“DESIGN” IN ILLUMINATION
“Design” — Elementary Patterns in Decoration — Scale & Scope of
Decoration — Of “Designing” Manuscripts, Generally.
“DESIGN”
Perhaps the nearest right definition of “design” is
“_contrivance_”—applied to the actual doing of the work, rather
than to the work when done: “_decoration_” (when that is the sense
intended) is a safer word,[47] because it implies “_of something_.”
And generally that “something” lies at the root of the matter.
For example: “illuminated initials” and “illuminated borders,” so
called, are really illuminat_ing_: they are properly _a decoration of
manuscript or print_.
To consider a “piece-of-decoration” as a thing existing apart from
that which it decorates, as something drawn or copied, and, so to
speak, _stuck on_ to the finished work, is as _un_natural as it would
be to contemplate the flame-of-a-candle as a thing apart from the
candle. [p215]
The finest decoration is really part of the work itself, and may be
described as _the finishing touches given directly to the work by the
tools which are properly employed on it_.
The illuminator has, as a rule, to decorate a given manuscript with
pen or brush work—it may be with the simplest pen flourishes, or with
the most elaborate figure “design.” _How_ to make that illumination
part of the work, he can learn only by patient practice and by
careful handling of his tools.
ELEMENTARY PATTERNS IN DECORATION
Nearly all simple Decoration consists of a comparatively limited
number of _elements_—simple forms and pure colours—which are built up
into more complex forms to occupy an allotted space. A primitive type
of such built-up decoration is seen in the dotted patterns, which are
found in every age—in the remains of the most ancient art, and in the
shell decorations which children make on the sands at the present
day. Examples of dotted “backgrounds” in the “Durham Book” are shown
in fig. 130 (_a_ and _b_). Chequers and Diapers—in which two or more
elements are employed—are related patterns.[48] (_See also Addenda,
p. 25 & fig. 191a._)
A simple way of filling a band (or long narrow [p216] space) is
to run a zigzag line along it (_c_). This may be treated either as
a line or wavy stem, which may send out buds, leaves, or flowers
into the spaces (_g_), or as two series of triangles which may be
“_countercharged_” (_f_).[49] A second zigzag, cutting the first,
would produce two series of triangles and a central row of lozenges
(_d_). And it is not a very great step from this to the “twist” where
the two lines pass over and under, the lines being made “solid” in
white or gold on a coloured background (_e_, fig. 130). The main
difference appears to be that while the one is of the nature of an
abstract form, the other suggests a concrete form, such as might be
made with twisted cords or rods.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 130.›]
These primitive patterns never become antiquated; they are still the
root forms of “design,” and the pleasant even covering of a given
space by simple elements—which is their _métier_—accounts for much
of the unconscious pleasure which we take in good _bricklaying_ or
_sewing_ or _writing_, and in a thousand things, where “_many littles
make a mickle_.”
For their decorative possibilities in Illumination we can experiment
in the most delightful way—framing our writing with bands of
countercharged triangles in burnished gold, and blue and white, or
with golden zigzags on a blue ground, or chequering backgrounds with
scarlet and blue, and trying a hundred and one other ways (p. 197).
Such patterns have been made the most of in Heraldry, [p218] an art
which in itself would form a foundation for a splendid and complete
scheme of Illumination.
SCALE & SCOPE OF DECORATION
_Penmanship._—Many of the most beautiful MSS. were made in pen-work
throughout.[50] And it is well that the penman should stick to his
pen as much as is possible. Not only does it train his hand to make
pen ornaments, the forms of which are in keeping with the writing,
but it helps to keep the decoration proportionate in every way. It is
an excellent plan for the beginner to use the writing-pen for plain
black capitals or flourishes, and to make _all_ other decoration with
similar or slightly finer pens than the one used for the writing.
Again, the direct use of the pen will prevent much mischievous
“sketching.” Sketching is right in its proper place, and, _where you
know exactly what you wish to do_, it is useful to sketch in lightly
the main parts of a complex “design” so that each part may receive
a fair portion of the available space. But do not spoil your MS. by
experimental pencilling in trying to find out what you want to do.
Experiments are best made roughly with a pen or brush on a piece of
paper laid on the available space in the MS., or by colouring a piece
of paper and cutting it out to the pattern desired and laying it on.
Such means are also used to settle small doubts which may arise in
the actual [p219] illuminating—as to whether—and where—some form or
some colour should be placed on the page.
_Filigree, Floral, & other Decoration._—The acquired skill of the
penman leads very naturally to a pen flourishing and decoration
of his work, and this again to many different types of filigree
decoration more or less resembling floral growths (see figs. 125,
126; pp. 197–202; Plates XI., XVII.).
Now all right decoration in a sense _arranges itself_, and we may
compare the right action of the “designer’s” mind to that necessary
vibration or “directive” motion which permeates the universe and,
being communicated to the elements, enables the various particles to
fall into their right places: as when iron filings are shaken near a
magnet they arrange themselves in the natural curves of the magnetic
field, or as a cello bow, drawn over the edge of a sand-sprinkled
plate, gathers the sand into beautiful “musical patterns.”
And to most natural growths, whether of plants or ornament, this
principle of self-arrangement seems common, that they _spread out
evenly and occupy to the greatest extent possible their allotted
space_. Branches and leaves most naturally _grow away from the
stem and from each other_, and oppose elbows and points in every
direction. In this way the growth fits its place, looking secure and
at rest—while in disconnected parallels, or branches following their
stem, there is often insecurity and unrest.[51] (_See also Addenda,
p. 25._)
For example: a circular space is filled more [p220] decoratively
by a cross (_a_, fig. 131) than by a contained circle; a square is
better filled by a “lozenge” or a circle (_b_ and _c_) than by a
smaller square set square and parallel (compare the diapering of the
chequers in fig. 191 _a_). A circular or square space might be filled
on this principle with a filigree arrangement such as is suggested by
(_d_, fig. 131). _Note._—In the case of two curves in the ornament
touching (either internally or externally) they may be linked at this
point by a (gold) band or circle or lozenge (_e_, fig. 131, _see
also_ Plate XVII.).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 131.›]
_Miniatures and Drawing._—In drawing and painting, the difficulty
which is apt to beset the illuminator is how to strike a balance
between “Naturalism” and “Conventionalism,” so called. While the
only criterion is good taste, we may be guided by certain general
principles.
To limit the number of elements in a “design”—whether of form or
colour—is nearly always an [p221] advantage (pp. 177, 181, 198).
And the miniaturist, while depicting the nature of a plant, usually
_limits the number of its branches and leaves and shades of colour_.
Every part of a “design” should be drawn clearly and distinctly,
and in proportion to the whole. The miniaturist, therefore, usually
_draws in careful outline every branch and leaf, making the whole
proportional with the MS. which it decorates_.
In fact, the qualities of good illumination are the same as _the
qualities of good writing—Simplicity, Distinctiveness, Proportion,
&c._ (see p. 239). And the “convention” (here literally a _coming
together_) required is only such as will make the drawing and
colouring of the illumination and the form and colour of the writing
_go well together_.
‹Note.›—Figs. 135 to 141 (woodcuts—with part of the text—from a
Herbal printed at Venice in 1571 [p. 369]) and figs. 132, 133,
and 134_a_ (wood engravings by T. Bewick, printed 1791) are
suggested as examples of drawing—of plants and animals—suitable for
book-decoration (see also figs. 134_b_, _c_, _d_; Plates XV., XVI.,
XXIII., and notes on “limner’s illumination,” p. 203).
OF “DESIGNING” MANUSCRIPTS GENERALLY
Cultivate the simplest and most direct methods, and make “rules of
thumb”[52] for work-a-day use, to carry you successfully through all
routine or ordinary difficulties, so that your hand will be trained
and your mind free and ready to deal with the harder problems when
they arise. [p222]
Use a limited number of pure, bright colours, and keep your work
clean, neat, and definite.
Go straight ahead, trusting to workman-like methods, and not
calculating overmuch. Do the work in a regular order, settling,
first, the general scheme, the size of the book, the writing, and the
margins; then when you are ready—
1. Prepare the sheets (see pp. 99, 110, 167).
2. Write the text—leaving spaces for decoration.
3. Write in—
(_a_) The coloured writing.
(_b_) The coloured capitals.
(_c_) The line-finishings.
4. Illuminate—
(_a_) The Initials. Following a regular
(_b_) Line-finishings. order in the various
(_c_) The Borders. processes involved.
5. Bind the book (p. 346), or have it bound, in order to make a
real and finished piece of work.
Practise an artistic economy of time and space: usually the quicker
you write the MS. the better it is. Allow sufficient margins to make
the book readable and handsome, but not so wide as to make it appear
fanciful. Allow sufficient ornament, not overloading the book with
it. Let the ornament be of a type suited to the book and to the
subject—not _too painstaking_ or elaborate in an ordinary MS.; not
too hasty and slight in an important work.
Endeavour to strike a balance between what may be called “practical”
and “ornamental” considerations: an illuminated MS. is not meant to
be entirely “practical,” but it is a greater failure if made entirely
“ornamental.” Let the text be _readable_ in every sense, and let the
ornament _beautify_ it: there should be give and take, as it were,
and that most desirable quality—“sweet reasonableness.” [p223]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 132.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 133.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 134.› _Part of Fig. 133. Enlarged twice
linear._]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 134›_a_.]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 134›_b_.]
[p227]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 134›_c_.
(_This and fig. 134 d are copies from a thirteenth century MS. in
the possession of Mr. Yates-Thompson._)]
“The intricacies of a natural scene (fig. 134 _a_—after Bewick)
may be simplified when rendered in such a simple medium as the pen
drawings of a MS. (comp. fig. 134 _b_). Figs. 134 _c_ & _d_ are
old examples of strong, simple drawing. Students should practise
themselves by translating figs. 132, 133 into fine, Quill-pen
drawings.”—(N. R.)
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 134›_d_.]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 135.—The Reed.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 136.—Asparagus.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 137.—The Lentil.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 138.—The Vine.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 139.—The Carnation.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 140.—The Peony.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 141.—The Peach.›]
――――――――――――――――――――
FOOTNOTES TO PART I:
[5] “The alphabet which we use at the present day has been traced
back, in all its essential forms, to the ancient hieratic writing
of Egypt of about the twenty-fifth century before Christ. It is
directly derived from the Roman alphabet; the Roman, from a local
form of the Greek; the Greek, from the Phœnician; the Phœnician,
from the Egyptian hieratic. . . . We may without exaggeration . . .
carry back the invention of Egyptian writing to six or seven thousand
years before Christ.”—_Sir Edward Maunde Thompson, “Greek and Latin
Palæography,”_ pp. 1–2.
[6] Ibid., p. 196.
[7] “G. & L. Palæography,” p. 204. (Minuscules = “small letters.”
_Half-Uncials are sometimes distinguished, as “round minuscules”_—p.
302.)
[8] It is possible that their forms were influenced by the use of the
brush in painting up public notices and the like. The introduction
of the use of vellum—a perfect writing material—in the making of
books, led to such a great advance in the formality and finish of the
book-hands (especially of the Uncial character) that, practically, it
may be said to mark the beginning of _penmanship_ as a “fine” art.
This change may be assigned to any time between the first and the
third centuries (palæographical dates before the fifth century must
generally be regarded as approximate).
[9] “Greek and Latin Palæography,” p. 233.
[10] Some Eastern scribes use a “pad” of _fur_. This, or a piece of
springy cloth, or other elastic substance, would probably be helpful,
and experiments should be made in this direction.
[11] The ordinary “Reed pen” of the artists’ colourman is rather soft
and weak for formal writing. The reeds used by the native scribes in
India and Egypt, and some of the harder English reeds, are excellent.
A fine, hollow cane also makes a very good pen.
[12] The width of the cut nib corresponds exactly with the width of
the thickest stroke which the pen will make in writing.
[13] If the edge of the nib were cut at right angles to the shaft,
obviously the horizontal stroke would not be thin, and the true
thick and thin strokes would be oblique (see “_slanted pen_”
_writing_—figs. 9 & 11).
[14] For example, a _framed_ sheet does not require such wide margins
as a similar sheet _un_framed.
[15] Really about 6 inches, because the top line of writing will not
occupy its full 7/8 inch, the unused part of which adds to the top
margin (see fig. 65).
[16] MS. Books are further considered in Chap. XVI.
[17] The _direct_ use of a thick wood or metal scale may lead to
inaccuracy.
