also stood for a soft sound, it was difficult to know when it was to
be sounded hard, and when soft. To remove this difficulty, the Danes
and Normans introduced the letter K to denote the hard sound of C.
L.
L and N are often written double or single without any distinction at
the end of monosyllables; but this reduplication ceases when words
are lengthened, so that a consonant follows; as ƿell or ƿel _well_;
ealle or al _all_ (omnis); ealne, _all_ (omnem); also ıc ꞅẏlle, þu
ꞅẏlꞅꞇ, he ꞅylđ, _I sell_, _thou_, &c.
In Dan. Sax. L is sometimes put for R.
M and N.
In Dan. Sax. these two letters are sometimes interchangeable; and N
is occasionally dropped.
P.
The Saxon p and ƿ are easily mistaken for each other, both in MSS.
and on coins; and even in printed books great care is sometimes
necessary to distinguish these letters.
In Dan. Sax. P changes occasionally into B and U.
Q.
Q is not an original Saxon letter, and very seldom occurs in MSS.; Cw
and Cu were commonly employed where Q is now used.
R.
R in Dan. Sax. is occasionally added to words, and is sometimes
changed into L.
S.
S and Z are merely variations of the same original letter. The Z is
only the S hard.
In Dan. Sax. Ss, Ð, or X are sometimes substituted for S.
T.
T in Dan. Sax. occasionally changes into D and Ð.
W.
In Dan. Sax. W changes into F and Ui; We into oe, u, ue; Wi, into u,
uu; Wa, into uıæ, ƿæ; Wr, into war; and Wu, into u.
X.
X is sometimes supplied by cꞅ; as neoꞃcꞅen for neoꞃxen _quiet_. In
Dan. Sax. X interchanges with S.
Z.
Z is only the S hard. See S.
_Remarks on the Vowels and Diphthongs._
If the consonants,--those natural sinews of words and
language,--suffer such changes, it may safely be presumed, that
those flexible and yielding symbols, the vowels, would be exposed to
still greater confusion; a confusion almost sufficient to induce one
to imagine that they are of no weight or authority, in Anglo-Saxon
orthography.
A.
A kind of Italic a is much used in Anglo-Saxon MSS. Where we now use
A or E, the diphthongs Æ, Œ, and Ea continually occur in Anglo-Saxon;
but Πmore frequently in Dan. Sax.
The vowel A and its diphthongs thus interchange.
A and O. See under O.
A and Æ: as ac, æc _an oak_; aceꞃ, æceꞃ _a field_; habban _to have_,
ıc hæbbe _I have_; ꞅꞇan _a stone_; ꞅꞇænen _stony_; laꞃ _doctrine_;
læꞃan _to teach_; an _one_; æniᵹ _any one_.
Æ and EA: as æ, ea _water_; æc, eac _eternal_.
Æ and Œ: as aeᵹhƿeꞃ, ceᵹhƿeꞃ _everywhere_; aeᵹhƿilc, oeᵹhƿilc _every
one_.
Æ and Y: as ælc, ẏlc _each one_.
In Dan. Sax. these occur indifferently:--A, æ, e, ea, o, eo; Æ, e,
ıe, œ, o, ea, ue.
E.
E interchanges with [Æ]. It is often added to the end of Anglo-Saxon
words where it does not naturally belong, and it is as often rejected
where it does.
Eo is changed into ẏ and e, and ea into e, but more usually into ẏ.
[E]aðe, eðe _easily_; and ceaᵹreꞃ, cereeꞃ _a castle_.
[S]eolꝼ, ꞅelꝼ, ꞅẏlꝼ _self_; ꞅẏllan, ꞅellan _to give, sell_, &c.
Neah near; nehꞅꞇ _nearest_; ealꝺ _old_; ꞅe ẏlꝺꞃa _the elder_; ƿealꝺan
_to rule_, he ƿelꞇ or ƿẏlꞇ _he rules_; leaꞅ _loose_, lẏꞅan _to
loose_; ᵹeleaꝼa _belief_, ᵹelẏꝼan _to believe_.
