entered the service of the king of Spain. The

"Spanish Fronde" was almost purely a military affair and, except for a

few outstanding incidents, a dull affair to boot. In 1653 France was so

exhausted that neither invaders nor defenders were able to gather

supplies to enable them to take the field till July. At one moment, near

Peronne, Conde had Turenne at a serious disadvantage, but he could not

galvanize the Spanish general Count Fuensaldana, who was more solicitous

to preserve his master's soldiers than to establish Conde as mayor of

the palace to the king of France, and the armies drew apart again

without fighting. In 1654 the principal incident was the siege and

relief of Arras. On the night of the 24th-25th August the lines of

circumvallation drawn round that place by the prince were brilliantly

stormed by Turenne's army, and Conde won equal credit for his safe

withdrawal of the besieging corps under cover of a series of bold

cavalry charges led by himself as usual, sword in hand. In 1655 Turenne

captured the fortresses of Landrecies, Conde and St Ghislain. In 1656

the prince of Conde revenged himself for the defeat of Arras by storming

Turenne's circumvallation around Valenciennes (16th July), but Turenne

drew off his forces in good order. The campaign of 1657 was uneventful,

and is only to be remembered because a body of 6000 British infantry,

sent by Cromwell in pursuance of his treaty of alliance with Mazarin,

took part in it. The presence of the English contingent and its very

definite purpose of making Dunkirk a new Calais, to be held by England

for ever, gave the next campaign a character of certainty and decision

which is entirely wanting in the rest of the war. Dunkirk was besieged

promptly and in great force, and when Don Juan of Austria and Conde

appeared with the relieving army from Furnes, Turenne advanced boldly to

meet him. The battle of the Dunes, fought on the 14th of June 1658, was

the first real trial of strength since the battle of the Faubourg St

Antoine. Successes on one wing were compromised by failure on the other,

but in the end Conde drew off with heavy losses, the success of his own

cavalry charges having entirely failed to make good the defeat of the

Spanish right wing amongst the Dunes. Here the "red-coats" made their

first appearance on a continental battlefield, under the leadership of

Sir W. Lockhart, Cromwell's ambassador at Paris, and astonished both

armies by the stubborn fierceness of their assaults, for they were the

products of a war where passions ran higher and the determination to win

rested on deeper foundations than in the _degringolade_ of the feudal

spirit in which they now figured. Dunkirk fell, as a result of the

victory, and flew the St George's cross till Charles II. sold it to the

king of France. A last desultory campaign followed in 1659--the

twenty-fifth year of the Franco-Spanish War--and the peace of the

Pyrenees was signed on the 5th of November. On the 27th of January 1660

the prince asked and obtained at Aix the forgiveness of Louis XIV. The

later careers of Turenne and Conde as the great generals--and obedient

subjects--of their sovereign are described in the article DUTCH WARS.

For the many memoirs and letters of the time see the list in G.

Monod's _Bibliographie de l'histoire de France_ (Paris, 1888). The

_Lettres du cardinal Mazarin_ have been collected in nine volumes

(Paris, 1878-1906). See P. Adolphe Cheruel, _Histoire de France

pendant la minorite de Louis XIV_ (4 vols., 1879-1880), and his

_Histoire de France sous le ministere de Mazarin_ (3 vols., 1883); L.

C. de Beaupoil de Sainte-Aulaire, _Histoire de la Fronde_ (2nd ed., 2

vols., 1860); "Arvede Barine" (Mme Charles Vincens), _La Jeunesse de

la grande mademoiselle_ (Paris, 1902); Duc d'Aumale, _Histoire des

princes de Conde_ (Paris, 1889-1896, 7 vols.). The most interesting

account of the military operations is in General Hardy de Perini's

_Turenne et Conde_ (_Batailles francaises_, vol. iv.).

