+---------+---------+-----------------+-----------+---------_A dictionary of the art of printing

+---------+---------+-----------------+-----------+-----------+

‎‎| ࠀ‎ | Alaph | Spiritus lenis. | 1. | א‎ |

‎‎| ࠁ‎ | Beth | B _or_ Bh. | 2. | ב‎ |

‎‎| ࠂ‎ | Gamal | G _or_ Gh. | 3. | ג‎ |

‎‎| ࠃ‎ | Dalath | D _or_ Dh. | 4. | ד‎ |

‎| ࠄ‎ | He | H. | 5. | ה‎ |

‎| ࠅ‎ | Vau | V _or_ U. | 6. | ו‎ |

‎| ࠆ‎ | Zain | Z. | 7. | ז‎ |

‎| ࠇ‎ | Cheth | Hh. | 8. | ח‎ |

‎| ࠈ‎ | Teth | T. | 9. | ט‎ |

‎| ࠉ‎ | Jud | J. | 10. | י‎ |

‎| ࠊ‎ | Caph | C _or_ Ch. | 20. | כ‎ |

‎| ࠋ‎ | Lamad | L. | 30. | ל‎ |

‎| ࠌ‎ | Mim | M. | 40. | מ‎ |

‎| ࠍ‎ | Nun | N. | 50. | נ‎ |

‎| ࠎ‎ | Semchat | S. | 60. | ס‎ |

‎| ࠏ‎ | Ain | Gn. | 70. | ע‎ |

‎| ࠐ‎ | Pe | P _or_ Ph. | 80. | פ‎ |

‎| ࠑ‎ | Tzade | Tz. | 90. | צ‎ |

‎| ࠒ‎ | Kuph | K. | 100. | ק‎ |

‎| ࠓ‎ | Risch | R. | 200. | ר‎ |

‎| ࠔ‎ | Schin | S _or_ Sch. | 300. | שׂ‎ שׁ‎ |

‎| ࠕ‎ | Thau | T _or_ Th. | 400. | ת‎ |

+---------+---------+-----------------+-----------+-----------+

It will be readily perceived that this is one of the most simple of

the Oriental alphabets, as there are no initials or medials, as is

the case with the Arabic and Syriac; there are no letters lengthened

for the sake of ornament, as in the Hebrew and Chaldee; and there are

no finals.

With respect to pronunciation, ࠀ‎ ࠇ‎ and ࠏ‎ seem to differ

very little from each other, if we may judge from their frequent

permutation.

In writing the numbers, they follow the Hebrew system of notation,

with this exception, that for 15 they use both ࠄࠉ‎ (10 and 5) with

the Syrians, and ࠅࠈ‎ (9 and 6) with the Jews.

The Samaritans are altogether destitute of vowel points, and their

power is to be collected from the cognate languages.

The quiescents are the same in Samaritan as in Hebrew and Chaldee,

namely, four, ࠀ‎, ࠄ‎, ࠅ‎, ࠉ‎. The situations and the points, by

which each becomes quiescent, are the same as in Hebrew.

The Samaritans use also certain points and lines in writing, partly

for the sake of distinction, and partly of abbreviation. The points

are as follow:--

1. A thick point placed near the top of the letter distinguishes

one word from another, thus ࠰ࠄࠄࠋࠀ ࠰ࠓࠌࠀࠅ‎ _and God said_.

2. An imperfect sentence is indicated by two transverse points,

in this manner, ࠰࠰ࠌࠉࠌࠋ‎ _saying_--

3. A period or perfect sentence is marked by two perpendicular

points, thus, ࠱ࠄࠌࠅࠄࠕ ࠰ࠉࠐࠀ ࠰ࠋࠏ‎ _upon the face of the deep_.

4. The beginning of every verse is marked by an asterisk, as,

‎‮-¦-‬ࠅࠀࠌࠓ࠰ࠀࠋࠄ࠰‎ _And God said_.

5. In long paragraphs a third point is added to the period, thus,

‮¦-‬‎, and in order to point off sections various lines are made

use of,as ‮:>-‬‎, ‮¦-—‬‎, in which much is left to fancy.