In Dan. Sax. these occur indifferently:--E, a, eo, ce, O, u, as, ea,
ẏ; ea, eo, ı, ẏ; eau, eoƿ; ee, e; eı, œ, ı; eo, a, e, ı, ıƿ, u; eu,
ẏƿ.
I.
I is interchanged with e and y; as
Iᵹlanb, eᵹlanb, ẏᵹlanb _an island_; eꝼel, ẏᵹel _evil_; ıꞃþımᵹ,
eaꞃþımᵹ, ẏꞃþlınᵹ _a farmer_; ꞃen _rain_, ꞃınan _to rain_; beꞃnan _to
burn_, bẏꞃnan _to set on fire_; cƿeþan _to say_, þu cƿyꞅꞇ, cƿıꞅꞇ,
_thou sayest_.
In Dan. Sax. these occur indifferently: I, ıa, ıo, eo, ẏ; ıœ, ıe, œ;
ıuh, eoƿ.
O.
O is changed into u, e and ẏ, and eo into ẏ; but sometimes into a,
especially before n in a short or terminating syllable.
Oꝺe and oꝺ, into aꝺe and aꝺ; ꝺom _ᵹudgment_, ꝺeman _to judge_; ꝼꞃoꝼeꞃ
_comfort_, ꝼꞃeꝼꞃtan _to comfort_; ꝼoc _a foot_, ꝼec _feet_; boc _a
book_, bee _books_; ꞅcoꞃm _a storm_, ꞅcẏꞃman _to storm_; ᵹolꝺ _gold_,
ᵹẏlꝺen _golden_; ƿoꞃb _a word_, anꝺƿyꞃꝺan _to answer_; ƿeoꞃc _a
work_, ƿẏꞃcean _to work_; heoꞃb or hẏꞃꝺe _a herd_; ıoc, ıuc me _a
yoke_; leƿan, ᵹoƿan _to show_; man and mon _a man_; lanᵹ and lonᵹ
_long_; ꞅanꝺ and ꞅonꝺ _sand_.
In Dan. Sax. these occur:--O, a, e, I, u; œ, æ, e, o, ue, ƿe; oea,
eo; oƿe, uu.
U.
U is sometimes converted into ẏ: as ꞅcꞃuꝺ _clothing_, ꞅcꞃyꝺan _to
clothe_; cuþ _known_, cẏþan _to make known_.
In Dan. Sax. these are used indiscriminately:--U, ꝺ, ꝼ, o, oƿ, ƿe,
ƿı, ƿu; ue, æ, œ, ƿe; uı, ƿ; uu, oƿe.
Y.
The Anglo-Saxon Y is the Greek Υ (upsilon), or, as the French call
it, y Greque. The ẏ was not dotted in the oldest MSS.
Y is sometimes changed into u.
In Dan. Sax. these occur:--Y into e, ea, ı; and Yƿ into eu.
_Further Remarks on the Letters._
The preceding observations on the consonants and vowels will render
the following peculiarities less surprising, and may perhaps explain
their causes.
The final letters of words are often omitted: as ƿomb, ƿom; ƿæᵹ or
ƿeᵹ, ƿe.
A vowel near, or at the end of a word, is often absorbed by the
preceding or succeeding consonant, especially if that consonant be a
semi-vowel; but either that or the nearest vowel is still understood:
as Luꝼꞅꞇ for luꝼaꞅꞇ _lovest_; luꝼð for luꝼað _loveth_; and other
verbs in the 2d and 3d persons. Geƿꞃıxl for ᵹeƿꞃıxle _changes_;
ꞅuꞅl ꞅuꞅel _sulphur_; ꞅƿæꝼl for ꞅƿæꝼel _sulphur_; bloꞅm for bloꞅma
_a blossom_; boꞅm for boꞅum _bosom_; boꞇl for boꞇle a _village_,
_house_, &c.; bꞃıꝺl for bꞃıꝺel _a bridle_.
Contractions of words are common: as N’ẏꞅꞇe for ne ƿıꞅꞇ _knew not_;
n’æꝼꝺe for ne hæꝼeꝺ _had not_; ẏꞃn’ð for ẏꞃneð _runneth_.
In Dan. Sax., on the other hand, monosyllables are sometimes changed
into longer words: as ƿꞃað _anger_, _wrath_, lengthened into ƿaꞃað.
