rollers; it is practice which can alone furnish the particulars. The
temperature varying in each season must be the object of special
attention, as it renders the materials more or less flexible, and
requires the composition to be more or less boiled.
It is a fault with rollers when they lug too much, as it detaches
the composition from the wooden cylinder. When they are moist they
should not be too much washed, as that also tends to make them lug,
and detaches the composition. If they are used too soon after making,
they distribute the ink badly, fill up the letters, and last but a
very little time. They ought to be exposed to a current of air to
dry them, and to be carefully scraped before being used, and again
afterwards. If they are too dry they must be sponged all over and
distributed upon the table until the water has disappeared, and then
on a clean table, before taking ink. When they begin to grow old and
hard by work, they must be washed in proper lye without being rinsed
in water, and care and attention given to their wiping; and by these
means they may be preserved for a considerable time. Rollers, when
not in use, should be suspended in a place neither too dry nor too
damp.
_Recasting._--Before recasting old rollers, take great care to wash
them well with lye, in order to detach the ink with which they are
coated: if they are dry they must be scraped with a knife, as grease
deteriorates the matter. Afterwards cut the composition all over with
a knife, and it will then be easily detached from the wood. If it is
new it will not need cutting, it will easily dissolve; if old it must
be cut into little pieces, that it may dissolve more easily, and with
less loss: if the composition is very strong, the little pieces must
be washed in a pail of water, warm water is better than cold; add to
it two pounds of treacle, for four rollers, and so in proportion:
when the matter draws out well in threads, the composition is good.
If the rollers have been recast many times, and they draw too much,
they may be recast without adding fresh treacle or glue. Rollers
which are recast are better than new; they are more elastic and less
melting. With three pounds of glue, five pounds of treacle, and the
matter of three old rollers, four rollers can be made; if a small
glass of spirits of wine be added it will facilitate the dissolving.
The rollers fail the most frequently at the ends. They ought to be
dry, and clear from grease. It is a good plan before using them to
scrape them clean, and to sponge the ends for about an inch and a
half with spirits of wine, and to leave them to dry; the gelatine
draws better.
ROSE ENGINE.
The rose engine is, I believe, a French invention, and has long been
used for turning ornaments on metal, for instance, watch cases and
other articles of plate; it was afterwards applied to produce them to
print from by the rolling press: during the sitting of the commission
for inquiring into the best means for preventing the forgery of bank
notes, about twenty years ago, Mr. Perkins introduced a specimen
bank note which was partly executed by this machine; and the late
Mr. Branston, then of the firm of Whiting and Branston, was, if I
am not mistaken, the first to engrave by its means for letterpress
printing, and the tickets and shares for the last state lottery were
executed by it at Beaufort House. Its great value for the prevention
of forgery is, that all circles, curved and angular lines produced by
this machine are precisely similar to each other and true, however
numerous, and however small or large; it would be next to impossible
to produce the same designs, with the same accuracy, by the hand, and
the operation would also be uncommonly tedious.
By the kindness of Mr. Holtzapffel I am enabled to introduce into
this work a number of different patterns; only one specimen of
each individual apparatus is given. The patterns which are capable
of being produced are almost endless, and depend on the skill and
taste of the operator; the variations in the designs being caused by
different chucks being used in the operation; and the combinations
of the effect produced by each chuck, either in straight lines,
circles, ellipses, or as a ground covering the whole surface, in
many instances are very delicate and have a beautiful effect. The
following enumeration shows how the annexed specimens were produced.
Figs. 1. 10. Holtzapffel and Co.’s compound oval and eccentric
chuck:--1. Two eccentric movements; 10. One oval and one eccentric
movement. 2. 6. 8. Ibbetson’s geometric chuck, parts first, second
and third. 3. Rose engine. 4. Straight line chuck. 5. Segment engine.
7. Oval chuck. 9. Eccentric chuck. 11. Eccentric chuck with the rose
engine. 12. 15. Holtzapffel and Co.’s compound oval and eccentric
chuck with the rose engine:--12. One oval and one eccentric movement;
15. Two eccentric movements. 13. Oval chuck with the rose engine. 14.
Ibbetson’s compound eccentric chuck. 16. Geometric chuck combined
with the rose engine. 17. Straight line chuck combined with the rose
engine.
For details and descriptions of the various chucks, with the methods
of operating with them, the reader is referred to Manuel de Tourneur,
published by Bergeron in 1792, and to “Specimens in Eccentric
Turning, with Practical Instructions. By John Holt Ibbetson, Esq.”
Third Edition, 8vo. London. [1840.]
Mr. Ibbetson observes, “The number of beautiful designs which
may be obtained by combining, on this principle, two circular
adjusting movements is inconceivable. Consecutive circles, &c. may
be arranged, not only in elliptical curves, but in the shape of
hearts--in straight lines--in triangles--in squares--in polygons, and
in both inward and outward looped figures.”
[Illustration: 1-8.]
[Illustration: 9-16.]
[Illustration: 17.]
ROUNCE.
The handle by means of which the carriage of the press is run in and
out.
RUB OUT INK.
Rubbing the ink out smooth and even on the ink-block with the brayer,
for the purpose of taking small quantities with the balls tolerably
diffused over their face.--_M._ The thinner and more equally it is
rubbed out on the ink-block the better, as it in a great measure
prevents monks and friars in working. In fine works, where strong
ink is used, the pressman who beats should occupy his spare time in
using the brayer, as it not only diffuses the ink more equably on the
block, but causes it to work better.
RUBY.
The name of a type, the next in size larger than Pearl and smaller
than Nonpareil; it is half a Small Pica. Mr. Hansard, in his
“Typographia,” gives the following account of its origin and
name:--“It was, in fact, originally a Nonpareil with short ascenders
and descenders, cast on a smaller body, or sometimes a Pearl, on a
larger, to look open; but now some founders have a distinct specimen
for this size. This name has but very lately been adopted in the
type-founders’ specimens, but some years ago it was found, by the
writer of this, absolutely necessary to give some distinguishing
appellation to this size, as the letter-founders had given him
one-nick Pearls of two bodies, viz. one fount half Small Pica,
another half Long Primer; the mistakes arising from this circumstance
in a house much in the habit of using small type occasioned the
expedient of inventing a new name, and as the neighbouring sizes were
called Pearl and Diamond, it seemed not very inapplicable to take the
name of Ruby.”
RUCK.
In printing at machines, the paper, particularly if it be soft and
not flat, in travelling round the cylinders frequently wrinkles; this
is termed _Rucking_, or the _Paper Rucks_, or the _Paper is Rucked_;
when this takes place, the sheets may be looked on as spoiled when
it is for book work: the best preventative is to press the wet paper
well in a powerful press for an hour or two, with small quantities
between the boards, just before it goes to the machine. I would not
recommend more than five quires in each portion, although I am aware
that a ream is generally put in; but the smaller the quantity between
each two boards the flatter the paper will be, and less likely to
ruck.
RULES AND REGULATIONS
proper to be observed in a Printing Office.
_Compositors._
1. Compositors to receive their cases from the Overseer, or other
person appointed by him, free from all pie, or other heterogeneous
matter, with clean quadrat and space boxes to both roman and italic,
which they are to return to him in the same clean state.
2. When a Compositor receives letter, furniture, &c. from the
Overseer, he is to return what he does not use, in a satisfactory
state.
3. Compositors to impose their matter when desired by the Employer or
Overseer; and the same for proofs that are desired to be corrected;
unless in either case it shall appear that all the stones are engaged.
4. When the Compositor imposes from a form, he is directly to tie up
the pages of loose matter.
5. Forms, immediately after they are imposed, to be carried to the
proof press; and the proofs, when pulled, to be given to the Reader,
or carried into the reading closet, with, if a first proof, the copy,
and, if a second, the foul proof.
6. No Compositor shall leave a foul stone, of letter, furniture, &c.
7. No Compositor to detain an imposing stone longer than the nature
of the business may require.
8. When any cases are taken out of the racks, the Compositor is to
return them into their proper place immediately after he has done
with the same.
9. No cases to be placed over others, or under the frames.
10. Galleys with head lines, or other useful materials used during
the course of a piece of work, to be cleared at furthest the day
after the work is all completely at press.
11. When a work is finishing, the Compositor or Compositors concerned
shall, as the forms are finally worked, clear them away; taking
from them the head lines, white lines, and direction lines, as also
the leads and reglets, which, with the furniture of each sheet, the
matter being properly tied up for papering, are to be given to the
Overseer, or any person he may appoint.
12. Sweepings of frames to be cleared away before one o’clock every
day. Matter broken by accident to be cleared away on the same day.
13. No Compositor to mix two separate founts, without an express
order from the Overseer.
14. When a Compositor carries his form down for press, he is not to
put two forms together without a partition between them.
15. The saw, saw block, bowl, sponge, letter brush, shears, bellows,
&c., to be returned to their respective places as soon as done with.
16. No person to take a candlestick, bodkin, snuffers, composing
stick, &c., not his own, without permission of the owner.
17. No person to misplace cases in the rack, or take an upper without
the lower case, or _vice versâ_.
18. Pie of any sort, on boards, windows, frames, &c., to be cleared
after five minutes notice.
19. No person to take sorts from the frames or cases of another
without leave; nor to hoard useful sorts, not immediately wanting
them.
20. No person (except the Master or Overseer) to call off the errand
boy while he is sweeping his rooms.
21. No candle to be left by any one, except in charge of some proper
person; and the boundaries of the office to be considered, in all
cases, the open air.
22. Jobs to be cleared away immediately after notice having been
given by the Overseer.
23. These regulations, in cases of extreme hurry of business, by
leave from the Master or Overseer, may be suspended; but, when that
has ceased, to be immediately resumed.
24. No Compositor to throw for money or liquor.
25. Not to throw letters, quadrats, quoins, or furniture at each
other.
_Pressmen._
1. All proofs to be pulled within five minutes after notice, by the
Pressmen who are in proofs.
2. Immediately after pulling a proof, the Pressmen to rub over
the forms and chases with a lye brush, and place them against the
Compositor’s frame to whom they belong, where they are to leave the
proof.
3. Not to work without a figure unless particularly ordered.
4. As soon as a form is wrought off, the pressman to carry it to the
lye trough, and there completely rub it over with lye, rinse it,
and then carry it to the wrought-off place, or to the end of the
Compositor’s frame it belongs to.
5. Not to leave the lye jar uncovered.
These rules may be varied to suit the business of the office in which
they may be adopted, or the size of the establishment; in practice
it will be found essentially necessary to have established rules and
regulations, that the business may be carried on with method and good
order.
RULES. _See_ BRASS RULE. METAL RULES.
RUN IN THE CARRIAGE.
Running the form under the platen, by turning the rounce.--_M._ This
corroborates my opinion that the coffin, plank, &c., and not the long
ribs, constitute the carriage, and that it was so understood in the
seventeenth century. _See_ CARRIAGE.
RUN OUT.
The running of the carriage from under the platen, by turning the
rounce.
RUN OUT FROM COPY.--_M._ _See_ DRIVE OUT. This term is not now used.
RUNIC.
“Authors are much divided, as to the antiquity of the Runic
characters; some suppose them to be very ancient, whilst others
contend, that they are more modern than the ancient Gothic. Several
writers affirm, that they were brought from Asia by the celebrated
Woden. Olaus Wormius and Rudbeck contend, that they are older than
the Greek. Mr. Wise says, that the Runic letters are found on coins,
and on stone monuments, some of which may be near two thousand years
old. He also supposes this alphabet to have been exceedingly ancient,
and that it was formed from some alphabet of the Greeks, whilst it
consisted of sixteen letters only, and before they had left the
Eastern way of writing, from the right hand.
“The judicious Celsius was of opinion, that the Runic letters were
nothing more than Roman letters, with the curves changed into
straight lines, for the ease of engraving on hard substances. The
learned and ingenious author of the History of the Decline and Fall
of the Roman Empire says, that the oldest _Runic_ inscriptions are
supposed to be of the third century; and he adds, that the most
ancient writer, who mentions the Runic characters, is Venantius
Fortunatus, who lived towards the end of the sixth century. Our
opinion on the evidence before us, is, that the report of Woden
having brought the _Runic_ letters from Asia is entirely fabulous;
that the tales of Rudbeck and Olaus Wormius, do not deserve the least
attention; that Mr. Wise, though a respectable writer, is mistaken
as to the antiquity of the Runic letters; that the opinion of the
learned Celsius is nearly true, and that the Runic characters are
composed partly of ancient Gothic and Greek letters, and partly of
Roman, deformed and corrupted, probably by the Necromancers of the
north, who used them in their spells and incantations, to which
they were greatly addicted. The forms of several Runic letters,
compared with the Greek and Gothic alphabets, sufficiently prove this
observation. For instance, the Runic F or Fei, is a rude imitation
of the Roman F, with the same vocal powers. The O or Oys, is an
inverted digamma, with the power of the Roman U, that is of _ou_ or
_W_. R or Ridhur, is evidently the Roman R, with the same powers. I
or Iis, is the Gothic and Roman I. S or Sol, is a resemblance of the
ancient Greek Σ, with the same power. T or Tyr is an imitation of the
Greek Tau, or Roman T. B or Biarkan is the Greek Beta, or Roman B;
and L or Lagur appears to have been taken from the Grecian Lambda. We
are of opinion, that the resemblances above pointed out, sufficiently
evince, that the Runic characters are derived from the Greek, Gothic,
and Roman letters.
“In the year 1001, the Swedes were persuaded by the Pope to lay aside
the Runic letters, and to adopt the Roman in their room. In the year
1115, the Runic letters were condemned in Spain, by the council
of Toledo. They were abolished in Denmark in the beginning of the
fourteenth century, and in Iceland soon after.
“The order of the old Runic alphabet, which consisted of sixteen
letters, was as follows: F, U, D, O, R, K, H, N, I, A, S, T, B, L,
M, YR. It is not known when the order of the Runic alphabet was
confounded, but we do not suppose that it is of greater antiquity
upon that account.”--_Astle._
Milman has the following remarks on the opinion of Gibbon quoted
above by Mr. Astle: “The obscure subject of the Runic characters has
exercised the industry and ingenuity of the modern scholars of the
north. There are three distinct theories; one, maintained by Schlözer
(Nordische Geschichte, p. 481, &c.), considers their sixteen letters
to be a corruption of the Roman alphabet, post-Christian in their
date, and Schlözer would attribute their introduction into the north
to the Alemanni. The second, that of Frederick Schlegel (Vorlesungen
über alte und neue Literatur), supposes that these characters were
left on the coasts of the Mediterranean and Northern Seas by the
Phœnicians, preserved by the priestly castes, and employed for
purposes of magic. Their common origin from the Phœnician would
account for their similarity to the Roman letters. The last, to which
we incline, claims a much higher and more venerable antiquity for
the Runic, and supposes them to have been the original characters of
the Indo-Teutonic tribes, brought from the East, and preserved among
the different races of that stock. See Über Deutsche Runen, von W.
C. Grimm, 1821. A Memoir by Dr. Legis. Fundgruben des alten Nordens.
Foreign Quarterly Review, vol. ix. p. 438.”--_Gibbon, chap._ ix.