A line drawn above a letter denotes:--

1. That words with two meanings must not be received in their

more general signification, as, ࠓࠓࠓ̅ࠓ‎ bedebher, _in pestilence_,

not ࠓࠓࠓࠓ‎ bedabhar, _in a word_; ࠌࠔ̅‎ _Sem_, for a proper name,

not an appellative; ࠋࠀ̅‎ _El_, for the name of God, and not the

preposition.

2. Apocope, or elision of a letter, as, ࠕ̅ࠀ‎ for ࠄࠕࠀ‎‎ atta,

_thou_; ࠏ̅ࠔࠉࠅ‎ for ࠄࠏࠔࠉࠅ‎ _and he looked back_.

3. The mark of a quiescent letter, as, ࠉࠅ̅ࠔ‎ _he placed_.

4. The substitution of one letter for another, as, ࠕ̅ࠌࠔ‎ for

‎ࠔࠌࠄ‎ _his name_.

The preceding observations are abridged from the “Synopsis

Institutionum Samaritanarum” of George Otho, printed at

Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1707.

_Samaritan in the British Founderies._

_English._ Oxford.

_Pica._ Caslon. Grover, to James, to Fry, to Thorowgood and

Besley; cut for Walton’s Polyglot.

_Small Pica._ Fry, to Thorowgood and Besley.

SANSKRITA. The term _Sanskṛita_ seems to have been given to the

language so called by way of pre-eminence, and to distinguish it from

the vulgar dialects called _Prākṛita_. The former is an epithet

implying elegance and perfection, and the latter the contrary.

Several of the provinces of India have alphabets distinct from each

other, in which they not only write their particular dialects, but

even _Sanskṛita_. Indeed most of the alphabets, properly Indian,

agree in the number, order, and power of their letters, with the

_Dēva-nāgari_, the one here used, because it is that in which

_Sanskṛita_ is most commonly written, and which is the most elegant

and approved.

All languages of the Hindu class are read from left to right.

[Illustration: The Sanskrita Alphabet]

THE ALPHABET.

अ _a_, आ _ā_; इ _i_, ई _ī_; उ _u_, ऊ _ū_; ऋ _ri_, ॠ _ṛī_; ऌ _ḷri_,

ॡ _ḷrī_; ए _ē_, ऐ _ai_; ओ _ō_, औ _au_; ं _am_, ः _ah_.

+------------+--------------+-----------+-------------+-------------+

| | | | | |

| | | | | |

| ट _ṭa_, | ठ _ṭha_; | ड _ḍa_, | ढ _ḍha_, | ण _ṇa_. |

| | | | | |

| त _ta_, | थ _tha_; | द _da_, | ध _dha_; | न _na_. |

| | | | | |

| प _pa_, | फ _pha_; | ब _ba_, | भ _bha_; | म _ma_. |

| | | | | |

| य _ya_, | र _ra_; | ल _la_, | व _va_. | |

| | | | | |

| ष _ṣa_, | श _sha_; | स _sa_, | ह _ha_. | [#] _ksha_. |

+------------+--------------+-----------+-------------+-------------+

In speaking of the letters individually, it is the practice to use

the term कार: _kārah_ (make, form) after each of their names as here

exhibited: thus the vowel अ _a_, is called अकार: _a-kārah_; and the

consonant क _ka_, ककार: _ka-kārah_.

OF THE VOWELS.

The simple vowels are reckoned five; for which there are ten

characters: अ _a_, इ _i_, उ _u_, ऋ _ṛi_, ऌ _ḷri_, to denote the

short sounds; and आ _ā_, ई _ī_, ऊ _ū_, ॠ _ṛī_, ॡ _ḷrī_ their

corresponding long sounds, which are directed to be held twice the

time of the short.

Most of the vowels, occasionally, assume a very different shape from

that exhibited in the alphabet, which the following arrangement may

serve to explain.

_As Initials._

अ आ इ ई उ ऊ ऋ ॠ ऌ ॡ ए ऐ ओ औ

_As Medials and Finals._

ऻ ि ी ु ू ृ ॄ ॖ ॗ े ै ो ौ

_Initials, Medials, and Finals, in composition with a Consonant._

अक _aka_, आका _ākā_, इकि _iki_, ईकी _īkī_, उकु _uku_, ऊकू _ūkū_, ऋकृ

_ṛikṛi_, ॠकॄ _ṛīkṛī_,

ऌकॢ _ḷrikḷri_, ॡकॣ _ḷrīkḷrī_, एके _ēkē_, ऐकै _aikai_, ओको _ōkō_,

औकौ_aukau_.