[18] The two, four, eight (or more) pages are printed on both sides
of the sheet before it is folded. Two or more sheets are generally
folded and put together to form a folio “_section_.”
[19] Such as _Foolscap_ (17″ x 13-1/2″), _Crown_ (20″ x 15″), _Demy_
(22-1/2″ x 17-1/2″), _Royal_ (25″ x 20″), &c.
[20] In Oriental books, which are sometimes held by their top
margins, the _top_ is deepest.
[21] If the average number of words be previously fixed—as in a poem
(see p. 95)—that will practically determine the size of the writing.
[22] They are often ruled double (see p. 343), and sometimes the top
and foot lines are ruled from edge to edge of the sheet.
[23] Though Versals may generally be regarded as _paragraph marking
letters_, it is convenient to apply the term to the Versal type of
letter—_e.g._ “a heading in Versal letters” (see fig. 91).
[24] In “Roman” letters the thicks and thins are not necessarily
strongly marked, though their pen-forms have often a natural “Gothic”
tendency.
[25] The mediæval scribes often made the first line of a chapter
or book in uniform capitals (excepting the initial letter). The
succeeding line generally was smaller, and of a different colour and
type—even when a divided word was carried over into it.
[26] _Minium_ = red-lead, used in early times for “rubrics” and
drawings, hence is derived the word “_Miniature_.”
[27] An illuminated _Page_ will allow of a few lines of black text at
the foot (an arrangement very common in the elaborate Initial Pages
of the fifteenth century), but these should be quite subordinate to
the “Illumination.”
[28] The surface of horny or greasy parchment may be slightly
roughened with a pen-knife till little hairs are raised which will
hold the size, care being taken that this roughening does not extend
beyond the actual parts which are to be covered with size. (Oxgall:
see _footnote_, p. 175.)
[29] As this is usually allowed to dry for twenty-four hours, make
sure, before laying the size, that you will be able to lay the
gold-leaf on it _at or near the same time on the next day_.
[30] Should a drop fall on the page it can be removed quickly with
the knife, but it is safer to allow it to dry and then to pick it off
carefully. Size which has flowed beyond the bounds of the form may be
trimmed away when it has set.
[31] A finer metal or ivory point may also be used.
[32] _Vide_ D. Cockerell, “Bookbinding and the Care of Books,” p. 81.
[33] The very costly, specially prepared calf-skin is too highly
“finished,” and has much the appearance of superior cardboard. It is
stiff and shiny, and its surface is objectionable to work on.
[34] _OXGALL_ may be used for a greasy surface; painted on it, or
mixed with the colour.
[35] And the nib is cleaned out now and then (with the filling
brush), or wiped, to prevent the colour clogging it (see p. 70).
[36] “_French Ultramarine_” is an artificial compound, and a poor
colour.
[37] For white lining, &c.—if in constant use—the Chinese White in
bottle is said to be the best; a little Spirits of Wine should be
poured into it, to keep it moist and make it work better. It should
be stirred well, and a sufficient quantity for immediate use is taken
out and mixed in a small saucer. The bottle is kept tightly corked.
[38] And single forms were often parti-coloured, as III., IV.,
_Blue_, with _red_ serifs, or _vice versâ_ (see also pp. 208, 216).
[39] In “white light” three rays (known as the “_Primary
Colour-Sensations_”) have been distinguished—Red, Green, and Blue;
any two of these are complementary to the remaining colour, and
appear to be induced optically in its neighbourhood.
(Yellow light is combined of Red and Green rays, and this may partly
explain the particular fitness of Blue and Gold Illumination.)
[40] In the case of a burnished gold letter, the _gilding_ may be
deferred until the adjacent coloured parts are finished (see p. 170).
[41] It has even been supposed that we might make the inhabitants
of _Mars_ aware of the existence of rational _Terrestrials_, by
exhibiting a vast illumination—in lamp-light—consisting of a somewhat
similar form—_the first Proposition in Euclid_.
[42] ‹Note.›—_Limning_ strictly means _Illuminating_, but has come to
imply drawing and painting, especially of portraits and miniatures.
Here, _all_ its senses are intended.
[43] The modern illuminator, having no tradition for making such
scroll-work, would find that natural or organic forms—as of trees or
plants (see p. 221)—would serve the same end and have more “sweet
reasonableness” in modern eyes. Excellent scroll-work, moreover,
might be formed out of ornamental Capitals—if sufficient excuse could
be found for introducing them: a large flourished «L», for example,
could be made exactly on the same lines as the pendant and scroll in
Plate XV. Narrow gold rods also may be used in a border to support a
floral growth, or as frames if necessary (compare _rules_, p. 364).
[44] The _steps in the development_ sketched very briefly in this
chapter, refer both to the past history of the art of illumination
and to its possible revival (see Author’s preface, p. 16).
[45] Where it is possible it is desirable to mark the top left-hand
corner of the “page” (and also the lower corner) by a branch,
flourish, bud, or flower (see Plates XIX., XXII.). A top left-hand
corner appearing vacant or rounded off is apt to weaken the whole
effect (see p. 134).
[46] _Framing borders_, or borders which surround the text, may be
allowed nearly to fill the entire marginal space.
[47] “Design” has been associated so much with bad cleverness in the
artist, or clever badness in the natural man, that if we use the word
in a good sense it is apt to be misunderstood.
Decoration is derived from _decus_, _decor_ = comeliness or grace.
[48] Chequers in colours and gold were largely used in the
fourteenth-century MSS. for backgrounds in miniatures. There is an
example of very beautiful heraldic diapering (in enamel) on the
shield of William de Valence, Earl of Pembroke, in Westminster Abbey
(‹A.D.› 1296). On p. 336 of this book there is a diagram of a very
fine shield bearing a diapered chequer.
[49] If the triangles were countercharged in colour and colour—_e.g._
red and blue—the zigzag would be made _white_, _black_, or _gold_, to
separate and harmonise the colours (see pp. 182–83).
[50] A most beautiful twelfth-century MS., known as the “Golden
Psalter,” has many gold (decorated) Initials, Red, Blue, and Green
(plain) Versals and Line-Finishings, every part being pen-made
throughout the book.
[51] In a _spiral_ the stem, following _itself_, may be tied by an
interlacing spiral, or the turns of the spiral may be held at rest by
the interlocking of the leaves (see G, Plate XXII.).
[52] As an example of a good “rule of thumb,” _use the ruled
lines of a manuscript as a scale for other measurements and
proportions_, leaving one, two, three, or more of the line-spaces for
capitals, ornaments, &c.: you have this scale—as it were, a “ready
reckoner”—present on every page, and following it enables you more
easily to make the decoration agree and harmonise with the written
text and with the book as a whole (see p. 128 & figs. 89, 91, 71).
[p237]
PART II
LETTERING
CHAPTER XIV
GOOD LETTERING——SOME METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION
& ARRANGEMENT
Good Models — The Qualities of Good Lettering — Simplicity —
Distinctiveness — Proportion — Beauty of Form — Beauty of Uniformity
— Right Arrangement — Setting Out & Fitting In — “Massed Writing” &
“Fine Writing” — Even Spacing — Theory & Practice.
GOOD MODELS
«If» lettering is to be rightly constructed and arranged, the study
of good models is essential. Some of the writing and lettering in the
old MSS., and the letters used on various old tombstones and brasses,
weeded of archaisms, will be found almost perfect models. Yet to
select one of these from the many which are “more or less” good,
requires much discrimination.
It is suggested below that the essential virtues of good lettering
are _readableness_, _beauty_, and _character_. If, then, we can
discover some of the underlying qualities which make for these, our
choice will at least be better considered, and instead of [p238]
forming our “style” on the first type of letter that pleases, we
shall found our work on a good model, full of possibilities of
development.
_The Roman Capital_ (Chap. XV.).—The ancestor of all our letters
is in undisputed possession of the first place: but it is open to
comparatively few to make a practical study of its monumental forms
by means of cutting inscriptions in stone with a chisel.
_The Pen-formed letters_ are more easily practised, and the mastery
of the pen acquired in the practice of a root form—such as the
half-uncial—is the key to the majority of alphabets (which are pen
developed) and to those principles underlying the right construction
and arrangement of lettering, which it is our business to discover.
Doubtless a “school” of lettering might be founded on any fine type,
and a beautiful alphabet or fine hand might be founded on any fine
inscription: but the practical student of penmanship may be sure
of acquiring a knowledge of lettering which would be useful to any
craftsman concerned with letters, be he printer, book-illustrator,
engraver, or even inscription carver.
THE QUALITIES OF GOOD LETTERING
The first general virtue of lettering is _readableness_, the second,
_fitness_ for a given Use. And the rational basis of the following
summary is the assumption that such _fitness_ is comprised in
_beauty_ and _character_, and that a given piece of lettering having
_readableness_, _beauty_, _and character_ has the essential virtues
of good lettering.
The qualities on which these virtues seem chiefly to depend, and
their special significations in the case of plain writing, may be set
forth as follows:— [p239]
THE QUALITIES OF GOOD WRITING
RIGHT FORM
_READABLENESS_
1. _Simplicity:_ As having no unnecessary parts (and as
being _simply_ arranged: see 6).
2. _Distinctiveness:_ As having the distinguishing
characteristics of each letter strongly marked (and the
words _distinctly_ arranged: see 6).
3. _Proportion:_ As having no part of a letter wrongly
exaggerated or dwarfed (and as the lettering being
_proportionally_ arranged: see 6).
_BEAUTY_
4. _Beauty of Form:_ As having beautiful shapes and
constructions, so that each letter is an individual and
living whole (not a mere collection of parts) fitted for the
position, office, and material of the object bearing the
inscription.
5. _Beauty of Uniformity:_ As the assimilation of the
corresponding parts—“bodies,” “limbs,” “heads”—and as the
“family likeness” of the different letters, so that they go
well together.
RIGHT ARRANGEMENT
_BEAUTY_
6. _Beauty of Arrangement:_ As having a general fitness in
the placing, connecting, and spacing of letters, words, and
lines, in the disposal of the lettering in the given space,
and in the proportioning of every part of the lettering and
its margins.
RIGHT EXPRESSION
_CHARACTER_
7. _Essential qualities of (Hand and Pen) work:_ As being
genuine calligraphy, the direct outcome of a rightly made
and rightly handled _pen_. (_See_ p. 278.)
8. _Freedom:_ As having skilled and unaffected boldness.
(_See_ pp. 122, 327, 323, 369.)
9. _Personality:_ As having the characteristics which
distinguish one person’s hand from another’s. (_See also_
pp. 278, 323.)
[p240]
This summary, while not presuming to define the _Virtues_, or achieve
_Beauty_ by a formula, does indicate some guiding principles for
the letter-maker, and does suggest a definite meaning which may be
given to the terms “Right Form,” “Right Arrangement,” and “Right
Expression” in a particular craft.
It is true that “Readableness” and “Character” are comprised in
_Beauty_, in the widest sense; but it is useful here to distinguish
them: _Readableness_ as the only sound basis for a practical theory
of lettering, and _Character_ as the product of a particular hand &
tool at work in a particular craft.
The above table, therefore, may be used as a test of the qualities
of any piece of lettering—whether Manuscript, Printing, or
Engraving—provided that the significations of those qualities on
which “Character” depends be modified and adapted to each particular
instance. It is however a test for general qualities only—such as may
help us in choosing a model: for as to its particular virtue each
work stands alone—judged by its merits—in spite of all rules.
SIMPLICITY
(_As having no unnecessary parts_)
_Essential Forms and their Characterisation._—The “Essential Forms”
may be defined briefly as the _necessary parts_ (see p. 275). They
constitute the skeleton or structural plan of an alphabet; and _One
of the finest things the letter-craftsman can do, is to make the
Essential Forms of letters beautiful in themselves, giving them the
character and finish which come naturally from a rightly handled
tool_. [p241]
If we take the “Roman” types—the letters with which we are most
familiar—and draw them in single pencil strokes (as a child does when
it “learns its letters”), we get a rough representation of their
Essential Forms (see diagram, fig. 142).
Such letters might be scratched with a point in wax or clay, and
if so used in practice would give rise to fresh and characteristic
developments,[53] but if we take a “square cut” pen which will give a
thin horizontal stroke and a thick vertical stroke (figs. 10 and 40),
it will give us the “_straight-pen_,” or simple written, essential
forms of these letters (fig. 143).
