[1] At the time referred to, and during the Commonwealth, the pulpits
of the cathedrals and churches were occupied by Episcopalians of the
Richard Baxter type, Presbyterians, Independents and a few Baptists.
It is these, and not the clergy of the Church of England, who are
continually referred to by George Fox as "priests."
[2] On the whole subject of preaching "after the priest had done,"
see Barclay's _Inner Life of the Religious Societies of the
Commonwealth_, ch. xii.
[3] Woolman's _Journal_ and _Works_ are remarkable. He had a vision
of a political economy based not on selfishness but on love, not on
desire but on self-denial.
[4] See _A History of the Adult School Movement_ by J. W. Rowntree
and H. B. Binns. The organ of the movement is One and All, published
monthly. See also _The Adult School Year Book_.
FRIES, ELIAS MAGNUS (1794-1878), Swedish botanist, was born at Femsjo,
Smaland, on the 15th of August 1794. From his father, the pastor of the
church at Femsjo, he early acquired an extensive knowledge of flowering
plants. In 1811 he entered the university of Lund, where in 1814 he was
elected docent of botany and in 1824 professor. In 1834 he became
professor of practical economy at Upsala, and in 1844 and 1848 he
represented the university of that city in the Rigsdag. On the death of
Goran Wahlenberg (1780-1851) he was appointed professor of botany at
Upsala, where he died on the 8th of February 1878. Fries was admitted a
member of the Swedish Royal Academy in 1847, and a foreign member of the
Royal Society of London in 1875.
As an author on the Cryptogamia he was in the first rank. He wrote
_Novitiae florae Suecicae_ (1814 and 1823); _Observationes
mycologicae_ (1815); _Flora Hollandica_ (1817-1818); _Systema
mycologicum_ (1821-1829); _Systema orbis vegetabilis_, not completed
(1825); _Elenchus fungorum_ (1828); _Lichenographia Europaea_ (1831);
_Epicrisis systematis mycologici_ (1838; 2nd ed., or _Hymenomycetes
Europaei_, 1874); _Summa vegetabilium Scandinaviae_ (1846); _Sveriges
atliga och giftiga Svampar_, with coloured plates (1860); _Monographia
hymenomycetum Suecicae_ (1863), with the _Icones hymenomycetum_, vol.
i. (1867), and pt. i. vol. ii. (1877).
FRIES, JAKOB FRIEDRICH (1773-1843), German philosopher, was born at
Barby, Saxony, on the 23rd of August 1773. Having studied theology in
the academy of the Moravian brethren at Niesky, and philosophy at
Leipzig and Jena, he travelled for some time, and in 1806 became
professor of philosophy and elementary mathematics at Heidelberg. Though
the progress of his psychological thought compelled him to abandon the
positive theology of the Moravians, he always retained an appreciation
of its spiritual or symbolic significance. His philosophical position
with regard to his contemporaries he had already made clear in the
critical work _Reinhold, Fichte und Schelling_ (1803; reprinted in 1824
as _Polemische Schriften_), and in the more systematic treatises _System
der Philosophie als evidente Wissenschaft_ (1804), _Wissen, Glaube und
Ahnung_ (1805, new ed. 1905). His most important treatise, the _Neue
oder anthropologische Kritik der Vernunft_ (2nd ed., 1828-1831), was an
attempt to give a new foundation of psychological analysis to the
critical theory of Kant. In 1811 appeared his _System der Logik_ (ed.
1819 and 1837), a very instructive work, and in 1814 _Julius und
Evagoras_, a philosophical romance. In 1816 he was invited to Jena to
fill the chair of theoretical philosophy (including mathematics and
physics, and philosophy proper), and entered upon a crusade against the
prevailing Romanticism. In politics he was a strong Liberal and
Unionist, and did much to inspire the organization of the
_Burschenschaft_. In 1816 he had published his views in a brochure, _Vom
deutschen Bund und deutscher Staatsverfassung_, dedicated to "the youth
of Germany," and his influence gave a powerful impetus to the agitation
which led in 1819 to the issue of the Carlsbad Decrees by the
representatives of the German governments. Karl Sand, the murderer of
Kotzebue, was one of his pupils; and a letter of his, found on another
student, warning the lad against participation in secret societies, was
twisted by the suspicious authorities into evidence of his guilt. He was
condemned by the Mainz Commission; the grand-duke of Weimar was
compelled to deprive him of his professorship; and he was forbidden to
lecture on philosophy. The grand-duke, however, continued to pay him his
stipend, and in 1824 he was recalled to Jena as professor of mathematics
and physics, receiving permission also to lecture on philosophy in his
own rooms to a select number of students. Finally, in 1838, the
unrestricted right of lecturing was restored to him. He died on the 10th
of August 1843.