In this manner the vowels may be combined with any other consonant.

As the letters have the same powers in composition which are given to

them in the alphabet, and do not, as in our language, change their

sound with their situation, a few observations on the pronunciation

of each character in due order, may enable a person to read with

tolerable accuracy and ease.

अ _a_, the first letter in the alphabet, has that obscure short sound

which the French give to _e_, in the particle _le_, and which is

very common in our language, though there be no distinct character

for it; as in the words _money_, _honey_, and some others, where it

is represented by _o_; and in _but_, _shut_, and the like, where _u_

is the substitute. The letter अ never makes its appearance but as an

initial; for when the sound of it is required after a consonant, as

a medial or final, it is pronounced with it as in the alphabet; it

being an invariable rule, that every open consonant, not followed by

another vowel, must be pronounced as if अ _a_ were written after it.

आ _ā_ should have the same sound as is given to the former, held

twice the length. It occurs, as a medial, in the word काला _kāla_,

Time, the first syllable of which is pronounced nearly like the

English word _call_. As a medial and final its character is [#].

इ _i_, and ई _ī_, are two characters to note the sound which the

Italians give to the vowel _i_. The former is to be pronounced

short, like _ee_ in _meet_ (encounter), and the latter long, like

the same letters in _meet_ (fit). After a consonant, as a medial and

final, as has been already observed, they are changed to ि and ी ,

which are placed as in the words मणि: _manih_, A jewel, and देवी

_dēvī_, A goddess.

उ _u_, and ऊ _ū_, are to be articulated like _oo_ in the English

words _foot_, and _fool_. After a consonant they are usually

subjoined; as in पुत्र: _putrah_, A son, and भू: _bhūh_, The earth;

but occasionally, particularly after र _r_, on the side, thus रु

_ru_, रू _rū_.

ऋ _ṛi_, and ॠ _ṛī_. The first of these sounds short, somewhat

like _ri_ in _rit_; and the second is the same held twice as long.

ॠ _ṛi_ short occurs in ऋत _ṛita_, Right, True. The other is very

rarely used, except it be in the oblique cases of some nouns. In our

characters a dot under the _ṛ_ may serve to distinguish them from

the syllables रि _ri_ and री _rī_. As medials or finals they are

always placed under their consonants, in this form, नृ _nṛi_, नॄ

_nṛī_.

ऌ _ḷri_, and ॡ _ḷrī_. The short power is found in the word कॢप्त

_kḷripta_, which the learned of Bengal soften into _kḷipta_, and

which, probably, is the true pronunciation of it. The long form

seldom, if ever, occurs but in grammars. Here too a dot under the

_ḷ_ will serve as a distinction, when we would explain them.

ए _ē_, though classed among diphthongs, differs not from the simple

sound of _e_ in _where_; and so it is pronounced in [###] _dēvah_, A

god. It is said to be a compound of अ _a_ and इ _i_.

ऐ _ai_ is a diphthong, and is always sounded as the letter _i_ in our

alphabet; but it will be better to represent it by _ai_. There is an

example of it in the word रै: _raih_, Wealth.

ओ _ō_ differs not from our o held long, as in _stone_; though it is

said to be a diphthong composed of अ _a_ and उ _u_.

औ _au_ is decidedly a diphthong, having the power of _ow_ in the word

_how_; which in these letters would be written thus, हौ _hau_.

Here properly end the vowels, for ं _am_, and : _ah_, are,

correctly speaking, rather substitutes for the nasals, and ह _ha_,

when silent, at the end of a syllable. They are called अनुस्वार:

_anuswārah_, and विसर्ग: _visargah_. The one occurs in the pronouns

अहं _aham_, I, and त्वं _twam_, Thou, and the other in स: _sah_, He.

OF THE CONSONANTS.

The first five-and-twenty consonants are distributed into five

classes, in the plural number called वर्गा: _vargāh_; in speaking

of which, they are named after the first letter of each class: the

first class being called कवर्ग: _ka-vargah_, the class of क _ka_;

the second चवर्ग: _cha-vargah_, the class of च _cha_; and so for the

rest. Some grammarians use the first letter of each class combined

with उ, to denote all the letters in each class respectively, as,

कु _ku_, for the first; चु _chu_, for the second; टु _ṭu_, for the

third; तु _tu_, for the fourth; and पु _pu_, for the fifth class.