These essential forms of straight-pen letters when compared with
the plain line forms show a remarkable degree of interest, brought
about by the introduction of the thin and thick strokes and gradated
curves, characteristic of pen work.
Certain letters (A, K, M, N, V, W, X, Y, and k, v, w, x, y) in fig.
143 being composed chiefly of oblique strokes, appear rather heavy.
They are lightened by using a naturally “slanted” pen which produces
thin as well as thick oblique strokes. And the verticals in M and N
are made thin by further slanting the pen (fig. 144).
To our eyes, accustomed to a traditional finish, all these forms—in
figs. 143 and 144, but particularly the slanted pen forms—look
incomplete and unfinished; and it is obvious that the thin strokes,
at least, require marked terminals or _serifs_. [p242]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 142.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 143.›]
[p244]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 144.›]
_Finishing-Strokes._—The pen naturally produces a variety of
finishing-strokes—“heads,” “feet,” serifs, &c.—each type of which
strongly characterises the alphabet in which it is employed.
The main types (fig. 145) are—
(a) _Hooks or beaks._
(b) _Straight (or curved) strokes_, thick or thin according to the
direction of the pen.
(c) _Triangular “heads”_ (and “feet”), straight or slanted, and more
or less curved and sharpened.
(d) _Thin finishing-curves_, horizontal or oblique.
To give uniformity to the various letters of an alphabet it is
necessary to treat similar parts as consistently as possible
throughout (see No. 5, p. 239). And the remarkable way in which
“heads” impart a “family likeness” to letters closely resembles the
same phenomenon among human beings (see pp. 324, 254).
If we consider the four types of serif, _as applicable to
straight-pen writing_, we find— [p245]
(a) _Hooks or Beaks_ Suitable only _for certain_
_parts of certain letters_
(d) _Thin Finishing-Curves_ (and for informal writing).
(b) _Straight (or Curved) THIN_ Informal (or Ornamental).
_Strokes_
(c) _Triangular “Heads”_ Formal and capable of imparting
great elegance and finish.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 145.›]
For a formal, straight-pen writing, therefore, we may assume that a
form of triangular head is, on the whole, the most suitable, while
some of the letters may be allowed to end naturally in finishing
hooks and curves. [p246]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 146.›]
Heads are easily built up at the ends of thick strokes, but some
practice is required to enable a penman to make them on the thin
strokes properly and skilfully. On the thin horizontals they are made
with an almost continuous movement of the point of the nib from the
thin stroke itself (see (_a_) to (_h_) fig. 146) closely resembling
the termination of some of the thin strokes in the Irish half-uncial
(Plate VI.). On the thin oblique or vertical stems a thin crossing
stroke is first made, and then shaped [p247] with the pen point to
meet the stem (see (_i_) and (_k_) fig. 146).
We may write out the letters now with their suitable serifs, and
we see that the Pen character and finish, given to the “Essential,
or Skeleton, Forms” (fig. 142) result in a very formal and highly
finished alphabet (fig. 147).
_Slanted-pen characters and serifs_ (see fig. 145)—
(a) _Hooks or Beaks_ Suitable for most of the
letters, but tending to
(d) _Thin Finishing-Curves_ be informal.
(b) _Straight (or Curved)_ Formal and strong.
_THICK Strokes_
(c) _Triangular Heads_ Formal and suitable for
small-letters, and free
capitals (see fig. 168).
The alphabets (fig. 148), produced from the skeleton forms (fig. 142)
by the _slanted pen_, while not having such a conscious air of finish
as the straight-pen letters, are much easier to write, and have in a
greater degree the virtues of strong,[54] legible, natural penmanship.
They are eminently suitable for general MS. work (see p. 305) when
the beginner has mastered an early form of round-hand (see pp. 70,
304).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 147.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 148.›]
DISTINCTIVENESS
(_As having the distinguishing characteristics of each letter
strongly marked_)
The “_Characteristic Parts_” are those parts which most particularly
serve to distinguish one letter from [p250] another (fig. 149). We
should therefore, when constructing letters, give special attention
to their preservation, and sometimes they may even be accentuated
with advantage—always with an eye to the life-history, or evolution,
of the letter in question, and allowing for the influence of the
special tool with which it is to be made (see _Proportion_, below).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 149.›]
[p251]
PROPORTION
(_As having no part of a letter wrongly exaggerated or dwarfed_—see
pp. 274, 277–78)
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 150.›]
The right proportioning of letters entails the preservation of
their Essential Forms and their Characteristic Parts, and, provided
these are not [p252] seriously interfered with, a certain amount
of exaggeration (and dwarfing)[55] is allowable in special cases;
particularly in ornamental writings, and Pen-flourished capitals or
terminal letters (see figs. 79 and 125).
Rational exaggeration usually amounts to the drawing out or
flourishing of tails or free stems, or branches—very often to the
magnifying of a _characteristic part_ (see fig. 150, & pp. 250,
331). It is a special form of decoration, and very effective if used
discriminately.
BEAUTY OF FORM
(_As having beautiful shapes and constructions, so that each letter
is an individual and living whole (not a mere collection of parts)
fitted for the position, office, and material of the object bearing
the inscription_)
To choose or construct beautiful forms requires good taste, and that
in its turn requires cultivation, which comes from the observation
of beautiful forms. Those who are not accustomed to seeing beautiful
things are, in consequence, often uncertain whether they think a
thing beautiful or not. Some—perhaps all of us—have an intuition for
what is beautiful; but most of us have to achieve beauty by taking
pains.
At the least we are apt to be misled if we label abstract forms
as _essentially beautiful_ or _essentially ugly_—as by a mistaken
_recipe_ for beauty. For us as craftsmen “achieving beauty by taking
pains,” means acquiring skill in a special craft and [p253] adapting
that skill to a special piece of work. And perhaps the surest way to
learn, is to let our tools and materials teach us and, as it were,
make beautiful shapes for us.
“_Inside Shapes._”—The beauty of a letter depends very much on its
inside shape—_i.e._ the shape of the space enclosed by the letter
form. As this is often overlooked, it may be briefly referred to.
Frequently when it seems difficult to say what is wrong with a piece
of bad lettering, a glance at the inside shapes will reveal the
fault. In _simple writing_, if the pen be properly cut and properly
held, these shapes will generally take care of themselves, and
internal angles or asymmetrical lines which occur are characteristic
of that particular form of penmanship, and not accidental (_b_, fig.
151).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 151.›]
[p254]
In making _Built-up_ letters—which have both outer and inner
strokes—the inner strokes should generally be made first (see p. 121).
_Plain and Ornamental Forms._—Not only for the sake of readableness,
but to promote a beautiful and dignified effect, the forms of letters
are kept simple when the text is long. And, generally, the less
frequent the type, the more ornamental may be its form (see pp. 126,
210, 298, 330).
BEAUTY OF UNIFORMITY
(_As the assimilation of the corresponding parts—“bodies,” “limbs,”
“heads”—and as the “family likeness,” of the different letters, so
that they go well together_)
Right uniformity makes for readableness and beauty, and is the result
of good craftsmanship.
_Readableness._—Where the text letters are uniform, the reader is
free to give his attention to the sense of the words, whereas the
variations in an irregular or changing text are distracting.[56]
_Beauty._—The abstract beauty-of-uniformity may be said to lie in
this, that the different letters, or individual elements, “_go well
together_.” The beautiful effect of uniform lettering is thus caused
by the united forces, as it were, of all the letters.
_Good Craftsmanship._—A pen, or other letter-making tool, being
handled freely and regularly, the uniform movements of the tool in
similar cases will produce uniform strokes, &c. (On the other hand,
the interruption and loss of freedom to the [p255] writer who
is irregular, or who forces an unnatural variety,[57] results in
inferior work.)
RIGHT ARRANGEMENT
_BEAUTY OF ARRANGEMENT_ (_As having a general fitness in the
placing, connecting, and spacing of letters, words, and lines,
in the disposal of the lettering in the given space, and in the
proportioning of every part of the lettering and its margins_)
The particular fitness of a given inscription depends upon
considerations of its particular _office_, _position_, _material_,
&c. (see pp. 100, 351). For general use, however, the craftsman has
certain regular modes of disposing and spacing the lettering, and
proportioning the whole. And, as in constructing individual letters,
so in treating lettering as a whole, he endeavours to give his
work the qualities that make for readableness: viz. _simplicity_,
_distinctiveness_, _and proportion_.
_Simplicity in the Disposal of the Lettering._—For convenience
of construction, reading, or handling, the simple, traditional
arrangement of lettering is generally followed in dealing with flat
surfaces (paper, vellum, &c.):[58]—
THE TEXT FORMING
A RECTANGLE, CON-
SISTING OF A NUM-
BER OF EQUAL LINES
[p256]
_Distinctiveness in the Spacing of the Lettering_ necessitates
sufficient interspaces: the following common spacing of Letters,
Words, Lines, &c., may be modified to suit special circumstances.
_Letters_, as a rule, are not equidistant, but their interspaces are
approximately equal (_a_, fig. 152).
_Words_, commonly one letter-space apart (_b_ and _c_).
_Lines_ of Capitals, frequently _half_ (_d_) or _whole_ (_e_)
letter-height apart. Lines of Small-Letters, commonly _ascenders_
and _descenders_ just clearing (_f_).
_Divisions of Text_ a clear line apart, or marked by a difference in
colour or size (see figs. 94, 96, 186, &c.).
_Proportion in the Treatment of the Whole Inscription._—The
spacing-proportions referred to above apply to lettering generally,
but the proportions of an _inscription as a whole_ involve the
consideration of a special case. Example:—
The Proportions to be Considered in the Case of a
‹Manuscript Book› (see pp. 100–108, 341, &c.).
(1) Size and shape of the Book (Set by custom, use of Book,
and its page (proportion of size of material, &c.) (see figs.
width to height) (see p. 69, 70, and pp. 101, &c.).
103).
(2) Width of _Margins_—
Proportions— (_a_) (Commonly about 1-1/2:2:3:4)
(_a_) to each other. (see fig. 70, and pp. 103–7).
(_b_) to size of page. (_b_) (Frequently about, or more
(_c_) to the lettering. than, _half the area of the page_).
(3) Size of _Writing_— (Set by page, and margin, and
Proportion of height of number of words in the line;
letter to length of line. usually more than _four_ words
to the line) (see pp. 107–8).
(4) Number of _lines_— (Set by page, margin, and
Proportion of text to page. height-of-letter, and modified
by treatment of _spacing_) (see
pp. 108, 262).
(5) Size of _Large Capitals_, (Set by Small-Letter; commonly
_Initials_, _&c._ one, two, three, or more
of the writing-line-spaces
high) (see _footnote_, p. 221).
(6) Size of Decorative (Set by page, &c.; usually such
_Divisions_ of the Text Division is relatively small
(marked by different or large—as a definite “heading,”
treatment, colour, ornament, or a whole page) (see p. 132).
&c.).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 152.›]
[p258]
SETTING OUT, & FITTING IN
_Ruling._—The approximate sizes of margins and letters, and the
number of lines of text, having been estimated, guiding lines are
ruled on the surface (see p. 343)—a right and a left vertical
marginal line, with the necessary number of horizontals between
them. (In the case of a manuscript, these lines are ruled faintly
(or _grooved_), and are left to form a feature of the page; for
inscriptions on other materials than paper, parchment, &c., they are
generally removed after setting-out.)
_Setting-out._—An inscription of any size, or one requiring complex
or very nice arrangement, is set-out in faint, sketchy outline of
lead pencil or chalk. _Simple writing_ is not set-out, but such
slight calculation or planning as is necessary is carried out
mentally, or on a scrap of paper. By practice the scribe, like the
compositor, can fit his lettering to the given space with ease and
accuracy. For _writing_ and (to a large extent) _printing_, both
_combine setting-out and the act of “lettering” in one operation_.