Other words contract two syllables into one; as cẏnınᵹ into kẏnᵹ _a
king_.
The different letters suffer a very frequent change of position: as
ꞇınꞇeꞃᵹe, ꞇınꞇꞃeᵹe _pain_; þıꞃꝺa, þꞃıꝺꝺa _third_.
A very great variety exists in writing the same word by different
Anglo-Saxon authors, as will appear from the following examples:
ᵹeoᵹeþe, ᵹeoᵹoð, ᵹeoᵹuð, ᵹeᵹoþe, ıoᵹoð, ıuᵹuð _youth_; mæneᵹeo
_many_, _a multitude_, is written mæneᵹo, mænıᵹeo, mænıᵹo, mænıᵹu,
mænıo, mænıu, mænẏᵹeo, maneᵹeo, maneᵹu, manıᵹe, manıᵹo, manıᵹu,
meneᵹeo, meneᵹo, meneᵹu, menıᵹeo, menıᵹo, menıᵹu, menıo, menıu.
Adjectives in the comparative degree end indifferently in aꞃ, æꞃ, eꞃ,
ıꞃ, oꞃ, uꞃ, or ẏꞃ; and the superlative in aꞅꞇ, æꞅꞇ, eꞅꞇ, ıꞅꞇ, oꞅꞇ,
uꞅꞇ, or ẏꞅꞇ.
Active participles end in anꝺ, anꝺe, ænꝺ, ænꝺe, enꝺ, ınꝺ, onꝺ, unꝺ or
ẏnꝺ; and passive participles in aꝺ, æꝺ, eꝺ, ıꝺ, oꝺ, uꝺ, or ẏꝺ.
So also, [H]e ꝺıelꝼ, ꝺealꝼ, ꝺelꝼ or ꝺalꝼ _he dug_; and læꞅƿenꝺe,
læꞅƿıᵹenꝺe, læꞅᵹenꝺe or læꞅıenꝺe _feeding_; ıc ƿuꞃpe, ıc ƿeoꞃpe, ıc
ƿẏꞃpe, or ıc ƿeꞃpe _I cast away_; man, mon _a man_; he mæᵹe or muᵹe
_he may_; he ꞅıᵹ, ꞅı, ꞅıe, ꞅe, ꞅıo, or ꞅeo _he is_; ꞅınꝺon, ꞅenꝺon,
ꞅıenꝺon, ꞅınꞇ, ꞅıenꞇ, ꞅınꝺ, ꞅın, ꞅıen, ꞅeon, _are_.
Some short words assume very different meanings: as bıᵹ, bıᵹe,
bẏᵹe, beᵹ, beaᵹ, beah and beh, which, according to their connexion,
signify indifferently, _a turning_, _a crown_, _a gem_, _a bosom_,
_buy_, _he turned_, _he submitted_, &c. from buᵹan, _to turn_,
_bow_, _&c._--_The Elements of Anglo-Saxon Grammar. By the Rev. J.
Bosworth_, M.A. F.A.S., 8_vo_. 1823.
“The Saxon capitals which vary from those now used are C, E, G, H,
M, and W. The small letters are d, f, g, r, s, t, and w, which are
all Roman, except the Ƿ, ƿ, and some notes of abbreviations used by
the Saxons, as Ð ð, þ th, ꝥ _that_, &c. Many other abbreviations
were used by the Saxons. These notes of abbreviation are _not_ the
original members of an alphabet; they were the result of later
reflection, and were introduced for dispatch.
“By an attentive observation of the different specimens of writing
in England, we perceive the several gradations of change, by which
one form of a Roman character has imperceptibly changed into another.
The Saxon ƿ, says Mr. Whitaker, seems to have been only the Roman V
at first, and to have been lengthened into the Saxon character, and
enlarged into the present Roman W, by bringing the principal stroke
somewhat lower, and closing the top in the one, and by redoubling
the whole in the other. The W is unknown, both to the Latin and its
daughter languages, the French, the Spanish, and the Italian: it is
composed of two characters, namely of the V or U doubled.
“The writing which prevailed in England from the coming of St.