_The First Class, or Gutturals, क ख ह घ ङ._

क _ka_ has the precise sound of hard _c_, but is better expressed by

_k_, the power of which not being liable to change.

ख _kha_ has the same sound uttered with greater force, as if combined

with the letter ह _ha_. Ignorant transcribers are very apt to

confound it with the letter श _sha_.

ग _ga_ is the hard _g_, as sounded in _gun_.

घ _gha_ is the same aspirated.

ङ _nga_ is equivalent to _ng_ in _king_. Generally speaking, every

other nasal is resolved into this, before any letter of this class;

or, at least, to be pronounced like it. In Dēva-nāgari manuscripts,

it is, when silent, for the most part represented by the single dot

[ं] अनुस्वार: _anuswāra_.

च छ ज छ ञ _The Second Class, or Palatals, च छ ज छ ञ._

च _cha_ has the exact power we express by _ch_, as in _church_.

छ _ch’ha_ is the former aspirated.

ज _ja_ has the power of _g_ soft, as in _Giles_; but will be more

certainly expressed by _j_, as in _James_.

छ _jha_ is the aspirate of the former.

ञ _ṇa_. This is the proper nasal of this class, which in composition

is sounded rather softer than ङ _nga_, It seems to be formed by

pressing the whole breadth of the tongue into the hollow of the

palate, the tip turned downwards, and forcing the sound through the

nose, with the mouth open. It is chiefly used before letters of its

own class; but in Dēva-nāgari manuscripts, as is the case with the

other nasals, it is generally expressed by [ं] _anuswārah_. It seldom

appears with another consonant immediately before, or a vowel after

it: indeed there are but few instances of it, (except in grammatical

compositions,) one of which is in the root ज्ञा _jnā_, signifying

_know_, and its derivatives, where the character ज्ञ is said to be

a compound of ज _ja_ and ञ _ṅa_, the just articulation of which is

found so difficult, and the sound so harsh, that it is frequently

softened into _gyā_, as if written ग्या. As the sound of ण before

another consonant approaches nearer to that of _n_ than any other

letter, it may be represented by it, with a mark over it, thus, _ṅ_.

_The Third Class, or Cerebrals, ट ठ ड ढ ण._

This series of consonants is pronounced by turning and applying the

tip of the tongue far back against the palate; which producing a

hollow sound, as if proceeding from the head, it is distinguished by

the term मूर्द्धन्य _mūrddhanya_, which Mr. Halhed, in his Grammar of

the Bengal Language, has translated _cerebral_.

ट _ṭa_ has the sound of _t_, articulated as above directed.

ठ _ṭha_ is the same aspirated.

ड _ḍa_ differs from the common _d_ only in the above particular. In

Bengal it is generally pronounced like a very obtuse _r_.

ढ _ḍha_ is the same aspirated.

ण _ṇa_ is distinguished from the common _n_ by the manner of

producing it, as above.

In our letters those of this class may be conveniently expressed by a

dot under ṭ, ḍ, ṇ.

_The Fourth Class, or Dentals, त थ द ध न._

त _ta_ is the common dental _t_.

थ _tha_ is the former aspirated.

द _da_ has the power of our _d_.

ध _dha_ is the aspirate of द _da_.

न _na_ is the common _n_. It is sometimes, like the other nasals,

represented by _anuswāra_ [ं].

_The Fifth Class, or Labials, प फ ब भ म._

प _pa_ corresponds with _p_.

फ _pha_ is the former aspirated. In writing foreign words with these

characters, this letter is used for the sound of _f_.

ब _ba_. This letter is very often confounded with व _va_. Its power

is that of _b_.

भ _bha_ is the aspirate of ब _ba_.

म _ma_ is _m_. When silent it is often expressed by [ं] _anuswāra_;

as in संवत् _samvat_, A year, an æra.

_The Semi-Vowels, य र ल व._

य _ya_. This letter, which is a palatal, like our _y_ (with which

it corresponds), is often put in the place of इ _i_ and ई _ī_. Its

proper power is that of _y_ in _yarn_; but in Bengal they generally

pronounce it as we do _j_, confounding it with ज _ja_.