And this shows how practice gives foreknowledge of the “mechanical”
part of the work, leaving the mind free to take pleasure in its
performance; and also how slight—if necessary at all—is the
experimental _setting-out_ of simple forms required by the practised
workman.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 153.›]
_Dividing Monosyllables._—In simple writing—the beauty of which
depends on freedom rather than on precision—I think that even such
an awkward word as “through” should not be broken. If the space at
the end of a line is insufficient, it should be left blank, or be
filled in with a dash of the pen. But in the case of words in LARGE
CAPITALS, especially in title-pages and the like, where spacing
[p259] is more difficult, and smooth reading less essential, any
word may be divided at any point if the necessity is sufficiently
obvious. But (even when the division is syllabic) breaking words,
as interfering with the ease of reading, may often be avoided with
advantage, and divisions which give accidental words, especially when
they are objectionable, as [p260] “‹TH-ROUGH›,” or “‹NEIGH-BOUR›,”
should not be allowed. Among other ways of dealing with small spaces,
without breaking words, are the following:—
_Ending with Smaller Letters._—The scribe is always at liberty to
compress his writing _slightly_, provided he does not spoil its
readableness or beauty. Occasionally, without harming either of
these, a marked difference in size of letter may be allowed; one or
more words, or a part of one, or a single letter, being made smaller
(_a_, _b_, fig. 153; see also Plate V.).
_Monogrammatic Forms_, &c.—In any kind of lettering, but more
particularly in the case of capitals, where the given space is
insufficient for the given capitals, monogrammatic forms resembling
the ordinary diphthong Æ may be used; or the stem of one letter may
be drawn out, above or below, and formed into another (_c_, fig. 153).
_Linking._—Letters which are large enough may be linked or looped
together, or one letter may be set inside another, or free-stem
letters may be drawn up above the line (_d_, fig. 153, but see p. 26).
_Tying up._—One or more words at the end of a line of
writing—particularly in poetry (see p. 95)—may be “tied up,” _i.e._
be written above or below the line, with a pen stroke to connect them
to it (fig. 67).
Care must be taken that none of these methods lead to confusion in
the reading. Their “Quaintness”—as it is sometimes called—is only
pleasing when their contrivance is obviously made necessary.
“MASSED WRITING” & “FINE WRITING”
We may distinguish two characteristic modes of treating an
inscription, in which the treatment of the letter is bound up with
the treatment of the spacing (fig. 154). [p262]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 154.›]
“_Massed Writing_” (_Close Spacing_).—The written or printed page is
very commonly _set close_, or “massed,” so that the letters support
and enforce one another, their individual beauty being merged in and
giving beauty to the whole. The closeness of the _letters_ in each
word keeps the _words_ distinct, so that but little space is required
between them,[59] and _the lines of writing are made close together_
(ascending and descending stems being shortened, if necessary, for
this purpose).
“_Fine Writing_” (_Wide Spacing_).—An inscription in “Fine Writing”
may be spaced widely to display the finished beauty of the letters,
or to give free play to the penman (or letter-craftsman). It consists
generally of a number of _distinct lines of Writing_ (or other
lettering).
The two modes may be contrasted broadly, thus—
MASSED WRITING (Lines near FINE WRITING (Lines spaced
together.) and separated.)
Has an effect of richness, Has an effect of elegance, depending
depending on tone of mass and on form of letters and distinct
close, even spacing. arrangement of lines.
Simple method (for ordinary Refined method (for special use);
use); saving of time and lavish of space and time, ∴
space, ∴ suited for long suited for large spaces or short
inscriptions or small spaces. inscriptions.
Lines generally of equal Lines may be of unequal length,
length, or if some fall giving irregular, right-hand edge,
short, end-fillings may be as in poetry (see p. 263)—gaps
used—gaps are avoided if allowed on either side. [p263]
possible.
Ascending and descending Stems—medium or long: long stems
stems—medium or short: often a marked feature, ending in
serifs simple, and not carefully made heads and feed,
strongly marked. or flourishes.
Suited for slanted-pen forms Suited for _straight and slanted_
of “gothic” tendency, and pen forms of “roman” tendency,
heavy, black writing and slender, light writing
(example, “black letter”).^* (example, “Italic”).^*
Requires generally contrasts Allows variety in size of Letters
of colour or weight (p. (see pp. 298, 328): its typical
330), and will bear more treatment is as plain, fine
and heavier illumination lettering—better without
(Line-fillings, Initials, heavy Borders, &c. (p. 299).
Borders, &c.).
――――――――――――――――――――
* ‹Note.›—Both modes are suited for _Roman Capitals and Small-Letters_.
These two modes may not have been recognised by the ancient
letter-craftsmen: their comparison here is intended chiefly as a
stimulus to definite thought, _not_ as a hard-and-fast division of
two “styles”; for there may be any number of possible compromises
between them. In practice, however, it will be found convenient
to distinguish them as _two modes of treating_ ‹LINES OF WRITING›
_which produce markedly different effects, the one, as it were, of_
‹COLOUR›, _the other of_ ‹FORM›.
Plates XI., XIII., XIV., XV., XVII. may be taken as examples of
“Massed Writing,” Plates IV., V., VI., VII., IX., (XXI.) of “Fine
Writing”; the other plates suggest compromises between the two.
_Poetry_ (see p. 95), or any text consisting of, or which is
conveniently broken up into _unequal lines_, may be treated as “Fine
Writing.” There is no objection to a _straight left-hand edge_
with an _irregular right-hand edge_,[60] where the cause of the
irregularity [p264] is natural and obvious, and no fault of the
scribe’s. Such an arrangement, or rather, _straightforward writing_,
of poetry is often the best by virtue of its freedom and simplicity
(see p. 371).
In many cases, however, a more formal and finished treatment of an
irregular line text is to be preferred (especially in inscriptions
on stone, metal, &c.), and the most natural arrangement is then
an approximately symmetrical one, inclining to “Fine Writing”
in treatment. This is easily obtained in inscriptions which are
previously set-out, but a good plan—certainly the best for MSS.—is to
sort the lines of the text into _longs_ and _shorts_ (and sometimes
_medium_ lines), and to set-in or indent the short lines two,
three, or more letters. The indentations on the _left_ balance the
accidental irregularities on the _right_ (fig. 154, and Plate IV.),
and give an appearance of symmetry to the page (see _Phrasing_, p.
384).
Either mode of spacing (_close_ or _wide_) may be carried to an
unwise or ridiculous extreme. “Leading” the lines of type was much in
vogue a hundred years ago, in what was then regarded as “high-class”
printing. Too often the wide-spaced line and “grand” manner of the
eighteenth-century printer was pretentious rather than effective:
this was partly due to the degraded type which he used, but form,
arrangement, and expression all tended to be artificial. Of late
years a rich, closely massed page has again become fashionable.
Doubtless there has been a reaction in this from the eighteenth
century to an earlier and better manner, but the effect is sometimes
overdone, and the real ease and comfort of the reader has been
sacrificed to his rather imaginary æstheticism.
By attaching supreme importance to readableness, [p265] the
letter-craftsman gains at least a rational basis for his work, and is
saved from the snares which lurk in all, even in the best, modes and
fashions.
EVEN SPACING
In the spacing of a given inscription on a limited surface, where
a comparatively large size of letter is required, what little
space there is to spare should generally be distributed evenly and
consistently (_a_, fig. 155). Lavish expenditure of space on the
margins would necessitate an undue crowding[61] of the lettering
(_b_), and wide interspacing[62] would allow insufficient margins
(_c_)—either arrangement suggesting inconsistency (but see p. 352).
‹Note.›—_A given margin looks larger the heavier the mass of the
text_,[63] and _smaller the lighter the mass of the text_. And,
therefore, if lettering be spread out, as in “Fine Writing,” the
margins should be extra wide to have their true comparative value.
The space available for a given inscription may in this way largely
determine the arrangement of the lettering, comparatively _small_ and
_large_ spaces suggesting respectively “_Massed Writing_” and “_Fine
Writing_” (see p. 262).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 155.›]
In _certain decorative inscriptions_, where letters are merely
treated as decorative forms—readableness [p267] being a matter of
little or no moment—the treatment of the spacing is adapted to a
particular surface; and, for example:—
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 156.›]
THEORY & PRACTICE
The above discussion of theories and “rules” for the construction
and arrangement of good lettering is intended to suggest some useful
methods—not to provoke excessive fitting or planning, but rather to
avoid it. Straightforwardness is perhaps the greatest virtue in a
craft, and whatever “rules” it may break through, it is refreshing
and charming.
An excellent example for the scribe or inscription maker is the
method of an early printer, who had only four or five sorts of
type—say, “Small-Letters” and “Capitals” (Roman and Italic) and
“Large Capitals,” and who, without any elaborate “design,” simply put
his types into their proper [p268] places, and then pulled off his
pleasant sheets of “commonplace” printing.
The scribe should choose the best and simplest forms and
arrangements, and master them before going further; he should have
a few definite types “at his finger tips,” and, for everyday use, a
matter-of-course way of putting them down on paper.
Ambiguity is one of the greatest faults in a craft. It comes often
from vague ambitions. One may be inspired by good ambitions, but the
immediate concern of the craftsman is to know what he is capable of
doing at the present, and to do it.
Let the meaning of your work be obvious unless it is designed purely
for your own amusement. A good craftsman seeks out the _commonplace_
and tries to master it, knowing that “originality” comes of
necessity, and not of searching.
CHAPTER XV
THE ROMAN ALPHABET & ITS DERIVATIVES
The Roman Alphabet — Proportions of Letters: Widths — Upper & Lower
Parts—Essential or Structural Forms — Characterisation of Forms —
Built-Up Forms — Simple-Written Capitals — Uncials — Capitals &
Small-Letters — Early, Round, Upright, Formal Hands — Slanted-Pen
Small-Letters — Roman Small-Letters — Italics — Semi-Formal Hands
— Of Formal Writing Generally — Decorative Contrasts — Ornamental
Letters.
‹The Roman Alphabet›
The Roman Alphabet is the foundation of all our alphabets (see
Chapter I.). And since the full [p269] development of their
monumental forms about 2000 years ago, the Roman Capitals have held
the supreme place among letters for readableness and beauty. They
are the best forms for the grandest and most important inscriptions,
and, in regard to lettering generally, a very good rule to follow is:
_When in doubt, use Roman Capitals_.
The penman may with advantage devote some study to a fine monumental
type of Roman Capital (such as that of the Trajan Column Inscription:
Plates I. and II.), and endeavour to embody its virtues in a
_built-up pen form_ for use in MSS. (p. 294).
PROPORTIONS OF LETTERS: WIDTHS
The marked distinction between the “Square” and the “Round”
forms, and the varying widths of the letters—as seen in the early
inscriptions,[64] are _characteristic_ of the Roman Alphabet. We may
broadly distinguish _Wide_ and _Narrow_ letters thus—
_WIDE_ O Q C G D “_Round._”
_WIDE_ M W “_Square._”
_WIDE_ H (U) A N V T (Z) “_Square._”
_NARROW_ B E F R S Y (X)
_NARROW_ I J
_NARROW_ K L P
[p270]
_The “Round” Wide Letters—O, Q, C, G, D._—
O may be regarded as the Key letter of an alphabet. Given an O and an
I of any alphabet, we can make a very good guess at the forms of the
other letters.
In fine Inscriptions the external line of O is commonly an almost
perfect circle (see Plate II.)—_i.e._ its height and width are equal.
This may be regarded as the ideal shape, though a slight widening or
narrowing of the letter (fig. 157) is quite permissible.[65]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 157.›]
Q, C, G, and D follow the proportions of O [p271] very nearly, and,
though C, G, D are a little narrower, they have the same effect of
roundness and width.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 158.›]
_The “Square” Wide Letters—M, W, and H, (U), A, N, V, T, (Z)_—
M & W Their mean width is properly _about_ equal to their height.
H Width equal to, or a little less than, height (fig. 158), but if
made too narrow it would look heavy, being _double-stemmed_.
U (see pp. 287, 284) resembles H.
A, N, & V are _double-stemmed_, and have internal angles, moreover,
which would become too sharp—and tend to close [p272] up—if they
were made too narrow (fig. 158).
T The cross-bar—the _characteristic part_ of T—projects a fair way on
either side of the stem.
Z Either _wide_ or (moderately) _narrow_ (fig. 158).
_The Narrow Letters, B, E, F, R, S, Y (X)_ (see fig. 159).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 159.›]
There is a point of division in these letters about the middle of the
stem or a little above (see p. 273), and we may argue that each being
composed, as it were, of two little letters—which are _half-height_,
they are proportionately _half-width_: and this will be found
approximately correct. B may be said to consist of one little D on
the top of another, averaging respectively _half_ the height and
width of a full-sized D.
E, F, & R follow the proportions of B (see also E, 4, p. 282). [p273]
S may be made of one little _tilted_ O on the top of another—joined
together and having the superfluous parts removed.
Y is like a little V upon a little I.
X Either _narrow_ or _wide_ (fig. 159).