FRONTENAC ET PALLUAU, LOUIS DE BUADE, COMTE DE (1620-1698),

French-Canadian statesman, governor and lieutenant-general for the

French king in _La Nouvelle France_ (Canada), son of Henri de Buade,

colonel in the regiment of Navarre, was born in the year 1620. The

details of his early life are meagre, as no trace of the Frontenac

papers has been discovered. The de Buades, however, were a family of

distinction in the principality of Bearn. Antoine de Buade, seigneur de

Frontenac, grandfather of the future governor of Canada, attained

eminence as a councillor of state under Henri IV.; and his children were

brought up with the dauphin, afterwards Louis XIII. Louis de Buade

entered the army at an early age. In the year 1635 he served under the

prince of Orange in Holland, and fought with credit and received many

wounds during engagements in the Low Countries and in Italy. He was

promoted to the rank of colonel in the regiment of Normandy in 1643, and

three years later, after distinguishing himself at the siege of

Orbitello, where he had an arm broken, he was made _marechal de camp_.

His service seems to have been continuous until the conclusion of the

peace of Westphalia in 1648, when he returned to his father's house in

Paris and married, without the consent of her parents, Anne de la

Grange-Trianon, a girl of great beauty, who later became the friend and

confidante of Madame de Montpensier. The marriage was not a happy one,

and after the birth of a son incompatibility of temper led to a

separation, the count retiring to his estate on the Indre, where by an

extravagant course of living he became hopelessly involved in debt.

Little is known of his career for the next fifteen years beyond the fact

that he held a high position at court; but in the year 1669, when France

sent a contingent to assist the Venetians in the defence of Crete

against the Turks, Frontenac was placed in command of the troops on the

recommendation of Turenne. In this expedition he won military glory; but

his fortune was not improved thereby.

At this period the affairs of New France claimed the attention of the

French court. From the year 1665 the colony had been successfully

administered by three remarkable men--Daniel de Remy de Courcelle, the

governor, Jean Talon, the intendant, and the marquis de Tracy, who had

been appointed lieutenant-general for the French king in America; but a

difference of opinion had arisen between the governor and the intendant,

and each had demanded the other's recall in the public interest. At this

crisis in the administration of New France, Frontenac was appointed to

succeed de Courcelle. The new governor arrived in Quebec on the 12th of

September 1672. From the commencement it was evident that he was

prepared to give effect to a policy of colonial expansion, and to

exercise an independence of action that did not coincide with the views

of the monarch or of his minister Colbert. One of the first acts of the

governor, by which he sought to establish in Canada the three

estates--nobles, clergy and people--met with the disapproval of the

French court, and measures were adopted to curb his ambition by

increasing the power of the sovereign council and by reviving the office

of intendant. Frontenac, however, was a man of dominant spirit, jealous

of authority, prepared to exact obedience from all and to yield to none.

In the course of events he soon became involved in quarrels with the

intendant touching questions of precedence, and with the ecclesiastics,

one or two of whom ventured to criticize his proceedings. The church in

Canada had been administered for many years by the religious orders; for

the see of Quebec, so long contemplated, had not yet been erected. But

three years after the arrival of Frontenac a former vicar apostolic,

Francois Xavier de Laval de Montmorenci, returned to Quebec as bishop,

with a jurisdiction over the whole of Canada. In this redoubtable

churchman the governor found a vigorous opponent who was determined to

render the state subordinate to the church. Frontenac, following in this

respect in the footsteps of his predecessors, had issued trading

licences which permitted the sale of intoxicants. The bishop, supported

by the intendant, endeavoured to suppress this trade and sent an

ambassador to France to obtain remedial action. The views of the bishop

were upheld and henceforth authority was divided. Troubles ensued

between the governor and the sovereign council, most of the members of

which sided with the one permanent power in the colony--the bishop;

while the suspicions and intrigues of the intendant, Duchesneau, were a

constant source of vexation and strife. As the king and his minister had

to listen to and adjudicate upon the appeals from the contending parties

their patience was at last worn out, and both governor and intendant

were recalled to France in the year 1682. During Frontenac's first

administration many improvements had been made in the country. The

defences had been strengthened, a fort was built at Cataraqui (now

Kingston), Ontario, bearing the governor's name, and conditions of peace

had been fairly maintained between the Iroquois on the one hand and the

French and their allies, the Ottawas and the Hurons, on the other. The

progress of events during the next few years proved that the recall of

the governor had been ill-timed. The Iroquois were assuming a

threatening attitude towards the inhabitants, and Frontenac's successor,

La Barre, was quite incapable of leading an army against such cunning

foes. At the end of a year La Barre was replaced by the marquis de

Denonville, a man of ability and courage, who, though he showed some

vigour in marching against the western Iroquois tribes, angered rather

than intimidated them, and the massacre of Lachine (5th of August 1689)

must be regarded as one of the unhappy results of his administration.

The affairs of the colony were now in a critical condition; a man of

experience and decision was needed to cope with the difficulties, and

Louis XIV., who was not wanting in sagacity, wisely made choice of the

choleric count to represent and uphold the power of France. When,

therefore, on the 15th of October 1689, Frontenac arrived in Quebec as

governor for the second time, he received an enthusiastic welcome, and

confidence was at once restored in the public mind. Quebec was not long

to enjoy the blessing of peace. On the 16th of October 1690 several New

England ships under the command of Sir William Phipps appeared off the

Island of Orleans, and an officer was sent ashore to demand the

surrender of the fort. Frontenac, bold and fearless, sent a defiant

answer to the hostile admiral, and handled so vigorously the forces he

had collected as completely to repulse the enemy, who in their hasty

retreat left behind a few pieces of artillery on the Beauport shore. The

prestige of the governor was greatly increased by this event, and he was

prepared to follow up his advantage by an attack on Boston from the sea,

but his resources were inadequate for the undertaking. New France now

rejoiced in a brief respite from her enemies, and during the interval

Frontenac encouraged the revival of the drama at the Chateau St-Louis

and paid some attention to the social life of the colony. The Indians,

however, were not yet subdued, and for two years a petty warfare was

maintained. In 1696 Frontenac decided to take the field against the

Iroquois, although at this time he was seventy-six years of age. On the

6th of July he left Lachine at the head of a considerable force for the

village of the Onondagas, where he arrived a month later. In the

meantime the Iroquois had abandoned their villages, and as pursuit was

impracticable the army commenced its return march on the 10th of August.

The old warrior endured the fatigue of the march as well as the youngest

soldier, and for his courage and prowess he received the cross of St

Louis. Frontenac died on the 28th of November 1698 at the Chateau

St-Louis after a brief illness, deeply mourned by the Canadian people.

The faults of the governor were those of temperament, which had been

fostered by early environment. His nature was turbulent, and from his

youth he had been used to command; but underlying a rough exterior there

was evidence of a kindly heart. He was fearless, resourceful and

decisive, and triumphed as few men could have done over the difficulties

and dangers of a most critical position.

See _Count Frontenac_, by W. D. Le Sueur (Toronto, 1906); _Count

Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV_, by Francis Parkman (Boston,

1878); _Le Comte de Frontenac_, by Henri Lorin (Paris, 1895);

_Frontenac et ses amis_, by Ernest Myrand (Quebec, 1902).

(A. G. D.)

FRONTINUS, SEXTUS JULIUS (c. A.D. 40-103), Roman soldier and author. In

70 he was city praetor, and five years later was sent into Britain to

succeed Petilius Cerealis as governor of that island. He subdued the

Silures, and held the other native tribes in check till he was

superseded by Agricola (78). In 97 he was appointed superintendant of

the aqueducts (_curator aquarum_) at Rome, an office only conferred upon

persons of very high standing. He was also a member of the college of

augurs. His chief work is _De aquis urbis Romae_, in two books,

containing a history and description of the water-supply of Rome,

including the laws relating to its use and maintenance, and other

matters of importance in the history of architecture. Frontinus also

wrote a theoretical treatise on military science (_De re militari_)

which is lost. His _Strategematicon libri iii._ is a collection of

examples of military stratagems from Greek and Roman history, for the

use of officers; a fourth book, the plan and style of which is different

from the rest (more stress is laid on the moral aspects of war, e.g.

discipline), is the work of another writer (best edition by G.

Gundermann, 1888). Extracts from a treatise on land-surveying ascribed

to Frontinus are preserved in Lachmann's _Gromatici veteres_ (1848).

A valuable edition of the _De aquis_ (text and translation) has been

published by C. Herschel (Boston, Mass., 1899). It contains numerous

illustrations; maps of the routes of the ancient aqueducts and the

city of Rome in the time of Frontinus; a photographic reproduction of

the only MS. (the Monte Cassino); several explanatory chapters, and a

concise bibliography, in which special reference is made to P. d

Tissot, _Etude sur la condition des agrimensores_ (1879). There is a

complete edition of the works by A. Dederich (1855), and an English

translation of the _Strategematica_ by R. Scott (1816).

FRONTISPIECE (through the French, from Med. Lat. _frontispicium_, a

front view, _frons_, _frontis_, forehead or front, and _specere_, to

look at; the English spelling is a mistaken adaptation to "piece"), an

architectural term for the principal front of a building, but more

generally applied to a richly decorated entrance doorway, if projecting

slightly only in front of the main wall, otherwise portal or porch would

be a more correct term. The word, however, is more used for a decorative

design or the representation of some subject connected with the

substance of a book and placed as the first illustrated page. A design

at the end of the chapter of a book is called a tail-piece.

FRONTO, MARCUS CORNELIUS (c. A.D. 100-170), Roman grammarian,

rhetorician and advocate, was born of an Italian family at Cirta in

Numidia. He came to Rome in the reign of Hadrian, and soon gained such

renown as an advocate and orator as to be reckoned inferior only to

Cicero. He amassed a large fortune, erected magnificent buildings and

purchased the famous gardens of Maecenas. Antoninus Pius, hearing of his

fame, appointed him tutor to his adopted sons Marcus Aurelius and Lucius

Verus. In 143 he was consul for two months, but declined the

proconsulship of Asia on the ground of ill-health. His latter years were

embittered by the loss of all his children except one daughter. His

talents as an orator and rhetorician were greatly admired by his

contemporaries, a number of whom formed themselves into a school called

after him Frontoniani, whose avowed object it was to restore the ancient

purity and simplicity of the Latin language in place of the

exaggerations of the Greek sophistical school. However praiseworthy the

intention may have been, the list of authors specially recommended does

not speak well for Fronto's literary taste. The authors of the Augustan

age are unduly depreciated, while Ennius, Plautus, Laberius, Sallust are

held up as models of imitation. Till 1815 the only extant works ascribed

(erroneously) to Fronto were two grammatical treatises, _De nominum

verborumque differentiis_ and _Exempla elocutionum_ (the last being

really by Arusianus Messius). In that year, however, Angelo Mai

discovered in the Ambrosian library at Milan a palimpsest manuscript

(and, later, some additional sheets of it in the Vatican), on which had

been originally written some of Fronto's letters to his royal pupils and

their replies. These palimpsests had originally belonged to the famous

convent of St Columba at Bobbio, and had been written over by the monks

with the acts of the first council of Chalcedon. The letters, together

with the other fragments in the palimpsest, were published at Rome in

1823. Their contents falls far short of the writer's great reputation.

The letters consist of correspondence with Antoninus Pius, Marcus

Aurelius and Lucius Verus, in which the character of Fronto's pupils

appears in a very favourable light, especially in the affection they

both seem to have retained for their old master; and letters to friends,

chiefly letters of recommendation. The collection also contains

treatises on eloquence, some historical fragments, and literary trifles

on such subjects as the praise of smoke and dust, of negligence, and a

dissertation on Arion. "His style is a laborious mixture of archaisms, a

motley cento, with the aid of which he conceals the poverty of his

knowledge and ideas." His chief merit consists in having preserved

extracts from ancient writers which would otherwise have been lost.

The best edition of his works is by S. A. Naber (1867), with an

account of the palimpsest; see also G. Boissier, "Marc-Aurele et les

lettres de F.," in _Revue des deux mondes_ (April 1868); R. Ellis, in

_Journal of Philology_ (1868) and _Correspondence of Fronto and M.

Aurelius_ (1904); and the full bibliography in the article by Brzoska

in the new edition of Pauly's _Realencyclopadie der classischen

Altertumswissenschaft_, iv. pt. i. (1900).

FROSINONE (anc. _Frusino_), a town of Italy in the province of Rome,

from which it is 53 m. E.S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) town, 9530; commune,

11,029. The place is picturesquely situated on a hill of 955 ft. above

sea-level, but contains no buildings of interest. Of the ancient city

walls a small fragment alone is preserved, and no other traces of

antiquity are visible, not even of the amphitheatre which it once

possessed, for which a ticket (_tessera_) has been found (Th. Mommsen in

_Ber. d. Sachsischen Gesellschaft d. Wissenschaften_, 1849, 286). It was

a Volscian, not a Hernican, town; a part of its territory was taken from

it about 306-303 B.C. by the Romans and sold. The town then became a

_praefectura_, probably with the _civitas sine suffragio_, and later a

colony, but we hear nothing important of it. It was situated just above

the Via Latina. (T. As.)

FROSSARD, CHARLES AUGUSTE (1807-1875), French general, was born on the

26th of April 1807, and entered the army from the Ecole Polytechnique in

1827, being posted to the engineers. He took part in the siege of Rome

in 1849 and in that of Sebastopol in 1855, after which he was promoted

general of brigade. Four years later as general of division, and chief

of engineers in the Italian campaign, he attracted the particular notice

of the emperor Napoleon III., who made him in 1867 chief of his military

household and governor to the prince imperial. He was one of the

superior military authorities who in this period 1866-1870 foresaw and

endeavoured to prepare for the inevitable war with Germany, and at the

outbreak of war he was given by Napoleon the choice between a corps

command and the post of chief engineer at headquarters. He chose the

command of the II. corps. On the 6th of August 1870 he held the position

of Spicheren against the Germans until the arrival of reinforcements for

the latter, and the non-appearance of the other French corps compelled

him to retire. After this he took part in the battles around Metz, and

was involved with his corps in the surrender of Bazaine's army. General

Frossard published in 1872 a _Rapport sur les operations du 2^e corps_.

He died at Chateau-Villain (Haute-Marne) on the 25th of August 1875.

FROST, WILLIAM EDWARD (1810-1877), English painter, was born at

Wandsworth, near London, in September 1810. About 1825, through William

Etty, R.A., he was sent to a drawing school in Bloomsbury, and after

several years' study there, and in the sculpture rooms at the British

Museum, Frost was in 1829 admitted as a student in the schools of the

Royal Academy. He won medals in all the schools, except the antique, in

which he was beaten by Maclise. During those years he maintained himself

by portrait-painting. He is said to have painted about this time over

300 portraits. In 1839 he obtained the gold medal of the Royal Academy

for his picture of "Prometheus bound by Force and Strength." At the

cartoon exhibition at Westminster Hall in 1843 he was awarded a

third-class prize of L100 for his cartoon of "Una alarmed by Fauns and

Satyrs." He exhibited at the Academy "Christ crowned with Thorns"

(1843), "Nymphs dancing" (1844), "Sabrina" (1845), "Diana and Actaeon"

(1846). In 1846 he was elected Associate of the Royal Academy. His

"Nymph disarming Cupid" was exhibited in 1847; "Una and the Wood-Nymphs"

of the same year was bought by the queen. This was the time of Frost's

highest popularity, which considerably declined after 1850. His later

pictures are simply repetitions of earlier motives. Among them may be

named "Euphrosyne" (1848), "Wood-Nymphs" (1851), "Chastity" (1854), "Il

Penseroso" (1855), "The Graces" (1856), "Narcissus" (1857), "Zephyr with

Aurora playing" (1858), "The Graces and Loves" (1863), "Hylas and the

Nymphs" (1867). Frost was elected to full membership of the Royal

Academy in December 1871. This dignity, however, he soon resigned. Frost

had no high power of design, though some of his smaller and apparently

less important works are not without grace and charm. Technically, his

paintings are, in a sense, very highly finished, but they are entirely

without mastery. He died on the 4th of June 1877.