र _ra_ is our _r_. It is esteemed a _cerebral_. In composition

it frequently assumes two other forms. In the middle of a word,

immediately preceding another consonant, it is mounted upon its head

in this shape [#], when it is optional in the writer to double the

letter with which it so coalesces: as in the word कार्य्य _kāryya_,

An affair, which is pronounced _kārya_. After a consonant it is

always subjoined in this shape [#], as in the word प्रकार _prakāra_,

A sort or manner. This letter, in grammars, is generally called रेफ

_rēpha_.

ल _la_ answers to our _l_. It is ranked among _dentals_.

व _va_ is generally pronounced like _v_, and is then a dento-labial;

but when subjoined to another consonant, it is often necessarily

articulated as our _w_, it being then frequently the natural

substitute for उ _u_ before another vowel; as द्वौ _ḍwau_, Two.

_The Sibilants and Aspirate, ष ष स ह._

ष _ṣa_. The proper sound of this letter is produced by applying the

tip of the tongue to the fore-part of the palate, and passing the

voice as in pronouncing our _s_, from which it may be distinguished

by a dot under it, thus, _ṣ_. It is a _palatal_.

ष _sha_ is generally pronounced as _sh_ in _shoe_; but in the western

parts of India it is frequently articulated like, and confounded with

ख _kha_. It is a _cerebral_.

स _sa_ has precisely the power of _s_ in Saint, and is esteemed a

_dental_.

ह _ha_ is _h_. At the end of a word, when silent, it is represented

by [ः] _visarga_. It is classed among gutturals. This properly is the

last letter in the alphabet, [#] _ksha_, as before observed, being a

compound character.

There is another letter, not usually given in the Dēva-nāgar

alphabet, in this form, ॡ, which seems to have a power similar to

that of the surd, or Welsh _ll_. It occurs in the _Vēdas_, and is

included in some of the provincial alphabets.

OF COMPOUND CONSONANTS.

The sound of अ _a_, it has been already mentioned, is given to

every open consonant, not followed by another vowel; but as it must

often happen that a word ends with a consonant, or that two or more

consonants meet together without a vowel between them, it is proper

the learner should know what is done in these two cases. If a word

terminates in a consonant, the vowel is cut off by a small mark of

elision, such as is seen under क _ka_ in the word वाक् _vāk_, Speech,

which written without it, thus, वाक, would be pronounced _vāka_. If

two or more consonants meet together, it is a general rule that they

coalesce, and form a compound character. Sometimes it so happens that

the simple letters are not to be traced in the compound, instances

of which occur in [#] _ksha_, and क्ष _jṅa_, which are composed of

क and श, and ज and ण; but, in general, the shapes of the letters

are so little altered, that they may be easily discriminated. There

are several modes of forming these compounds: sometimes it is found

convenient to put one letter under the other, and at others to blend

them together, thus, द्ध; but the most usual way is to place them

in their natural order, yet so that their bodies, as well as heads,

may be in contact, omitting the final upright stroke of every letter

that has one, except the last. In the word कार्त्स्न्यं _kārtsnyam_,

Wholeness, there is a coalition of no less than five consonants;

namely, र, त, स, न, and य; _ra_, in a new shape, is mounted upon

the head, and त _ta_, स _sa_, and न _na_, deprived of their upright

strokes, thus, [#] [#] [#], are connected, and finally united to य

_ya_. A little practice will render this subject familiar to the

learner.

OF EXTRANEOUS CHARACTERS.

One stroke, thus [#], or two, thus [#], serve to divide hemistichs

and distichs.

A sort of sigma, in this shape, [#], is frequently used as an

apostrophe, to show that a vowel has been dropped by rule.

A character like a crescent, with a dot between its horns, thus,

ँ, is occasionally put over a consonant, which by the rules of

orthography has been substituted for a nasal.

In the _Vēda_ other diacritical marks are used, which do not occur

in common books. A small perpendicular line over a vowel, thus अ॑,

denotes that it is to be pronounced _high_; a parallel line drawn

under a vowel, thus अ॒, denotes that it should be pronounced _low_;

and a curved line over a vowel, thus [#], indicates that it must be

pronounced in a manner to partake of both the former. The intention

of these three marks seems to be the same as what was originally

figure of three is sometimes put after a vowel, thus अ३, or three

lines over it, thus [#], to show that it is to be held longer than

usual, as in calling, or crying.