_The Narrow letters, K, L, and P_—
These forms are related to the B, E forms, but it is permissible to
make them a little wider to give clearance to the angles of the K and
force to the single _arm_ and _loop_—the characteristic parts (see
fig. 149)—of L and P.
UPPER & LOWER PARTS
In the letters B, E, H, K, X (A), F, R, P (S), Y there is generally a
tendency to enlarge the lower part, the cross-bar—or division—being
set above mid-height. This tendency may reasonably be accounted for
as follows:—
The natural division of B, E, H, K, & X, regarded as abstract forms,
would be symmetrical—_i.e._ at the centre of the stem.[66] In
order that its _apparent position_ may be central, however, it is
necessary, for optical reasons, to make [p274] its actual position
above the centre.[67] And further, by a reasonable enlargement of the
lower part, these letters acquire a greater appearance of stability.
It would be well, I think, for the letter-craftsman to begin by
making such divisions at the _apparent centre_ (_i.e._ very slightly
above mid-height; see E, F, X, Plate II.), so keeping most nearly
to the _essential forms_ (see p. 275). Later he might consider the
question of stability (see B, Plate II.). The exaggerated raising
(or lowering) of the division associated with “Art Lettering” is
illegible and ridiculous.
«A» The lower part is essentially bigger, and the cross-bar is not
raised, as that would make the top part disproportionately small.
«F» usually follows E, but being asymmetrical and open below it may,
if desired, be made with the bar at—or even slightly below—the actual
centre.
«R» In early forms the bow was frequently rather large (see Plate
II.), but it is safer to make the tail—the characteristic part—more
pronounced (see Plates III., XXIV.).
«P» The characteristic part of P is the bow, which may therefore be a
little larger than the bow of R (see Plate III.).
«S» In the best types of this letter the upper and lower parts are
approximately equal; there is a tendency slightly to enlarge the
lower [p275] part. (In Uncial and early round-hands the _top_ part
was larger: see Plates IV. to VII.)
Y varies: the upper part may be less than that of X, or somewhat
larger.
ESSENTIAL OR STRUCTURAL FORMS
_The essential or structural forms_ (see p. 240) _are the simplest
forms which preserve the characteristic structure, distinctiveness,
and proportions of each individual letter_.
The letter-craftsman must have a clear idea of the _skeletons_ of his
letters. While in every case the precise form which commends itself
to him is matter for his individual choice, it is suggested in the
following discussion of a typical form—the Roman B—that the rationale
of his selection (whether conscious or unconscious) is in brief _to
determine what is_ ‹ABSOLUTELY› _essential to a form, and then how
far this may be amplified in the direction of the_ ‹PRACTICALLY›
_essential_.
The letter B reduced to its simplest (_curved-bow_) form—_i.e._
to the bare necessity of its distinctive structure—comprises _a
perpendicular stem spanned by two equal, circular bows_ (_a_, fig.
160).
In amplifying such a form for practical or æsthetic reasons, it is
well as a rule not to exceed one’s object—in this case to determine
a reasonable (though arbitrary) standard essential form of B,
having a distinctive and proportionate (_f_) structure. We may
increase the arcs of the bows till their width is nearly equal to
their height (_b_), make their outer ends meet the ends of the stem
(_c_), and their inner ends coincide (_d_). Raising the division
till its apparent position is at or about the middle of the stem
entails a _proportionate increase_ of width in the lower part, and a
corresponding decrease in the upper part (_e_).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 160.›]
The very idea of an essential form excludes the _un_necessary, and
its further amplification is apt to take from its _distinctiveness_
and legibility. Where no limits are set, modification is apt
to become [p276] exaggeration. And, though special forms and
_ornamental letters_ may be produced by “reasonable exaggeration”
(_k_, _l_, _m_, fig. 161), if the tool be kept [p278] under proper
control, yet, generally, such _structural_ changes do not improve the
appearance of the plain letter forms.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 161.›]
We may test our “Standard” (_a_, fig. 161) by considering the
effects of further amplification.
(1) _Raising the division_[68] slightly is permissible (_b_, fig
161)—too much makes the top part disproportionately small (_c_).
(2) _Widening both bows_, or _separating their junction from the
stem_, tends to dissociate the bows from the stem, making the letter
less distinctive (_g_ and _i_, fig. 161).
Widening and narrowing are both allowable and occasionally desirable,
but assuming that a standard or ideal width can be approximately
determined, it is well to keep to it for common and ordinary use.
CHARACTERISATION OF FORMS
(_See also Built-Up Forms, pp. 291–6, and pp. 240, 253_)
That the tool[69] gives character and finish to the Essential Forms
of letters, can easily be proved by a little practical experience of
the natural action of a properly cut pen (see figs. 142 to 148, and
162). And the penman—or indeed any other letter-maker—is advised to
allow the pen to train his hand to [p280] make the proper strokes
automatically: then he may begin to master and control the pen,
making it conform to his hand and so produce Letters which have every
possible virtue of penmanship and are as much his own as his common
handwriting.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 162.›]
Most of the letters in a good alphabet have specially interesting
or _characteristic parts_ (p. 250), or they exhibit some general
principles in letter making, which are worth noting, with a view to
making good letters, and in order to understand better the manner in
which the tool—whether pen, chisel, or brush—should be used.
_The characterisation of the Roman Capital Form._ ‹Note.›—_The large
types below are_ indices—_not models_.
«A» 1. A pointed form of A, M, and N (see Plate II.) may be suitable
for inscriptions in stone, &c., but in pen work the top is preferably
_hooked_ (fig. 167), _beaked_ (fig. 147), or _broken_ (fig. 158), or
specially marked in some way, as this part (both in Capital A and
small a) has generally been (fig. 189).
2. The oblique strokes in A, K, M, N, R, V, W, X, Y, whether thick or
thin, are naturally finished with a short point _inside_ the letter
and a long, sharp point, or _beak_, _outside_ (see serifs of oblique
strokes, p. 289).
3. The thin stem may be drawn out below for an occasional form (see
F, 3).
«B» 1. B, D, R, and P are generally best made _round-shouldered_
(fig. 162 & _Addenda_, p. 26).
2. B, D, E, F, P, R (and T) have generally an _angle_ between the
stem and the top horizontal, while [p281]
3. _below_ in B, D, E (and L) the stem curves or blends with the
horizontal.
4. See O, 2.
«C» 1. C, G, and S; the top horizontals or ‘arms’ may be straighter
than the lower arms, or _vice versâ_ (see figs. 167 and 206).
2. C, G, and S; the _inside_ curve is best continuous—from the ‘bow’
to the ends of the ‘arms’—not being broken by the serifs, and
3. it is best to preserve an unbroken inside curve at the termination
of all free arms and stems in built-up Roman Capitals. In C, G, S, E,
F, L, T, and Z the upper and lower arms are curved on the _inside_,
and squared or slightly pointed outside (the vertical stems curve on
either side) (fig. 163).
4. ‘Arms’ are best shaped and curved rather gradually out to the
terminal or serif, which then is an actual part of the letter, not an
added lump (p. 289).
5. See O, 2.
«D» 1. See B, 1.
2. See B, 2 and 3.
3. The curve may be considered as springing from the foot of the
stem, and may therefore for an occasional form be separated from the
stem at the _top_ (_D_, fig. 177).
4. See O, 2.
«E» 1. See B, 2 and 3.
2. See C, 3 and 4.
3. The lower limb in E, L (and Z) is often drawn out: these, however,
are properly to be regarded as _occasional_ or _special_ [p282]
forms: the lower serif of this type commonly points out (see figs.
206, 188).
4. E’s _three arms_ (& F’s two) are approximately _equal in length_
in the best early forms (Plate II., &c.).
«F» 1. See B, 2.
2. See C, 3 and 4 (and E, 4 _above_).
3. One or more (the development of the letter and tradition may
decide which) of the free stems of A, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, P,
R, T, V, W, X, Y may be drawn out for occasional forms (see fig. 188).
4. The elongated stems of F, I, J, P, T, Y may hang below the line,
or they may (occasionally) stand on the line and overtop the other
letters.
«G» 1. See C, 1, 2, 3, and 4.
2. The stem may be drawn out below the line (F, 3).
3. The stem sometimes forms an angle with the lower ‘arm’ (this is
safest: see fig. 148), sometimes they blend (fig. 147).
4. The point of the lower ‘arm’ may project a _very little_ beyond
the stem to mark the _outer_ angle.
5. The wholly curved “gothic” @ (and also the other _round_ letters:
see p. 119) may be introduced _occasionally_ among Roman Capitals.
6. See O, 2.
«H» 1. The _left-hand_ stem is occasionally drawn out above (F, 3 &
_comp._ fig. 3), and
2. this form is sometimes associated with an ornamental cross-bar
(fig. 189).
3. H and N may slightly widen out _above_. [p283]
«I» 1. The stem may be drawn out above or below (F, 3 and 4).
2. See J, 2.
«J» 1. The stem or tail may be drawn out (F, 3 and 4).
2. ‹Note.›—With regard to the use of I for J (and V for U): this
is associated so much with the Latin usage, that it is perhaps
permissible still in Latin.[70] But for modern English, in which
these letters are strongly differentiated, the tailed J and the
round U are to be preferred. Besides the suspicion of affectation
attaching to the other mode, its strangeness gives an appearance of
awkwardness—almost amounting to illegibility—to common words, such as
“A QVAINT IVG” or “IAM IAR.” And, at the least, very careful [p284]
discrimination is desirable: “IVBILATE” may pass, but “IVIVBE” is
not really readable.
3. The tail of the J may be slight, provided it be distinct, and the
second stem of the U may match the first (fig. 158); the ugly J and U
in common use need not be copied.
4. See also _Tails_, pp. 289–291.
«K» 1. The stem is sometimes drawn out above (F, 3).
2. Both arms are occasionally lengthened, and the width of the letter
increased, by joining the thin arm to the stem lower down; the thick
arm, or tail, then springs from the side of the thin arm (_compare_
«R»). This tends away from the essential, and is therefore a less
safe form.
3. The tail may be curved or drawn out occasionally (see _Tails_, pp.
289–291).
4. Serifs on _arms_. See A, 2.
«L» 1. See B, 3.
2. See C, 3 and 4.
3. See E, 3.
4. See F, 3.
«M» 1. The stems are commonly slightly spread out to give greater
clearance for the inner angles. An occasional form is much spread out
@.
2. ‹Note.›—There are inscriptional forms of M [p285] and N without
the top serif (Plate II.). But the pen forms and others have top
serifs, and these commonly extend _outward_—tending to _beaks_ (see
A, 1 and 2)—rather than _in_. (V, W, X, Y (and N) show a similar
tendency—see p. 289.)
3. The thin stem of M is occasionally drawn out (F, 3).
«N» 1. Sec C, 3 and 4.
2. See H, 3.
3. See M, 2, and A, 1 and 2.
4. The first stem is drawn out below the line for an occasional form
(most suitable for an Initial Letter): the right-hand stem is very
occasionally raised (when a final letter) (F, 3).
5. ‹Note.›—The stems of N (the only vertical _thins_—not counting
M’s—in the Roman Capitals) tend sometimes to be thicker: see Plate II.
«O» 1. O is the key letter of the curved forms and, in a sense, of
the whole alphabet (p. 270). The upright form—«O»—may be regarded as
the ideal simple letter.
2. Very commonly, however, O is tilted—@—(see fig. 163), and when
this is the case, all the curved letters—B, C, D, G, P, Q, R, S,
U—_are correspondingly tilted_ (see Plate II.). The tilted form is
more easily made, but both are good forms.
«P» 1. See B, 1 and 2.
2. See O, 2.
3. (P with stem below line (see Plate IV.) must not be allowed to
confuse with D) (see F, 3 and 4). [p286]
4. The bow of P appears to be attached (to the stem) _above_: in
certain forms it is slightly separated from the stem _below_: see
Plate II.
«Q» 1. Q resembles O with a tail: see O.
2. There are many characteristic varieties of the tail: see _Tails_
(pp. 289–291).
3. ‹Note.›—Q being always followed by U, it is convenient often to
deal with the two letters together. (See Plate II.)
«R» 1. See B, 1 and 2.
2. See O, 2.
3. In the form nearest the essential, the junction of the Bow and
the Tail touches the stem. If the tail springs from the curve of the
bow (Plate II.) greater care in construction is necessary (compare
K). The treatment of the tail is very important. It may end in a
serif (see A, 2), or it may be curved and pointed (see _Tails_, pp.