The most important of the many works written during his Jena
professorate are the _Handbuch der praktischen Philosophie_
(1817-1832), the _Handbuch der psychischen Anthropologie_ (1820-1821,
2nd ed. 1837-1839), _Die mathematische Naturphilosophie_ (1822),
_System der Metaphysik_ (1824), _Die Geschichte der Philosophie_
(1837-1840). Fries's point of view in philosophy may be described as a
modified Kantianism, an attempt to reconcile the criticism of Kant and
Jacobi's philosophy of belief. With Kant he regarded _Kritik_, or the
critical investigation of the faculty of knowledge, as the essential
preliminary to philosophy. But he differed from Kant both as regards
the foundation for this criticism and as regards the metaphysical
results yielded by it. Kant's analysis of knowledge had disclosed the
a priori element as the necessary complement of the isolated a
posteriori facts of experience. But it did not seem to Fries that Kant
had with sufficient accuracy examined the mode in which we arrive at
knowledge of this a priori element. According to him we only know
these a priori principles through inner or psychical experience; they
are not then to be regarded as transcendental factors of all
experience, but as the necessary, constant elements discovered by us
in our inner experience. Accordingly Fries, like the Scotch school,
places psychology or analysis of consciousness at the foundation of
philosophy, and called his criticism of knowledge an anthropological
critique. A second point in which Fries differed from Kant is the view
taken as to the relation between immediate and mediate cognitions.
According to Fries, the understanding is purely the faculty of proof;
it is in itself void; immediate certitude is the only source of
knowledge. Reason contains principles which we cannot demonstrate, but
which can be deduced, and are the proper objects of belief. In this
view of reason Fries approximates to Jacobi rather than to Kant. His
most original idea is the graduation of knowledge into knowing, belief
and presentiment. We know phenomena, how the existence of things
appears to us in nature; we believe in the true nature, the eternal
essence of things (the good, the true, the beautiful); by means of
presentiment (_Ahnung_) the intermediary between knowledge and belief,
we recognize the supra-sensible in the sensible, the being in the
phenomenon.
See E. L. Henke, _J. F. Fries_ (1867); C. Grapengiesser, _J. F. Fries,
ein Gedenkblatt_ and _Kant's "Kritik der Vernunft" und deren
Fortbildung durch J. F. Fries_ (1882); H. Strasosky, _J. F. Fries als
Kritiker der Kantischen Erkenntnistheorie_ (1891); articles in Ersch
and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyklopadie_ and _Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie_; J. E. Erdmann, _Hist. of Philos._ (Eng. trans., London,
1890), vol. ii. S 305.
FRIES, JOHN (c. 1764-1825), American insurgent leader, was born in
Pennsylvania of "Dutch" (German) descent about 1764. As an itinerant
auctioneer he became well acquainted with the Germans in the S.E. part
of Pennsylvania. In July 1798, during the troubles between the United
States and France, Congress levied a direct tax (on dwelling-houses,
lands and slaves) of $2,000,000, of which Pennsylvania was called upon
to contribute $237,000. There were very few slaves in the state, and the
tax was accordingly assessed upon dwelling-houses and land, the value of
the houses being determined by the number and size of the windows. The
inquisitorial nature of the proceedings aroused strong opposition among
the Germans, and many of them refused to pay. Fries, assuming
leadership, organized an armed band of about sixty men, who marched
about the country intimidating the assessors and encouraging the people
to resist. At last the governor called out the militia (March 1799) and
the leaders were arrested. Fries and two others were twice tried for
treason (the second time before Samuel Chase) and were sentenced to be
hanged, but they were pardoned by President Adams in April 1800, and a
general amnesty was issued on 21st May. The affair is variously known as
the "Fries Rebellion," the "Hot-Water Rebellion"--because hot water was
used to drive assessors from houses--, and the "Home Tax Rebellion."
Fries died in Philadelphia in 1825.
See T. Carpenter, _Two Trials of John Fries ... Taken in Shorthand_
(Philadelphia, 1800); the second volume of McMaster's _History of the
United States_ (New York, 1883); and W. W. H. Davis, _The Fries
Rebellion_ (Doylestown, Pa., 1899).