Two dots, thus ः, called _visarga_ (विसर्ग:), are used to denote a

final [#]. They are occasionally represented in this manner [#].

A single dot over a letter, thus अं, is called _anuswārah_

(अनुस्वार:), and denotes a final nasal.

The numerical figures are,

१ २ ३ ४ ५ ६ ७ ८ ९ ०

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

In the _Vēdas_, the character for ं _anuswāra_, before व, स, ह, and

र, is in this form, [#]; so for [###] is written [###].

_A Grammar of the Sanskrita Language, by Charles Wilkins, LL.D.

F.R.S._ 4_to._ 1808.

_Sanskrit in the British Founderies._

_English._ Caslon; cut for Dr. Wilkins, Oriental Librarian to the

East India Company.

SAW. A small thin saw, with a back to strengthen it, to cut furniture

with. I would have the blade much narrower than it generally is, so

broad only as to cut fairly through the furniture, before the back

stops it from cutting deeper by resting on the saw block; it would

then prevent the saw block from being cut so much as it generally is

in a careless manner, sometimes even through at the front, till the

saw comes in contact with the stone, and is spoiled.

SAW BLOCK. A piece of wood on which to cut furniture to certain

lengths; it is similar to a carpenter’s mitre block, with the

addition of a cut at right angles. The customary place for using it

is on the fore edge of the imposing stone.

[Illustration: A wooden saw block.]

SAXON, or ANGLO-SAXON. The Anglo-Saxon alphabet contains twenty-three

letters; Q not being originally a Saxon letter.

[Illustration: The Saxon Alphabet]

+-------------+-----------------------+

| Form. | Sound. |

| [A] A a | _a_ as in b_a_r |

| B b | _b_ |

| [C] C c | _c_ as in _ch_oice |

| D ꝺ | _d_ |

| [E] E e | _e_ as in f_e_int |

| F ꝼ | _f_ |

| [G] G ᵹ | _g_ as in _g_em |

| [H] H h | _h_ |

| I ı | _i_ |

| K k | _k_ |

| L l | _l_ |

| [M] M m | _m_ |

| N n | _n_ |

| O o | _o_ |

| P p | _p_ |

| R ꞃ | _r_ |

| [S] S ꞅ | _s_ |

| T ꞇ | _t_ |

| Ð Þ ð þ | _th_ |

| U u | _u_ |

| Ƿ ƿ | _w_ |

| X x | _x_ |

| Y ẏ | _y_ |

| Z z | _z_ |

+-------------+-----------------------+

For anꝺ the Saxons used these abbreviations, ⁊ and [#]; for þaꞇ and

þæꞇ they wrote ꝥ; and for oððe _or_, and the termination lıce _ly_,

they wrote ł; as ł or; and ꞅoðł for ꞅoðlıce _truly_.

[_Note._] We also find uł for _or_; Ƿıłłm. for Ƿıllelm, William;

and [H]æł, for [H]ælenꝺ, _Jesus_; ł stands for leoꝼeꞅꞇan, φίλτατοι,

amicissimi, _most friendly_ or _beloved_; apł, ap̃, or ap°, for

apoꞅole, _an apostle_; apłar, _apostles_; [H]ieꞃłm, _Jerusalem_,;

ꞅcıł, _a shilling_, _money_.

When an m was omitted, they made a short stroke over the preceding

letter; as þā for þam.

[_Note._] There are many other abbreviations and connectives; such as

æꝼꞇ̃ æꝼꞇeꞃ, _after_; allm̃ allmıhꞇıᵹ, _almighty_; am̃, amen; ancen,

ancenneꝺe, _only begotten_; b, b̵, bıꞅc̃, bıꞅcop, _a bishop_; bꞃoð,

bꞃođ, bꞃoþeꞃn, _brethren_; caꞃc̃, caꞃceꞃne, _a prison_; cꝼꞇ, [#],

Cꞃıꞅꞇ, xꞃeꞅ, Cꞃıꞅꞇeꞅ, _Christ, Christ’s_; c̃ƿ, cƿæð, _saith_; [#] for

ꝺæᵹ, _a day_; ꝺꝺ, ꝺđ, _David_; ꝺꞃīh, ꝺꞃıhꞇ̃, _Lord_; ꝺñꞅ ꝺꞃıhꞇneꞅ,

_Lords_; ꝼ̃ ꝼoꞃ, _for, on account of_; ᵹ̃, ᵹeaꞃe, _a year_; Iħr,

Ihc̃, _Jesus_; ꞅ. [M]. ꞅeınꞇe [M]aꞃıe, _St. Mary_; ꞅ. p. _St. Peter_;

ƿũꞇ, ƿuꞇoꝺlıce, _certainly_, &c. See Thwaites, p. 1.