289–291). It may be drawn out (see fig. 50).
4. See F, 3 (& _comp._ fig. 169).
«S» 1. See C, 1, 2, 3, and 4.
2. See O, 2 (and p. 273).
3. S very often leans slightly forward.
«T» 1. See B, 2.
2. See C, 3 and 4.
3. Drawing out of stem: see F, 3 and 4.
4. ‹Note.›—The _right arm_ is occasionally extended—to fill a
line—when T is a terminal letter (in this case it is generally made
lighter, and the left arm heavier—somewhat as in the Uncial T, figs.
56 & 188). [p287]
«U» 1. ‹Note.›—The curve—if it be modelled on the common tilted O
(see O, 2)—is thin where it meets the second stem.
2. (V for U). See J, 2, 3, and footnote.
3. The _foot_ of the second stem projects on the right only, and
gives clearance to the angle of the curve on the left. Sometimes the
second stem ends in a _hook_ or _beak_, which (very occasionally) is
drawn out below.
«V» 1. See M, 2, and A, 2.
2. The _thick_ stem may be drawn up (F, 3), in which case the _thin_
commonly curves over for strength (see figs. 89, 95).
3. (See note on V for U, under J.)
«W» 1. See M, 2, and A, 2.
2. The best form is of two V’s crossed, @.
3. The first or both the _thick_ stems may be drawn up and the thins
curved over (see V, 2).
«X» 1. See M, 2, and A, 2.
2. There is sometimes a slight curving in of the stems, especially
the thin stem (see fig. 80).
3. The thin stem is sometimes drawn out below (F, 3), and commonly
curved.
«Y» 1. See M, 2, and A, 2.
2. See F, 3 and 4. (Y with stem below line (see Plate V.) must not be
allowed to confuse with V.)
3. An occasional rather interesting form [p288] of Y has the arms
curving out and ending in points (see fig. 167).
«Z» 1. See C, 3 and 4.
2. The lower arm of Z is sometimes drawn out (see E, 3): it may be
curved and pointed (or flourished).
* * * * *
_General Remarks on the characterisation of the Roman Capitals and
related forms_ (see fig. 163).[71]
_VERTICAL STEMS._—(_a_, fig. 163) _Thick_ (excepting in the thin
stemmed N (and M)).
(_b_) _Slightly curved_ in on either side (see fig. 116), or
appearing so because of the outward curve of the serifs (see figs.
204, 206).
(_c_) A fine effect is obtained when the stem is made _wider above_
than below (see p. 119).
(_d_) Free stems occasionally are _drawn out_ (see above, F, 3 and 4,
and pp. 251, 260, 332).
_OBLIQUE STROKES or STEMS._—_Thick_, to the left @, _thin_, to the
right @ (see A, K, &c.), otherwise like _vertical stems_ (above)—(see
also ‹_SERIFS_› (_e_) below).
_HORIZONTALS, ARMS, BRANCHES, or BARS._—_Thin_: free ends sometimes
drawn out and flourished (see figs. 125, 188).
_BOWS and CURVES._—Gradated, and following the O (see pp. 44, 121,
270, 285).
_SERIFS or FINISHING STROKES._—(_a_) ‹Note.›—_Serifs_ of some sort
are practically essential to the proper characterisation of an
alphabet (see figs. 147, 148, 162), and should generally have a
certain uniformity (p. 324). [p289]
(_b_) The serifs, &c., of simple-written forms are treated at p. 244
(see fig. 145).
(_c_) In _Versals_ and certain other forms the mode of making
requires the serif to be a distinct addition to the letter (see figs.
116, 166).
(_d_, fig. 163) In the finest _built-up_ A B Cs serifs are treated
as the actual finishing and shaping of the ends of the _stems and
branches_, rather than as added parts (see C, 3 & 4, p. 281 and p.
240). This particularly affects the construction of the thin strokes
(see figs. 165, 167).
(_e_) _The serifs of the oblique strokes_ in A, K, M, N, R, V, W, X,
Y are commonly not placed centrally, but projecting in the direction
of the stroke (_i.e._ away from the letter, thus: @), branching out
from the parent stem (see _tails_, below), and avoiding an acute
angle (as @). This has tended to produce _hooks_ and _beaks_ (see
fig. 163), which are often used for the oblique strokes, particularly
of A and N (see figs. 189, 158), and the tails of K and R (see below).
(_f_) There is a similar natural tendency to _hook_ or _flourish_
the terminals of _vertical stems_ on the left, particularly of B,
D, I, J, K, L, P, R; less often of E, F, H. A very interesting and
beautiful effect may be obtained by delicately curving down the upper
serifs on _the left_ (like thin _beaks_). Such serifs are sometimes
very slightly _turned up on the right_, and it may be noted that this
tendency of the “horizontals” to _curve up and forward_ @ is natural
and characteristic of freely made, vigorous lettering (see Uncial T,
pen dashes, &c., figs. 169, 125, &c.).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 163.›]
_TAILS._—(_a_) The tails of K, Q, R [p291] (and J)—and the strokes
in A, F, G, I, M, N, P, Y, &c., which may be drawn out tail-wise—play
an important part in the right construction, and the occasional
decoration, of plain lettering. They may end either in _serifs_ or in
_curves_ (see _SERIFS_ (_e_), above, and fig. 188).
(_b_) ‹Note.›—It is a characteristic of vigorous forms that
_branches, &c., stand out well from their stems_ (pp. 219, (_e_) 289,
(N) 271), and a good tail should stand out well from the letter (K,
Q, fig. 167).
(_c_) An excellent form of tail for ordinary use, combining strength
and grace, consists of a (strong) _straight stroke_ ending more or
less abruptly in a (graceful) _finishing curve_.
(_d_) An extraordinarily long tail requires a slight double curve to
take off its stiffness.
(_e_) A good tail may be made by the addition of a double curved
stroke on the under side of a straight tail (or of a single curve
above).
(_f_) In treating the tail of J, or the drawn-out stems of A, F, G,
I, M, N, P, Y, it is important to preserve the essential straightness
of the stems. Therefore, if a _finishing curve_ be used, its size
is related to the length of the straight stroke, and, unless this
be extraordinarily long, the curve is usually made rather small and
abrupt. A curve which is too large is apt to weaken the form and
“pull it out of the straight” (_g_, fig. 163).
BUILT-UP FORMS
_Built-up Letters_ are composed of compound strokes (_c_, _d_, fig.
164); _Simple-written Letters_ of simple strokes (_a_, _b_).
The Pen being _an instrument which produces_ [p292] _definite thick
and thin strokes on a smooth surface_, is perfectly adapted to the
construction of either simple or compound forms; _other tools_, such
as the stylus, needle, graver, &c., _produce various scratches,
stitches, or cuts, generally of the nature of rather varying thin
strokes_, and to produce thick strokes a _building-up_ process is
required.
In making built-up forms the control exerted by the tool is less
obvious, and more depends upon the craftsman, who must therefore
use greater care and judgment. Not only is it possible, but,
occasionally, it may be desirable to depart from the more obvious
tool-forms; though generally the more simply and naturally
_tool-made_ a form is, the better it is.
The fine early inscriptions are supposed to have been first _drawn_
or _painted_ (in outline) and then cut into the stone. The _chisel
forms_ were doubtless affected in this way by _brush_ (and indirectly
by _pen_) _forms_, but these were of the simplest—nothing was
sketched in that was unfitted for the chisel to make into a natural
and true _chisel-form_.
The action of the brush or “pencil” to a certain extent resembles
that of the pen, but their effects are really distinct. In
contrasting pen-made and brush-made letters, we may observe that _a
pen form tends to abrupt changes from thin to thick: a brush form to
gradation_ (fig. 164). The pen particularly affects curved strokes
(_comp. a_ & _b_), generally making them more quick and abrupt (or
even _broken_, see * * _c_), than brush curves. The brush will give
more graceful and finished but less uniform letters (see p. 376).
The character of a pen-letter depends greatly on the _nib-width_ (p.
324), and _narrow_, _medium_, or _broad_ nibs are used according to
the type of letter required. [p293]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 164.›]
A narrow nib may be used for special (built-up) Initials and
Capitals, which are _drawn_ rather than _written_ (_a_, fig. 165).
The horizontal arms (made by the pen held horizontally) are markedly
affected, and if a very fine nib were used, the necessity of
strengthening and thickening them would tend further to reduce the
pen character.
A broad nib gives strong, uniform pen-letters (_b_).
For ordinary use letters are perhaps best made with a “medium” nib
(_c_). The width of the ordinary writing-pen, or rather narrower,
gives a good proportion for initials, &c. (see pp. 118, 218).
In MS. books the early built-up Capitals were [p294] commonly of
a rather severe type—approaching the Roman Capital, but having the
sharp contrast between the _thicks_ and the _thins_ characteristic of
pen-letters (fig. 166). They make very simple and effective “Versals.”
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 165.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 166.›—Pen-capitals from a tenth-century MS.
(_writing-lines dotted in fig. to show spacing method_).]
A more highly finished type of pen-made Roman Capital may be made
by blending the serifs and stems (_d_, p. 289): it is nearer to the
inscriptional form, but it exhibits a more curved and supple [p296]
outline, which comes of natural pen-strokes (fig. 167).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 167.›]
The remarks in Chapter VII. on the treatment of the more elastic
“Gothic” Versal (a free variety [p297] of the Roman) may be taken
as applying generally to (Coloured) Built-up Capitals—due allowance
being made for the characteristic differences of the various types.
SIMPLE-WRITTEN CAPITALS
“_Rustic Capitals_” (fig. 4) may be referred to here as typical,
simple-written capitals. Though not a very practical form,[72] they
are full of suggestions for a semi-ornamental lettering in which
the pronounced treatment of the _heads and feet_ might be a feature
(_comp._ fig. 203). They were used as ornamental letters for titles
and the like (see Plates VIII., IX., &c.) for centuries after they
had gone out of ordinary use.
_Simple-written Roman Capitals._—(Examples: Plates III., XVIII.,
XIX., XXI., figs. 147, 148, 168, 175, 179. See also pp. 247, 429.)
_Uncials._—(Examples: see p. 300.)
_Simple-written Capitals_ ordinarily conform to the writing line—as
set by the small text (p. 82). This applies even where several
_words_ in capitals have to be inserted in the small text, though in
special cases where these might look too crowded such capitals might
be written on alternate lines.
Used for _Initial Words_, _headings_, _whole pages_, or _books_, in
black or colour, they are written with greater freedom and accorded
more special treatment (see pp. 298, 299).
Simple-written Capitals are best composed of sharp, clean,
pen-strokes: they may be quite plain [p298] or more or less
decorative (fig. 168), subject to the general rule that _the fewer
the number of letters or the more ornamental their office, the more
elaborate and fanciful may be the forms employed_ (see p. 294).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 168.›]
A freely used pen naturally produces occasional varieties for
special or ornamental purposes: these tend to elegance and drawn
out flourished strokes (p. 331); they vary chiefly in being extra
large.[73] [p299] Several of these may be used with fine effect in a
page of plain Capitals, their “_weight_” (and generally their colour)
being the same as that of the text (see Plate V., and p. 328).
_Whole Books or Pages written in Capitals._—A very grand effect
may be produced by these at the expense of a little more time and
material than a Small-letter MS. entails. The lines of writing are
commonly made one-letter-height apart: this requires ordinary simple
ruling—the capitals being written between every alternate pair of
lines (see p. 412).
Such writing may conveniently be treated as “_Fine_ Writing” (p.
262). It justifies the use of wider margins. It is generally more
difficult (and less necessary) to keep the right-hand edge as
straight as a small text permits. The irregularities of this edge may
be balanced by setting out in the _left_ margin the first letters
of sentences, verses, and the like (see p. 264). Such initials may
be written larger or more ornamentally as suggested above; or, if
built-up Letters are required, plain, rather slender Roman Capitals
are the most suitable: these look best in burnished gold.
Perhaps the finest and most beautiful work which the penman can
produce, is a book written entirely in _gold_[74] _capitals_[75] _on
purple vellum_ (see pp. 164, 175). This is only possible in special
cases, but a book rightly so made being illuminated from within,
has an incomparable simplicity and grandeur, surpassing that of the
finest post-decorated and illuminated manuscripts. [p300]
UNCIALS
Examples: Plates IV., V.; figs. 5, 169 (enlarged); (modified, fig.
56).
Uncials are typical pen-capitals.[76] Though not of such practical
use as the simple-written Roman Capitals, their great possibilities
and their beauty make them worth practising. (See _Round_, _Upright_,
_Formal Hands_, p. 304.)
Their use is limited by two considerations—
_First_: that while the round @, @, @, @, @ are essentially legible
(p. 239), people generally are not accustomed to them, and may find
them hard to read; and
_Secondly_: that @, @, @, @, @, @, @, @, @, @ have ascending and
descending strokes which are apt to become too pronounced and give an
unpleasant appearance of “_tailiness_” to a page of Uncial Writing
(in _English_, see _footnote_, p. 326).
The first difficulty may be met by keeping Uncials for special
MSS.—for private use—and introducing them sparingly or not at all in
Service Books, Placards, &c., where ease and quickness of reading are
essential.
The appearance of “_tailiness_” (not so obvious in Latin) may be
avoided by making the tails shorter and keeping the lines of writing
well apart. Or freely made Roman Capitals without _tails_ (see D,
_tail-less_, fig. 57) may be substituted for one or more of the chief
offenders. [p302]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 169.›—_Part of Plate V._ (_q.v._), _enlarged
three times linear_.]
Uncials may be “round” (see Plate IV., fig. 5, and p. 304), or
“pointed” (see fig. 169, and p. 413).
CAPITALS & SMALL-LETTERS
During the development of Small-Letters from Capitals but little
distinction was made in their use, and such capital forms as ‹N›
and ‹R› were freely and promiscuously used in the _round minuscule_
writings, together with the small-letters «n» and «r» (see Plates
VI., VII.). On the other hand, Small-Letter forms were frequently
written larger and used as initials. In Irish and Anglo-Irish MSS.
these were filled inside with green, yellow, or red, and surrounded
outside with red dots, or otherwise decorated with colour (see fig.
7, and Plate VI.).
In early MSS., therefore, one does not find an alphabet of
Simple-Written Capitals, which is peculiar to a given small
text. But we may employ a kindred capital—such as the round
_Uncial_ for the round _Half-Uncial_. And a fitting alphabet
may always be constructed, from the “Roman” or “Uncial” types
of Capitals (_footnote_, p. 300), by taking the same pen with
which the small-letters have been made and using it in a similar
manner: “straight” for “straight-pen” writing, and “slanted” for
“slanted-pen” writing (see figs. 147, 148).
When in doubt as to the type of Capital—for any purpose—use Roman
Capitals.
EARLY, ROUND, UPRIGHT, FORMAL HANDS
Examples: _Half-Uncials_—fig. 6 (Roman); Plate VI. (Irish), Plate
VII. (English) fig. 170 _later_; see also pp. 40, 44, 413–415.
_Uncials_ (Plate IV. and p. 38). [p304]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 170.›—_Part of an English eight-century MS._
(_British Museum, Case C, No. 68), enlarged three times linear._]
The main types are the “round” Uncial and Half-Uncial, commonly
written with an approximately “_straight pen_.”[77] They are
generally treated as _fine writing_ (p. 262), and _written between
ruled lines_: this has a marked effect in preserving their roundness
(see p. 414).
They are very useful as _copy-book_ hands (see p. 70), for though
the smooth gradation of their curves, their thin strokes, and their
general elegance unfit them for many practical purposes, yet their
essential _roundness_, _uprightness_, and _formality_ afford the
finest training to the penman, and prevent him from falling into an
angular, slanting, or lax hand. Their very great beauty, moreover,
makes them well worth practising, and even justifies their use (in a
modernised form) for special MSS., for the more romantic books—such
as poetry and “fairy tales”—and generally where speed in writing _or
reading_ is not essential.
With an eye trained and a hand disciplined by the practice of an
Irish or English Half-Uncial, or a modified type, such as is given
in fig. 50, the penman may easily acquire some of the more practical
later “slanted-pen” types.
“SLANTED-PEN” SMALL-LETTERS
_Typical Examples_:—
_Carlovingian ninth-century MS._—_Fig. 8_ (_enlarged, fig. 171_):
[p305]
_English tenth-century MS.—Plate VIII._ (_enlarged, fig. 172_):
_English eleventh-century MS.—Plate IX._ (_enlarged, fig. 173_):
_Italian twelfth-century MS.—Plate X._ (_enlarged, fig. 174_).
The use of the “slanted pen” generally produced _stronger_,
_narrower_, and _stiffer_ letters. Its effects are detailed in pp.
43–47, and fig. 11, and may best be studied in the tenth-century
example (fig. 172—the letter forms are described on p. 416).
In the Carlovingian MS.—which does not show these effects in any
marked degree—we may note the wide letter forms, the wide spacing,
the long stems (thickened above by additional strokes), the slight
slope of the letters, and the general effect of gracefulness and
freedom (see fig. 171). Carlovingian MSS. may be said to represent a
sort of mediæval _copy-books_, and their far-reaching influence on
writing makes them of great interest to the modern penman, who would,
moreover, find one of these hands an excellent model for a free
“formal hand.”
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 171.›—_Part of fig. 8, enlarged three times
linear (see p. 305)._]
For practical purposes the “slanted-pen” letter is generally superior
to the “straight-pen” letter. The “slanted-pen” letters have greater
strength and legibility, due mainly to the presence of the _thick
horizontals_—often equal in width to the verticals. Their use saves
both space and time, as they are narrower, and more easily and freely
written[78] than the straight-pen forms.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 172.›—_Fig. 12, enlarged twice linear (see p.
305 & Plate VIII.). Note: top line is cut down._]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 173.›—_Part of Plate IX. (Charter of CNUT),
enlarged three times linear (see p. 416)._]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 174.›—_Part of Plate X., enlarged three times
linear_ (_see pp. 417–419_).]
The real importance to us of these early types [p310] lies, I
think, in their relation to the Roman Small-Letter (pp. 418–19 &
429–83), and their great possibilities of development into modern
formal hands approaching the “Roman” type.
ROMAN SMALL-LETTERS
Ex.: (Italian) Plates XIX., XX. (15th century); figs. 175, 176 (16th
century): figs. 147, 148 (_modern MS._).
The _Roman Small-Letter_ is the universally recognised type in which
the majority of books and papers are printed. Its form has been in
use for over 400 years (without essential alteration) and as far as
we are concerned it may be regarded as permanent.
And it is the object of the scribe or letter-maker gradually to
attain a fine, personal formal hand, assimilating to the Roman
Small-Letter; a hand against the familiar and present form of which
no allegations of unreadableness can be raised, and a hand having a
beauty and character now absent or _un_familiar. The related _Italic_
will be mastered for formal MS. work (p. 315), and the ordinary
handwriting improved (p. 323). These three hands point the advance of
the practical, modern scribe.
The Roman Small-Letter is essentially a pen form (and preferably
a “slanted-pen” form; p. 305), and we would do well to follow its
natural development _from the Roman Capital_—_through Round Letters
and Slanted-Pen forms_—so that we may arrive at a truly developed and
characteristic type, suitable for any formal manuscript work and full
of suggestions for printers and letter-craftsmen generally.
A finished form, such as that in Plate XX.—or even that of fig.
175—would present many [p311] difficulties to the unpractised
scribe, and one who so began would be apt to remain a mere copyist,
more or less unconscious of the vitality and character of the letter.
An earlier type of letter—such as that in Plate VIII.—enables the
scribe to combine speed with accuracy, and fits him at length to
deal with the letters that represent the latest and most formal
development of penmanship.
And in this connection, beware of practising with a fine nib, which
tends to inaccuracy and the substitution of prettiness for character.
Stick to definite pen strokes, and preserve the definite shapes and
the uniformity of the serifs (p. 324): if these be made clumsily,
they become clumsy lumps. It may be impossible always to ascertain
the exact forms—especially of terminals and finishing strokes—for the
practised scribe has attained a great uniformity and some _sleight
of hand_ which cannot be deliberately copied. But—whatever the exact
forms—we may be sure that in the best hands they are produced by
uniform and proper pen strokes.
ITALICS
Ex.: Plate XXI., and figs. 94, 177, 178 (enlarged).
_Italics_[79] closely resemble the Roman Small-Letters, but are
slightly narrowed, slightly sloped to the [p314] right, and
very freely written (commonly with a “_slanted pen_”). The serifs
generally consist of slight natural terminal hooks, &c.—though in
_p_ and _q_ a finishing stroke is sometimes _added_. _Ascending_ and
_descending_ strokes (in _b_, _d_, _f_, _h_, _k_, _l_, _g_, _j_,
_p_, _q_, _y_) are commonly rather long, and often end in curves,
sometimes in flourishes (fig. 177).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 175.›—_Italian Prayer Book_: 16_th century_
(_see opp. p. & p. 345_).]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 176.›—(_From same MS. as fig. 175, enlarged
three times linear._)]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 177.›]
The lines of writing are generally widely spaced—allowing for the
long stems: the _bodies_ of the letters being narrow are generally
rather closely packed, and frequently the lines of writing appear
[p315] as almost continuous light but compact writing, while the
_ascenders_ and _descenders_ and parts of the Capitals may be
flourished freely in the spaces between the lines—sometimes filling
them with ornamental pen work, which contrasts strongly with the
extreme plainness and regularity of the _bodies_.
_Italic Capitals_ are a variety of the Roman Capitals, slightly
sloped (frequently less sloped than the accompanying small-letters),
and sometimes much flourished (fig. 177). The types modelled on the
latter were called by printers in the seventeenth century, “Swash
Letters.”
_Use of Italics._—In printing they served at first to mark such
portions of the text as—
_Introductions_,
_Prefaces_,
_Indexes_,
_Notes_,
and subsequently were used for
_Quotations_,
_Emphasising_,
_Words not part of the Text_
(_e.g._ Chapter headings in the Bible, &c.).
In MSS. when it is not desirable to alter the character, Red Writing
(see p. 130) may be substituted for italics. Italics—either in black
or red—go best with “Roman” characters.
Like the Roman Small-Letter, the Italic is a generally recognised
and accepted form: this and other considerations, such as the
peculiar elegance and charm of the letters, their formal relation
to modern handwriting, their compactness and economy of space in
the line, and the fact that they may be written easily and with
extreme regularity—_being indeed the most rapid of formal hands_—are
practical reasons for a careful study of the type, and justify the
writing of certain MS. books entirely in Italics. [p317]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 178.›—_Part of Plate XXI._, enlarged,
(_approx._) _four times linear_ (_see p. 483_).]
SEMI-FORMAL WRITING
Figs. 179, 180, and 181 are taken from a sixteenth-century Italian
MS.[80] written in a semi-formal cursive hand in dark brown and
red-brown inks (probably originally nearer _black_ and _red_), on 150
leaves of fine paper.
_The proportions of the Book_,[81] together with the good writing,
have a very agreeable effect, and are interesting as being used by a
writer over 300 years ago. The extra width of the side margins may
have been allowed for annotations—some notes were written in by the
scribe himself.
_Page_
= 11-1/8 inches high, 8 inches wide.
_Margins_
_Inner_ (7/8 inch + 3/8 inch allowed for Small Capitals)
= 1-1/4 inch (approximate).
_Top_ = 1-3/8 inch (constant).
_Side_ = 2-3/4 inch (approximate).
_Foot_ = 3 inch (approximate).
_Writing-Line Space_
nearly 5/16 inch high: length (varies), average 4 inches.
_Text Column_
nearly 6-3/4 inches high, consisting of 22 lines of MS.
_Character of the Writing._—The good shapes of the letters, their
great uniformity, and their easy yet formal arrangement, mark this
MS. as the work of a skilful penman. But, while pen character of
a sort is very evident, the writing approaches the _stylographic_
(apparently a rather narrow blunt nib was used), and the absence
of definite _thicks_ and thins distinguishes it from all the
formal hands hitherto discussed: it may conveniently be termed
_Semi-formal_.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 179.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 180.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 181.›]
[p321]
_Construction._—The rapidity and uniformity of this writing are
largely due to an extremely easy zigzag movement of the pen, such as
is natural in writing _m_, _n_, and _u_—the final upstroke usually
running on into the next letter. Note particularly that the round
letters _c_, _d_, _e_, _g_, _o_, _q_ generally begin with a nearly
straight down stroke—like the first part of _u_—to which tops are
_added_ (see fig. 182). In the case of _a_, the first stroke curves
forward to meet the second. [p322]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 182.›]
In the straight-stemmed capitals B, D, E, F, H, I, L, M, N, P, R, and
T, the first stroke is made rather like an @ (showing the tendency to
a zigzag) the foot of which is generally crossed horizontally by a
second stroke making a form resembling @—on this as a base, the rest
of the letter is formed (see fig. 182). This tends to preserve the
uniformity of the letters: and gives a fine constructive effect, as,
for example, in the letter @.