_note_ ^{16}.
The University of Oxford are in possession of the matrices of a Pica
Runic, which is the only one in England.
RUNNING TITLE. _See_ HEAD LINE.
RUNS ON SORTS.
When matter runs much on some few sorts of letters, they say it runs
on sorts. _See_ SORTS.--_M._
RUSSIAN.
In the Russian alphabet there are thirty-four letters.
The English letters, made use of in explaining the sound of the
Russian characters, are to be pronounced as follows:
ā as in fate.
a as in far.
ē as in me.
é as in met.
e as e mute.
ō as in no.
o as in not.
oo as in mood.
u as in pure.
g as in game.
j as the French j.
z as in zephyr.
ch as the Scotch pronunciation of ch in loch, och! &c.
tch as in fetch.
sh as in shame.
[Illustration: The Russian Alphabet]
_The Russian Alphabet._
+-----+---------+------------------------------------------------+
| А а | ah, | ex. ба́ба, an old woman, _baba_. |
| | | |
| Б б | bā, | ба́бочка, a butterfly, _babotchka_. |
| | | |
| В в | vā, | вода́, water, _voda_. |
| | | |
| Г г | gā, | годъ, a year, _goad_. |
| | | |
| Д д | dā, | домъ, a house, _dōm_. |
| | | |
| Е е | ā, | ведро́, a pail, _védrō_. |
| | | |
| Ж ж | jā, | жена́, a woman, _jéna_. |
| | | |
| З з | zā, | зо́лото, gold, _zolotō_. |
| | | |
| И и | ē, | видъ, a view, _vēēdd_. |
| | | |
| І і | ē, | used before a vowel only, ex. мнѣніе, opinion, |
| | | _mnānēā_. |
| | | |
| К к | ka, | ex. Коро́ль, a king, _Korole_. |
| | | |
| Л л | él, | ма́ло, little, _malō_. |
| | | |
| М м | ém, | мра́моръ, marble, _mramor_. |
| | | |
| Н н | én, | нашъ, our, _nash_. |
| | | |
| О о | o, | окно́, a window, _oknō_. |
| | | |
| П п | pā, | пе́пелъ, ashes, _pépéll_. |
| | | |
| Р р | r, | ра́но, early, _ranō_. |
| | | |
| С с | s, | спасе́ніе, salvation, _spasānēā_. |
| | | |
| Т т | tā, | тве́рдость, hardness, _tvérdoste_. |
| | | |
| У у | oo, | у̀тро, morning, _ootrō_. |
| | | |
| Ф ф | éf, | флагъ, a flag, _flagg_. |
| | | |
| Х х | kha, | a guttural sound, resembling the Scotch |
| | | pronunciation of ch in loch, &c., ex. |
| | | хитрость, cunning, _chēētroste_. |
| | | |
| Ц ц | tsā, | (a combination of т and с,) ex. Царь, a king, |
| | | _tsar_. |
| | | |
| Ч ч | tcha, | ex. человѣкъ, a man, _tchélovayk_. |
| | | |
| Ш ш | sha, | шерсть, wool, _schārste_. |
| | | |
| Щ щ | sh-tcha,| (a combination of ш and ч) ex. ще́дрость, |
| | | bounty, _sh-tchédroste_. |
| | | |
| ъ | yerr, | used at the end of words terminating in a |
| | | consonant, to which it gives a hard sound, |
| | | ex. столъ, a table, stoll. |
| | | |
| ы | uē, | guttural, ex. рыба, a fish, _rue͡ba_. |
| | | |
| ь | yāre, | used at the end of words terminating in a |
| | | consonant, to which it gives a soft sound, |
| | | nearly corresponding to the English e mute, |
| | | ex. ра́дость, joy, _radoste_. |
| | | |
| Ѣ ѣ | yā, | ex. рѣка́, a river, _rāyka_. |
| | | |
| Э э | ē, | эконо́мъ, a land-steward, _ékōnom_. |
| | | |
| Ю ю | you, | ю̀ноша, a youth, _younosha_. |
| | | |
| Я я | ya, | я̀рость, fury, _yaroste_. |
| | | |
| Ө ө | fā, | ариөме́тика, arithmetic, _arēfmétēka_. |
+-----+---------+------------------------------------------------+
Most of the above letters invariably retain their proper sound, the
following however are subject to slight variations.
Г, gā. In some instances bears the sound of a strongly aspirated h:
герои, a hero, _héroy_; генералъ, a general, _héneral_; Господь,
Lord, _Hospod_, and in the terminations of adjectives and pronouns,
in the genitive case, may be pronounced either as v or h, его, yāho
or _yāvo_; что новаго? what news, tchtō nōvahō, or _nōvavō_?
Е, ā. At the commencement of words bears the sound of yā, ex. есть,
it is, _yaste_; едва, scarcely, _yādva_. When it precedes two
consonants, or a consonant followed by the hard sign, ъ, it generally
bears the sound of yeo, as in yeoman, the accent falling upon o,
ex. медъ, honey, _meo͡dd_; ленъ, flax, _leo͡nn_; орелъ, an eagle,
_oreo͡ll_.
ѣ, yā. Is pronounced like yā at the commencement of a word, and like
ā in the middle or at the end, ex. ѣхать, to ride, _yachat_; лѣнорть,
idleness, _lānoste_; на столъ, on the table, _na stollāy_.
There are eleven vowels in the Russian alphabet, which are divided
into hard and soft.
Hard а, о, у, э, ы. Soft я, е, ю, и, ѣ.
In the combination of vowels with consonants, they are subject to the
following variations:
The letter ы following г, к, х, ж, ч, ш, or щ changes into u
-- я -- г, к, х, ж, ч, ш, щ, or ц -- a
-- ю -- г, к, х, ж, ч, ш, щ, or ц -- y
-- о -- ж, ч, ш, щ, or ц -- e
-- е -- г, к, or х -- o
-- и before another vowel -- i
The only diphthongs in the Russian language are those formed by the
combination of и with the other vowels: ай, ей, ій, ой, ый, яй. When
и occurs without the ̆ it must be pronounced separately from the
vowel, which precedes it, ex. воиин, a warrior, _vo-een_. Whenever
two vowels occur together in a word (excepting the above-mentioned
diphthongs) each bears its full and separate sound, ex. воображеніе,
imagination, _vō-ob-ra-jā-nē-ā_--_A Practical Grammar of the Russian
Language, by James Heard._ _2 Parts, 12mo._ _St. Petersburg_, 1827.
RUTHVEN’S PRESS.
Ruthven’s patent press differs materially from all others. Instead of
the form of types being rolled under the platen, and back again when
the impression has been made, the type form remains stationary upon
the iron table, the platen is drawn over it, and the impression is
obtained by means of a lever working vertically like the handle of a
pump, and acting by connecting levers upon both sides of the platen,
so as to draw it down with ease and effect. It is a good and powerful
press, but the head and platen are heavy and require exertion to push
them back off the form, and more particularly as the ribs, if the
grooves in which the wheels attached to the head and platen travel
may be so called, form an inclined plane, which causes the platen to
come forward over the form with but little exertion.
S.
SAMARITAN.
It is the opinion of many of the most eminent Hebrew scholars, that
this alphabet is the one made use of by the ancient Hebrews, and with
which Moses himself wrote the Pentateuch; and that the Hebrew letters
at present in use are those of the Chaldees of Babylon, introduced by
Ezra in consequence of the Jews having forgotten their own characters
during the Captivity. It agrees with the Hebrew and Syriac, in
respect to the number and power of the letters, though it differs as
to their forms, as may be seen from the annexed table:
[Illustration: The Samaritan Alphabet]