In studying the Anglo-Saxon tongue, it is of great consequence to

remark, that the inevitable changes introduced by the lapse of time

through successive ages; the existence of the three great dialects,

and their frequent intermixture; the variety of Anglo-Saxon writers,

and their little acquaintance with each other; but, above all, their

total disregard of any settled rules of orthography; have occasioned

many irregularities in the language, and thrown difficulties in the

way of the learner, which at first sight appear truly formidable;

but, on closer inspection, these difficulties present no insuperable

obstacle.

The principal difficulty consists in this: The Anglo-Saxon writers

often confounded some letters, and used them indifferently for each

other. This is the case to a most surprising extent with the vowels

and diphthongs; so that the consonants, though often treated in the

same manner, form the only part of the language which possesses any

thing like a fixed and permanent character.

_Remarks on the Change of the Consonants required for derivation and

declension._

B, F, or U, are often interchanged; as

Bebeꞃ, beꝼoꞃ, _a beaver_. Iꝼıᵹ, ıueᵹ _ivy_. Obeꞃ, oꝼeꞃ, oueꞃ, _over_.

[E]bolꞅan, eꝼolꞅan _to blaspheme_. Foꞇ, uoꞇ _a foot_.

C often interchanges with G, K and Q; as

Ðonceꞅ, þonᵹeꞅ _thoughts_. [C]ẏð, kẏð _kindred_. [C]ẏnınᵹ, kẏnınᵹ _a

king_. Aceꞃ, Akeꞃ _a field_. [C]ƿen, quen, _a queen, wife, &c._

C and CC are also often changed into H, or Hh, before ꞅ or ð, and

especially before ꞇ; as Sꞇꞃehꞇon _they strewed_, for ꞅꞇꞃecꞇon, from

ꞅꞇꞃeccan. Ahꞅıan for acꞅıan or axıan _to ask_. ꞅehđ for ꞅecđ _seeks_,

from ꞅecan _to seek_.

In Dan. Sax. C changes into ᵹ, h, hƿ and k; and ch changes into h.

D and T are often used indiscriminately for each other, and Ð is

changed into ꝺ, especially in verbs; as ꞅeođan _to boil_ or _seeth_;

ꞅoꝺen _boiled_, ıc cƿæđ _I said_; þu cƿæ đe _thou saidst_. he ƿẏꞃđ

_he is_ or _becomes_; þu ƿuꞃꝺe _thou becomest_.

In Dan. Sax. F changes into b and p.

G is often changed into h and ƿ; as [H]eꞃeꞇoha for heꞃeꞇoᵹa _a

leader_; Dahum for ꝺaᵹum _with days_; Geꞅƿıᵹan _to be silent_;

ᵹeꞅuƿoꝺe _he was silent_ or _dumb_; ꞅoꞃh for ꞅoꞃᵹe _sorrow_.

G interchanges with I and Y, when I has a sort of a consonant sound;

as ᵹeo, ıeo or ıu _yore, formerly_; ᵹeoᵹuđ, ıeoᵹuđ _youth_; ᵹeoc, ıoc

or ıuc _yoke_.

G is often suppressed before n, or ᵹn lengthened into ᵹen; as

þẏꞅıᵹne, Þẏꞅıne from þyꞅꞅ or þıꞅ _this_, and ænıᵹne, aenıne, from

aenıᵹ _any_. G is often added to words that end with ı, as hıᵹ for hı

_they_; and on the contrary G is often omitted in those words which

end in ıᵹ; as ꝺꞃı for ꝺꞃıᵹ or ꝺꞃẏᵹ, _dry_.

In Dan. Sax. G is sometimes dropped, or changed into C, H, or K; and

GS into X.

[H] is sometimes changed into ᵹ; as þaᵹ for þah _he grew_ or

_throve_, from þean _to grow_.

In Dan. Sax. [H] is sometimes added to words, and sometimes dropped;

or it is changed into c, ᵹ, ch, or k; and [H]u into ƿ.