_General Remarks._—The semi-formal nature of such a MS. would seem
to permit of a good quill—not necessarily sharp—being used with the
utmost freedom and all reasonable personal _sleight of hand_; of soft
tinted inks—such as browns and brown-reds; of an _un_-ruled page
(_a pattern page ruled dark, being laid under the writing paper,
will, by showing through, keep the writing sufficiently straight_),
and of a minimum of precision in the arrangement of the text. And
in this freedom and informality lie the reasons for and against the
use of such a hand. There is a danger of its becoming more informal
and degenerating because it lacks the effect of the true pen in
preserving form.[82] But, on the other hand, it combines great
rapidity and freedom with beauty and legibility: few printed books
could compete in charm with this old “catalogue,” which took the
scribe but little longer to write than we might take in _scribbling_
it.
Many uses for such a hand will suggest themselves. Semi-formal
documents which require to [p323] be neatly written out, and Books
and Records of which only one or two copies are required, and even
Books which are worthy to be—but never are—printed, might, at a
comparatively low cost, be preserved in this legible and beautiful
form.
It suggests possibilities for an improvement in the ordinary
present-day handwriting—a thing much to be desired, and one of the
most practical benefits of the study of calligraphy. The practical
scribe, at any rate, will prove the advantages of being a good
all-round penman.
OF FORMAL WRITING GENERALLY
_On Copying a Hand._—Our intentions being right (viz. to make our
work essentially readable) and our actions being expedient (viz. to
select and copy the simple forms which have remained essentially
the same, leaving the complex forms which have passed out of
use—see pp. 195–6), we need not vex ourselves with the question of
“lawfulness.”[83]
Where beautiful character is the natural product of a tool, any
person may at any time give such character to a useful form, and as
at this time a properly cut and handled pen will produce letters
resembling those of the early MSS., we may take as models _such
early, simple pen-forms as have remained essentially the same_,[84]
and copy them as closely as we _can_ while keeping them exact and
formal.
Finally, _personal quality_ is essential to perfect workmanship,
but that is the natural and gradual—sometimes [p324] scarcely
visible—departure from a model, that comes of practice and time.
_Forms of Letters: component pen-strokes._—In a good hand the
chief component strokes—stems, bows, and serifs—are repeated again
and again (see pp. 244, 254)—this is essential to the uniform
character and the quickness of the writing. When substituting a
_new_ for an _old_ letter a naturally used pen will produce such
common pen-strokes, giving the desired “family likeness” to the new
letter[85] (_b_, fig. 183).
_Proportion[86] of Thick Strokes._—The broader the thick stroke is in
proportion to the height of a letter, the more the form of the letter
is controlled and affected by the pen (_c_, fig. 183). For training
and practice, therefore, the wide nib is the most useful. A narrower
nib (_d_ or _e_) allows of more freedom and variety, and there is a
great charm in slender lettering—this the trained scribe may essay
(see Plate XX., and p. 482).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 183.›]
_Proportion[86] of Stem Height._—The character of a writing depends
very much on whether the stems are _short_, _medium_, or _long_. The
stems of «b» and «p» may be as short as half the height of the bodies
(_f_, fig. 183); a _medium_ stem for ordinary use might be two-thirds
of, or equal to, the height of the body (_g_). Stems may be drawn
out to almost any [p326] length, and may constitute a decorative
feature of the writing, as in the Anglo-Saxon[87] MS., Plate IX. (See
p. 331, and fig. 188.)
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 184.›]
_Distinct Lines of Writing._—The line—especially in MS. books—is
really a more important unit than [p327] the page; and the
whole question of the arrangement of Lettering hinges on the
right treatment of the lines. One is particularly struck by the
distinctness of the lines of writing in the old MSS., due mainly to—
(a) _The binding together of the letters in the line_—_commonly by
strong serifs or heavy “shoulders” and “feet”_ (see figs. 11, 184,
and p. 414).
(b) _Packing the letters well together_ (see pp. 77, 262).
(c) _Spacing the lines sufficiently apart_ (see pp. 262–265).
It is a good rule (especially when practising) to space the lines
fairly widely. Really fine writing shows generally to greater
advantage if not too much crowded, and there is more danger of making
reading hard by crowding the lines, than by crowding the words (see
fig. 156).
Whatever mode of treatment be followed, each line should be written
with as much freedom as possible, the simplest straightforward
writing being preferable to that which is over-arranged.
DECORATIVE CONTRASTS
The decorative treatment of lettering generally involves contrasts of
_size_, _weight_, _colour_, or _form_—that is, of large and small,
heavy and light, variously coloured, or variously shaped letters.
As a general rule, marked contrasts are best; a slight contrast may
fail of its effect and yet be sufficiently noticeable to give an
unpleasant appearance of irregularity.
_Contrasts of Colour_ (see pp. 144, 180).—Note that, while it is
convenient to distinguish “colour”—as _red_, _blue_, _green_,
&c.—weight strictly involves [p328] _colour_: built-up or heavy
letters in black show extra _black_ beside lighter writing, while
the latter appears _grey_ in comparison (see figs. 197, 186); in red
writing the heavy letters appear _red_, the lighter letters, _pink_
(see fig. 90).
_Contrast of Size._—The simplest decorative contrast is that of
LARGE[88] letters with ‹smaller› letters (fig. 185); the strokes
being of equal, or nearly equal, weight, there is an harmonious
evenness of tone throughout. Where the large letters are very
much larger, their parts are made somewhat heavier to keep their
_apparent_ “weight” approximately equal (see p. 486). This is one of
the most effective treatments for inscriptions generally (see p. 299,
and Plates V. and XXIV.).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 185.›]
_Contrasts of “weight” and size._—In simple writing these are
obtained by using two sizes of pen—the small, light letters being
used for the bulk of the [p329] text, the larger heavier letters
being used for occasional words or lines (or _vice versâ_). This is a
very effective simple treatment for MSS. (fig. 186).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 186.›—(_See also fig. 191._)]
The occasional letters may be more decoratively treated (see
_Responses and Rubrics_, p. 345) by introducing the further contrasts
of _colour_ (p. 144) or form (p. 336). [p330]
_Contrasts of form, “weight,” and size._—These are generally obtained
by the use of large built-up Capitals, together with a simple-written
(or ordinarily printed) text (fig. 187).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 187.›]
A marked contrast usually being desirable, the built-up capitals
(especially if black) are kept quite distinct from the rest of
the text (see fig. 197): if they are scattered among the other
letters they are apt to show like _blots_ and give an appearance of
irregularity to the whole. As a rule, the effect is improved by the
use of red or another colour (see figs. 91, 93).
_Contrast of form_—for decorative purposes—is usually combined with
contrast of weight (_e.g._ “Gothic,” _heavier_, p. 336) or size
(_e.g._ Capitals, _larger_, p. 371).
ORNAMENTAL LETTERS
(_See Chaps. VII._, _VIII._, _X._, _XII._, _& pp._ 34, 251, 26)
To give ornament its true value we must _distinguish between ordinary
occasions when simplicity and directness are required, and special
occasions when elaboration is desirable or necessary._
The best way to make ornamental letters is to [p331] develop them
from the simpler forms. Any plain type may be decoratively treated
for special purposes—some part or parts of the letters usually being
rationally “exaggerated” (p. 252). Free _stems_, “_branches_,”
_tails_, &c., may be drawn out, and terminals or serifs may be
decorated or flourished (fig. 203).
_Built-Up Forms._—Even greater license (see fig. 161) is allowed
in Built-Up Letters—as they are less under the control of the
tool (p. 292)—and their natural decorative development tends to
produce a subordinate simple line decoration beside or _upon_ their
thicker parts (fig. 189 & p. 26). In MSS. the typical built-up,
ornamental form is the “Versal” (see Chap. VII.), which developed—or
degenerated—into the “Lombardic” (fig. 1). Here again it is
preferable to keep to the simpler form and to develop a natural
decorative treatment of it for ourselves.
“_Black Letter_” _or_ “_Gothic_,” still in use as an ornamental
letter (fig. 190), is descended from the fifteenth-century writing
of Northern Europe (Plate XVII.). A better model may be found in
the earlier and more lively forms of twelfth and thirteenth century
writing (fig. 191).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 188.›—(_See also figs._ 125 _and_ 150.)]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 189.›—(_See also Plates VI._, _XI._, _XXII._,
_figs. 79 and 84_, _and p. 420_.)]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 190.›—_Ordinary Modern “Black Letter” Type_
(_see p. 331_).]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 191.›—_MS. written by an English Scribe, in
1269, at Mons, in Hainault_—_Part of Colophon in large text._ (_B.
M. Egerton, MS. 2569. Reduced five-sixths Scale._)]
Rightly made, and used, it is one of the most picturesque forms of
lettering—and therefore of ornament—and besides its ornamental value,
there is still in the popular fancy a halo of romance about “black
letter,” which may fairly be taken into account. Its comparative
illegibility, however,—due mainly to the substitution of straight for
curved strokes—debars it from ordinary use.[89] Though its [p336]
distinction in form and _colour_ (p. 327) from ordinary small
lettering, make it useful in arresting attention; as in a legal
document, where the clauses are marked by
<f>whereas</f> &c.
Its most effective use, however, is as pure ornament—when it does not
matter whether the words are easily read or not. For mottoes, &c.,
painted or carved on walls or furniture, and for ornamental borders
round tapestry hangings, tombs, book-covers, bowls, flagons, plates,
&c., bands of such ornamental lettering are extremely decorative (see
_footnote_ (2), p. 255, & also p. 364).
[Illustration: ‹Fig.› 191_a._—_Shield of Arms of Earl de
Warrenne, Castle Acre Priory, Norfolk_ (_Gold and blue chequers,
diapered_—_see p. 215_): _reproduced, by permission, from Boutell’s
“English Heraldry,” No. 68._]
――――――――――――――――――――
FOOTNOTES TO PART II:
[53] In fact, our “small-letters” are the formalised result of the
rapidly scratched _Square Capitals_ of the Roman era (p. 37 & fig. 3).
[54] Their _greater strength_ may not at first be apparent in fig.
148, as the nib used therefor is narrower, in proportion to the
height of letter, than that used for fig. 147 (see also fig. 151).
[55] The exaggeration of one part may be said _relatively_ to dwarf
the other parts of a letter; but it is seldom advantageous, and often
not permissible, to dwarf part of a letter absolutely.
[56] As when the construction of a part of some letter is peculiar
(all the «y» or «g» _tails_, for example, catching the eye, and
standing out on the page), or, as when promiscuous types are used,
giving the impression of a confused crowd of letters.
[57] _Variety._—There is a variety both readable and beautiful (see
pp. 210, 369), but it is founded on uniformity (and sincerity).
[58] “_Bands_” and symmetrical or asymmetrical _groups_ of lettering
adapted to the available space are used—usually as ornament—upon
friezes, furniture, chests, book covers, flagons, dishes, and the
like (see fig. 156 & p. 336). The special treatment of such things is
a matter for the craftsman who makes them.
[59] By closing up the letters and the words one may generally avoid
“_rivers_,” or accidental spaces straggling through the text. The
presence of “rivers” is at once made evident by slanting the page and
looking along its surface, across the lines. Note, that whether the
_lines_ be close or wide, the interspacing of the _Small-Letters_
does not vary very much.
[60] The gaps on the right may be filled with line-finishings to
preserve a “Massed” effect, but for many purposes this would be apt
to look too ornamental (see pp. 205, 423).
[61] In (_b_) fig. 155, the letters have been unintentionally
narrowed. The natural tendency to do this forms another objection to
such undue crowding.
[62] In (_c_) the letters have been unintentionally widened.
[63] _Experiment._—Cut out a piece of dark brown paper the exact
size of the body of the text in an entire page of this Handbook,
viz. 5-1/16 inches by 3 inches, and lay it on the text: the tone of
the brown paper being much darker than that of the print makes the
margins appear wider.
[64] Such inscriptions contrast favourably with that Nineteenth
Century style in which it was customary to make every letter occupy
the same space and look as much like its neighbour as possible.