Augustin, in 596, to the middle of the eleventh century, is generally
termed SAXON, and may be divided into five kinds, namely, the ROMAN
SAXON, the SET SAXON, the RUNNING HAND SAXON, the MIXED SAXON, and
the ELEGANT SAXON.”--_Astle_.
_Elegant Saxon._--This writing was adopted in England in the tenth
century, and was continued till the Norman conquest; but was not
entirely disused till the middle of the thirteenth century.
All subsequent Saxon writers endeavour to keep as near as possible
to the form of the letters in a book of Saxon Homilies in the
Lambeth Library (No. 439), written in the tenth century. There is
a beautiful specimen in the MSS. of the Rev. E. Thwaites, M. A. to
be found in the Harleian MSS., at the British Museum (No. 1866). It
is described in Nichols’s _Lit. Anec._, vol. iv. p. 140, as “one
of the most lovely specimens of modern Saxon writing that can be
imagined.”--_Bosworth_, p. 20.
About the year 1567, John Daye, who was patronized by Archbishop
Parker, cut the first Saxon types which were used in England. In
this year Asserius Menevensis was published by the direction of the
archbishop in these characters; and in the same year Archbishop
Ælfric’s _Paschal Homily_; and, in 1571, the Saxon Gospels. Daye’s
Saxon types far excel in neatness and beauty any which have been
since made, not excepting the neat types cast for F. Junius at Dort,
which were given by him to the University of Oxford. Astle, p.
224.--_Bosworth_.
“The _Saxon_ types which were used in printing _St. Gregory’s_
Homily, having been burnt in the fire which consumed Mr. _Bowyer’s_
house and all his printing materials [Jan. 30. 1712-13], Lord Chief
Justice _Parker_ was so munificently indulgent, as to be at the
expence of cutting a new _Saxon_ type for Mrs. _Elstob’s_ Saxon
Grammar, from _fac similes_ by Mrs. _Elstob_; the punches and
matrices of which Mr. _Bowyer’s_ son presented, by the hands of
_Edward Rowe-Mores_, esq; to the University of _Oxford_. See the
Archæologia Antiq. Soc vol. i. p. xxvii.”--_Gent. Mag., Oct._ 1778,
p. 455. Note.
[Illustration: Layout of Saxon case]
Saxon Upper Case.
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|[A]| B |[C]| D |[E]| F |[G]|| | | | Ð | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|[H]| I | K | L |[M]| N | O || | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| P | | R | S | T | | Ƿ || | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| X | Y | Z | | | | U || | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| | | | | | | || | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 || | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| 8 | 9 | 0 | | | | k || | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Saxon Lower Case.
+-----+---+--+-----+--+-----++-----+---+---+---+---+------+------+
| | | | þ | | ||Thin | | | | ; | | |
| | | | | | || Sp. | | | | | | |
+-----+---+--+-----+--+ ++-----+---+---+---+---+------+------+
| ⁊ | | | | || | | | | | | |
+-----+ b | c | ꝺ | e || ı | ꞅ | ꝼ | ᵹ | ð +------+------+
| [#] | | | | || | | | | | | |
+-----+---+-----+-----+-----++-----+---+---+---+---+------+------+
| | | | | || | | | | | en | em |
+-----+ l | m | n | h || o | ẏ | p | , | ƿ |Quadr.|Quadr.|
| | | | | || | | | | | | |
+-----+---+-----+-----+-----++-----+---+---+---+---+------+------+
| z | | | | || | | | : | |
+-----+ | u | ꞇ | Sp. || a | ꞃ +---+---+ Quadr. |
| x | | | | || | | . | - | |
+-----+---+-----+-----+-----++-----+-------+---+---+-------------+
_Saxon in British Founderies._
_Double Pica._--Fry, to Thorowgood and Besley.
_Great Primer._--Fry, to Thorowgood and Besley.
_English._--Caslon. Fry, to Thorowgood and Besley. Oxford. Wilson.
_Pica._--Caslon. Fry, to Thorowgood and Besley. V. and J.
Figgins. Oxford. Wilson.
_Small Pica._--Fry, to Thorowgood and Besley. V. and J. Figgins.
Oxford. Wilson.