FRIESLAND, or VRIESLAND, a province of Holland, bounded S.W., W. and N.
by the Zuider Zee and the North Sea, E. by Groningen and Drente, and
S.E. by Overysel. It also includes the islands of Ameland and
Schiermonnikoog (see FRISIAN ISLANDS). Area, 1281 sq. m.; pop. (1900)
340,262. The soil of Friesland falls naturally into three divisions
consisting of sea-clay in the north and north-west, of low-fen between
the south-west and north-east, and of a comparatively small area of
high-fen in the south-east. The clay and low-fen furnish a luxuriant
meadow-land for the principal industries of the province--cattle-rearing
and cheese- and butter-making. Horse-breeding has also been practised
for centuries, and the breed of black Frisian horse is well known. On
the clay lands agriculture is also extensively practised. In the
high-fen district peat-digging is the chief occupation. The effect of
this industry, however, is to lay bare a subsoil of diluvial sand which
offers little inducement for subsequent cultivation. Despite the general
productiveness of the soil, however, the social condition of Friesland
has remained in a backward state and poverty is rife in many districts.
The ownership of property being largely in the hands of absentee
landlords, the peasantry have little interest in the land, the profits
from which go to enrich other provinces. Moreover, the nature of the
fertility of the meadow-lands is such as to require little manual
labour, and other industrial means of subsistence have hardly yet come
into existence. This state of affairs has given rise to a
social-democratic outcry on account of which Friesland is sometimes
regarded as the "Ireland of Holland." The water system of the province
comprises a few small rivers (now largely canalized) in the high lands
in the east, and the vast network of canals, waterways and lakes of the
whole north and west. The principal lakes are Tjeuke Meer, Sloter Meer,
De Fluessen and Sneeker Meer. The tides being lowest on the north coast
of the province, the scheme of the Waterstaat, the government department
(dating from 1879), provides for the largest removal of superfluous
surface water into the Lauwerszee. But owing to the long distance which
the water must travel from certain parts of the province, and the
continual recession of the Lauwerszee, the drainage problem is a
peculiarly difficult one, and floods are sometimes inevitable.
The population of the province is evenly distributed in small villages.
The principal market centres are Leeuwarden, the chief towns, Sneek,
Bolsward, Franeker (qq.v.), Dokkum (4053) and Heerenveen (5011). With
the exception of Franeker and Heerenveen all these towns originally
arose on the inlet of the Middle Sea. The seaport towns are more or less
decayed; they include Stavoren (820), Hindeloopen (1030), Workum (3428),
Harlingen (q.v.) and Makkum (2456).
For history see FRISIANS.
FRIEZE. 1. (Through the Fr. _frise_, and Ital. _fregio_, from the Lat.
_Phrygium, sc. opus_, Phrygian or embroidered work), a term given in
architecture to the central division of the entablature of an order (see
ORDER), but also applied to any oblong horizontal feature, introduced
for decorative purposes and enriched with carving. The Doric frieze had
a structural origin as the triglyphs suggest vertical support. The Ionic
frieze was purely decorative and probably did not exist in the earliest
examples, if we may judge by the copies found in the Lycian tombs carved
in the rock. There is no frieze in the Caryatide portico of the
Erechtheum, but in the Ionic temples its introduction may have been
necessitated in consequence of more height being required in the
entablature to carry the beams supporting the lacunaria over the
peristyle. In the frieze of the Erechtheum the figures (about 2 ft.
high) were carved in white marble and affixed by clamps to a background
of black Eleusinian marble. The frieze of the Choragic monument of
Lysicrates (10 in. high) was carved with figures representing the story
of Dionysus and the pirates. The most remarkable frieze ever sculptured
was that on the outside of the wall of the cella of the Parthenon
representing the procession of the celebrants of the Panathenaic
Festival. It was 40 in. in height and 525 ft. long, being carried round
the whole building under the peristyle. Nearly the whole of the western
frieze exists _in situ_; of the remainder, about half is in the British
Museum, and as much as remains is either in Athens or in other museums.
In some of the Roman temples, as in the temple of Antoninus and Faustina
and the temple of the Sun, the frieze is elaborately carved and in later
work is made convex, to which the term "pulvinated" is given.
2. (Probably connected with "frizz," to curl; there is no historical
reason to connect the word with Friesland), a thick, rough woollen
cloth, of very lasting quality, and with a heavy nap, forming small
tufts or curls. It is largely manufactured in Ireland.
FRIGATE (Fr. _fregate_, Span. and Port. _fragata_; the etymology of the
word is obscure; it has been derived from the Late Lat. _fabricata_,
and the use of the Fr. _batiment_, for a vessel as well as a building is
compared; another suggestion derives the word from the Gr. [Greek:
aphraktos], unfenced or unguarded), originally a small swift, undecked
vessel, propelled by oars or sails, in use on the Mediterranean. The
word is thus used of the large open boats, without guns, used for war
purposes by the Portuguese in the East Indies during the 16th and 17th
centuries. The French first applied the term to a particular type of
ships of war during the second quarter of the 18th century. The Seven
Years' War (1756-1763) marked the definite adoption of the "frigate" as
a standard class of vessel, coming next to ships of the line, and used
for cruising and scouting purposes. They were three-masted, fully
rigged, fast vessels, with the main armament carried on a single deck,
and additional guns on the poop and forecastle. The number of guns
varied from 24 to 50, but between 30 and 40 guns was the usual amount
carried. "Frigate" continued to be used as the name for this type of
ship, even after the introduction of steam and of ironclad vessels, but
the class is now represented by that known as "cruiser."
FRIGATE-BIRD, the name commonly given by English sailors, on account of
the swiftness of its flight, its habit of cruising about near other
species and of daringly pursuing them, to a large sea-bird[1]--the
_Fregata aquila_ of most ornithologists--the _Fregatte_ of French and
the _Rabihorcado_ of Spanish mariners. It was placed by Linnaeus in the
genus _Pelecanus_, and its assignment to the family _Pelecanidae_ had
hardly ever been doubted till Professor St George Mivart declared
(_Trans. Zool. Soc._ x. p. 364) that, as regards the postcranial part of
its axial skeleton, he could not detect sufficiently good characters to
unite it with that family in the group named by Professor J. F. Brandt
_Steganopodes_. There seems to be no ground for disputing this decision
so far as separating the genus _Fregata_ from the _Pelecanidae_ goes,
but systematists will probably pause before they proceed to abolish the
_Steganopodes_, and the result will most likely be that the
frigate-birds will be considered to form a distinct family
(_Fregatidae_) in that group. In one very remarkable way the osteology
of _Fregata_ differs from that of all other birds known. The furcula
coalesces firmly at its symphysis with the carina of the sternum, and
also with the coracoids at the upper extremity of each of its rami, the
anterior end of each coracoid coalescing also with the proximal end of
the scapula. Thus the only articulations in the whole sternal apparatus
are where the coracoids meet the sternum, and the consequence is a bony
framework which would be perfectly rigid did not the flexibility of the
rami of the furcula permit a limited amount of motion. That this
mechanism is closely related to the faculty which the bird possesses of
soaring for a considerable time in the air with scarcely a perceptible
movement of the wings can hardly be doubted.
Two species of _Fregata_ are considered to exist, though they differ in
little but size and geographical distribution. The larger, _F. aquila_,
has a wide range all round the world within the tropics and at times
passes their limits. The smaller, _F. minor_, appears to be confined to
the eastern seas, from Madagascar to the Moluccas, and southward to
Australia, being particularly abundant in Torres Strait,--the other
species, however, being found there as well. Having a spread of wing
equal to a swan's and a very small body, the buoyancy of these birds is
very great. It is a beautiful sight to watch one or more of them
floating overhead against the deep blue sky, the long forked tail
alternately opening and shutting like a pair of scissors, and the head,
which is of course kept to windward, inclined from side to side, while
the wings are to all appearance fixedly extended, though the breeze may
be constantly varying in strength and direction. Equally fine is the
contrast afforded by these birds when engaged in fishing, or, as seems
more often to happen, in robbing other birds, especially boobies, as
they are fishing. Then the speed of their flight is indeed seen to
advantage, as well as the marvellous suddenness with which they can
change their rapid course as their victim tries to escape from their
attack. Before gales frigate-birds are said often to fly low, and their
appearance near or over land, except at their breeding-time, is supposed
to portend a hurricane.[2] Generally seen singly or in pairs, except
when the prospect of prey induces them to congregate, they breed in
large companies, and O. Salvin has graphically described (_Ibis_, 1864,
p. 375) one of their settlements off the coast of British Honduras,
which he visited in May 1862. Here they chose the highest
mangrove-trees[3] on which to build their frail nests, and seemed to
prefer the leeward side. The single egg laid in each nest has a white
and chalky shell very like that of a cormorant's. The nestlings are
clothed in pure white down, and so thickly as to resemble puff-balls.
When fledged, the beak, head, neck and belly are white, the legs and
feet bluish-white, but the body is dark above. The adult females retain
the white beneath, but the adult males lose it, and in both sexes at
maturity the upper plumage is of a very dark chocolate brown, nearly
black, with a bright metallic gloss, while the feet in the females are
pink, and black in the males--the last also acquiring a bright scarlet
pouch, capable of inflation, and being perceptible when on the wing. The
habits of _F. minor_ seem wholly to resemble those of _F. aquila_.
According to J. M. Bechstein, an example of this last species was
obtained at the mouth of the Weser in January 1792. (A. N.)