_Long Primer._--Caslon. Fry, to Thorowgood and Besley. V. and J.
Figgins. Wilson.
_Brevier._--Caslon. Fry, to Thorowgood and Besley. V. and J.
Figgins. Wilson.
SCALE OF PRICES.
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The alteration in the scale in 1816, as well as the subsequent
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“Scale of Prices for Compositor’s Work,
“_Agreed upon at a General Meeting of Master Printers, at
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* The following interpretation of this article of the scale is
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and Particulars) to be cast up at 7d. per 1000; if done in smaller
type than Brevier, to take the proportionate advance specified in
Article 1; if in foreign language, of one sheet or under, (except
Auctioneers’ Catalogues,) to be cast up at 8d. per 1000; if done
in smaller type than Brevier, to take the proportionate advance
specified in Article 1.
“21. Where two pages only are imposed, either opposite to or at the
back of each other, they shall be paid for as two pages; but if with
an indorse, or any other kind of matter constituting a third, then to
be paid as a sheet if in Folio; a half sheet if in Quarto, and so on.
“22. Broadsides, such as Leases, Deeds, and Charter-parties, above
the dimensions of crown, whether table or common matter, to be paid
the double of common matter; on crown and under, to be paid one and
one half common matter.--The indorse to be paid one fourth of the
inside page, as common matter.
“23. All Corrections to be paid 6d. per hour.
“24. The Imprint to be considered as two lines in the square of the
page.
“25. Different volumes of the same work to be paid for distinctly,
according to their value.
“ABSTRACT OF THE SCALE.
Key to Column Headers--
A. = Common.
B. = Foreign.
C. = English.
D. = 2 Languages, or Foreign.
E. = Without Accents.
F. = With Accents.
+-------------------+-----+-----+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | | | Diction- | Grammars, | |
| | | | aries. | &c. | Greek. |
| | | |-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
| | A. | B. | C. | D. | C. | D. | E. | F. |
+-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
| |_d._ |_d._ |_d._ |_d._ |_d._ |_d._ |_d._ |_d._ |
|ENGLISH} {_leaded_ | 5¾ | 6¼ | 6¼ | 6½ | 6 | 6¼ | 8½ | 10 |
| to } | | | | | | | | |
|BREVIER} {_solid_ | 6 | 6½ | 6½ | 6¾ | 6¼ | 6½ | 8¾ | 10¼ |
+-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
|MINION {_leaded_ | 6 | 6¾ | 6¾* | 7 * | | | | |
| {_solid_ | 6¼ | 7 | 7 * | 7¼* | | | | |
+-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
|NONPAREIL{_leaded_ | 6¾ | 7½ | 7½* | 7¾* | | | | |
| {_solid_ | 7 | 7¾ | 7¾* | 8 * | | | | |
+-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
|PEARL {_leaded_}| 8 | 8¾ | 8¾ | 9 | | | | |
| {_or solid_}| | | | | | | | |
+-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
|_Notes constituting the Charge of One Shilling per Sheet.--See |
| Article_ 11. |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 4to. and 8vo. { 20 Lines } and not exceeding 4 Pages in 10 |
| { or 2 Notes } Sheets. |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 12mo. { 1 Page } and not exceeding 6 Pages in 10 |
| { or 2 Notes } Sheets. |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 18mo. or above { 2 Pages } and not exceeding 8 Pages in 10 |
| { or 2 Notes } Sheets. |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Pamphlets { 10 Lines } and not exceeding 2 Pages in 5 |
| { or 2 Notes } Sheets.” |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
A modification of the Compositors’ Scale took place in 1816, and the
following notification was issued to the Trade:--
“At a Meeting of Master Printers held this day, pursuant to
notice, for the purpose of taking into consideration the state
of the Trade in general, in consequence of the alteration in the
times;
“It was the opinion of this Meeting, that it would be highly
expedient that, after the 19th of February, the following
modification of the Compositors’ Scale of Prices of 1810, as far as
regards Reprints, should take place.
“All Reprinted Works to be paid Three Farthings per 1000 less than
the Scale of 1810. All Manuscript or Original Works shall continue to
be paid for as at present.
“January 2. 1816.”
The following resolution is copied from Hansard’s Typographia: