them than by widening, because the limits to the _possible_ narrowing
of a letter are more obvious than the limits to its _possible_
widening. Further, when letters are widened there is a tendency to
thicken their parts and make them heavy and vulgar.
[66] The primitive forms of these letters were vertically
symmetrical, I believe.
[67] It is interesting to note in this connection that the eye seems
to prefer looking upon the _tops_ of things, and in reading, is
accustomed to run along the _tops_ of the letters—not down one stroke
and up the next. This may suggest a further reason for smaller upper
parts, viz. the _concentration_ of as much of the letter as possible
in the upper half.
[68] The extremely beautiful and finished B in the “Trajan Alphabet”
(Plate II.) has the division a little higher, and a marked
enlargement of the lower part; until the letter-craftsman can
approach the perfection of its execution he will find a simpler form
more suitable for his “standard.” A curious form, in which the top
lobe has nearly or quite disappeared (_comp. c_, fig. 161), is found
in early Roman inscriptions. This form (which may have helped to give
us the useful small b) is not suitable for a modern Capital, and
would lack the _distinctiveness_ of B.
[69] _Chisel-made_ Roman Capitals (possibly influenced by _brush_,
&c., pp. 292, 391), Plates I., II.: (modern), XXIV. _Pen-made_,
Plates III., XVIII.: (modern), figs. 147, 148, 167, 168, &c.
[70] J. C. Egbert in an “Introduction to the Study of Latin
Inscriptions” says, “_J was not specialised as a letter until the
15th Century_.” It would seem that in early inscriptions a tall I was
frequently used for J _between_ vowels, and for I at the _beginnings_
of words: later, while the medial I remained straight, the initial
form was curved to the left and used for both I and J; this _curved
initial form_, J, at length became identified with the letter J.
Similarly, it appears that V was used for an initial, and U for a
medial; and later, the V form became identified with the consonant.
In the words <f>In vigi, natiu</f> in fig. 95, the _initial_ I is
curved like a J, while the medial i’s are straight; the _initial_ V
has a v form, while the medial V in _nativ(itatis)_ has a u form.
[71] The more _ornamental_ treatment of _Stems_, _Bows_, _Serifs_,
_Tails_, &c., is referred to at p. 331, and in figs. 188, 189.
[72] Their thin _stems_ and heavy _branches_ may tend to weakness and
illegibility—_e.g._ such letters as E, F, I, L, and T (see fig. 4)
are not always easily distinguishable.
[73] _Increasing the size of letter_ affects the form as though the
_nib were narrowed_ (see p. 324).
[74] Some may be in “silver” (p. 165).
[75] In a very short book these might even be _built-up_ capitals.
[76] Palæographers call them “majuscules” (= “large letters”), but
distinguish them from “Capitals.” For the purposes of the modern
penman, however, they may be regarded as _Round Capitals_. (For their
treatment, see pp. 297–299, and 304.)
[77] The writing in fig. 170 shows a slightly _slanted pen_. To make
_quite_ horizontal _thins_ is difficult, and was probably never done,
but it is worth attempting them _nearly_ horizontal for the sake of
training the hand.
[78] ‹Note.›—_Single_-line ruling is commonly used—the writing being
on, or a little _above_ or _below_, the line: this allows of greater
freedom than the double line (see p. 304).
[79] It is convenient to use the term “_Italics_” for both the
cursive formal writing and the printing resembling it. _Italic type_
was first used in a “Virgil” printed by Aldus Manutius of Venice
in 1500. The type was then called “Venetian” or “Aldine.” It was
counterfeited almost immediately (in Germany and Holland it was
called “cursive”); Wynkin de Worde used it in 1524. It seems to
have been originally intended for printing entire Classics, but was
afterwards used to _distinguish_ portions of the text (_see also_ p.
373).
[80] The Book is a catalogue of early Roman inscriptions: apparently
a written copy of a printed book.
[81] With a sheet of paper 11-1/8 inches by 16 inches the student
might reconstruct these.
[82] Practising a more formal hand as a _corrective_ would prevent
this.
[83] The Law fulfils itself: that which we must not copy is that
which we _cannot_ copy.
[84] _E.g._ the letters in the tenth-century English hand—Plate
VIII.: excepting the archaic long @ and round @ (_b_, fig. 183).
[85] The propriety of the actual form of the new letter will
largely depend on the scribe’s knowledge of the development of that
particular letter and its component parts (_comp._ the interesting
development of «g», sketched in figs. 3 & 183, but note correction of
Ex. 173 in _Addenda_, p. 26).
[86] The proportions of the _thick strokes_, _stem heights_, _&c._,
in a given hand need not be exactly followed, but it should be
recognised that any alteration in these _will inevitably alter the
forms and the character of the letters_ (fig. 183, and pp. 84 & 26).
[87] In English so many _ascending_ and _descending_ letters are
used, that it might be the best and most natural treatment of
these to make them a marked feature of the writing (see also “Fine
Writing,” pp. 261–63). Note, in this connection, that our «a b c» has
been developed as a Latin alphabet, and that the evenness of Latin
MS. is largely due to the infrequence of tailed letters.
[88] Where there is only a slight difference in size, the effect is
improved by using a different _form_ or _colour_ (see pp. 130, 345).
[89] Compare <f>monotone</f> and monotone. For general purposes,
therefore, and particularly for forming a good hand, the earlier
scripts are to be preferred (or the late _Italian_): even
twelfth-century “Gothic” writing is hardly readable enough for
“practical” purposes.
[p337]
APPENDIX A
CHAPTER XVI
SPECIAL SUBJECTS
Divers Uses of Lettering — MS. Books, &c. — Binding MSS. (_with
Note by Douglas Cockerell_) — Broadsides, Wall Inscriptions, &c.
— Illuminated Addresses, &c. — Monograms & Devices — Title Pages
— Lettering for Reproduction — Printing — Inscriptions on Metal,
Stone, Wood, &c. — Of Inscriptions Generally — Bibliography, &c.
DIVERS USES OF LETTERING
The following list of some of the uses of hand-made lettering, though
necessarily very brief, will perhaps suggest possibilities both to
the student and the craftsman:—
_MS. BOOKS, &c.:_
(see pp. 98, 341, & _Author’s Preface_).
_Fine Literature:_
(1) Preferably “the best.”
(2) That which is worthy of calligraphy.
(3) That which is the “favourite” of the owner of the book.
_Poetry_ is differently treated from prose (see pp. 95, 263,
371, 138), and should have extra wide _side_ margins when
possible (p. 483).
_Single Poems, &c.:_
Poems, cards, hymns, &c. (see pp. 137–139, & _Poetry_, above),
preferably in the form of small _books_.
_Tracts or Treatises:_
Copies might be preserved (p. 323) in good writing (_instead of
Typewriting_).
_Church Services:_
Prayers, Communion, Marriage, &c. (pp. 140, 144, 345).
_Gospels & Psalters:_
‹Note.›—The Psalms, &c., may be treated as poetry (as
in the “Revised Version”) or as prose (as in the “Authorised
Version”), see _Fine Literature_ above.
_Almanacks:_
These may be very varied; containing vacations, terms,
sessions; public, church, or family festivals, personal
memoranda or topical quotations. They offer great opportunities
for heraldic or symbolic ornament (such as coats-of-arms,
astronomical signs, &c.).
_Dedications, &c., in Books: (Lettering on Architects’ Plans:
see_ ‹Maps & Plans›, p. 339)
These may be on a parchment leaf inserted and securely glued
into the beginning (preferably bound up with book), or be
written on a fly-leaf. Annotations, extracts, &c., may be
written in colour in printed books (p. 144).
_“Copy-Books:”_
(see below).
_BROADSIDES:_
Sheets printed (or written) on one side: see p. 350.
_Notices:_
(Posters, Placards, Hand-bills, &c.).
_Quotations:_
(Texts, Mottoes, &c.) (see p. 336).
_Church Texts, &c.:_
(The Creed, Commandments, &c.).
_Family Trees & Pedigrees:_
These may be very decorative—in plain black and red, or with
coats-of-arms or other ornament. They might also be made in
book form.
_WALL INSCRIPTIONS:_
Carved or painted: see pp. 350, 375–385, & Chapter XVII.
_Public Notices:_
_Lettering in Churches, &c.:_
_Lettering in & upon public buildings:_
Note: on walls, plastered, or unsuited for carving, _sgraffito_
might be used with fine effect.
Letters may also be painted upon cemented into the wall (p.
377).
_(ILLUMINATED) ADDRESSES, &c.:_
(Petitions, &c.) (see p. 353).
_MONOGRAMS & DEVICES:_
(see p. 361. These are frequently designed for stencilling or
other mechanical reproduction).
_LETTERING FOR REPRODUCTION:_
(see p. 365).
See also BROADSIDES, above.
_Printer’s types and Ornamental letters:_
(in woodcut and metal: pp. 365, 367).
_Title Pages:_
(see p. 363).
_Paper and other Book covers:_
(Magazines, Newspaper-Headings, Music, Catalogues, &c.).
_Maps & Plans:_
good, clear lettering may be used in these with fine effect.
_Book Plates:_
(preferably simple, with Arms, Crest, or Symbol, and suitable
lettering).
_Letter-paper Headings, Cards, &c.:_
(preferably in copper-plate “Roman” and “Italic”).
_Bill Heads, Receipt Forms, &c.:_
(preferably in copper-plate or type: see p. 365).
_Certificates:_
(Testimonials, &c.) The plainer these are made, the better.
_Programmes, Menus, Cards, &c.:_
(Christmas cards, &c.).
_Almanacks:_
(see above).
_MS. Books and “copy-books”:_
Possibly might be reproduced by copper-plate if written well
enough (p. 367).
_Advertisements, &c.:_
Better lettering in these would not only mitigate many
eyesores, but would probably attract by its novelty (see p.
352).
_ENGRAVING, &c.:_
(see pp. 364, 365, 375).
_Brasses, &c.:_
(“Brasses,” Name-plates, Door-plates, &c.).
_Punches:_
(for naming, numbering, &c.).
_Utensils:_
(Bowls, flagons, plates, &c.).
_Ornaments:_
(Jewellery, &c.).
_Die Sinking:_
(for coins, medals, &c., and for embossed letter-paper
headings, &c.).
_INSCRIPTIONS IN STONE & WOOD:_
(see pp. 375–385, & Chap. XVII.).
_On Monuments & Buildings:_
Also on mile-stones, boundary stones, bridges, &c.
_Tombstones:_
_Foundation Stones:_
_Memorial Tablets:_
_“SIGN WRITING”:_
(see pp. 350, 376).
_Signs:_
(for stations, inns, shops, &c.).
_Shop Fascias, &c.:_
_Names, &c.:_
(on doors & on carts, _coaches_, &c.).
_Notice Boards:_
_“Ticket Writing”:_
_EMBROIDERY, &c.:_
see remarks on _built-up forms_, p. 292: and Chapter XII. [on
Lettering, &c.] of “Embroidery and Tapestry Weaving,” by Mrs.
A. H. Christie, in this Series.
_Decoration for hangings_, (p. 336)_:_
_Marking clothes, &c._ [p341]
All the arts employ lettering directly or indirectly, in fine
decoration or for simple service.
The following list of ancient uses is interesting:[90]—
“I. TITULI
1. Dedicatory and Votive Inscriptions (_Tituli Sacri_).
2. Sepulchral Inscriptions (_Tituli Sepulchrales_).
3. Honorary Inscriptions (_Tituli Honorarii_).
4. Inscriptions on Public Works (_Tituli Operum Publicorum_).
5. Inscriptions on Movable Objects (_Instrumentum_).
II. INSTRUMENTA
1. Laws (_Leges et Plebi Scita_).
2. Decrees of the Senate (_Senatus Consulta_).
3. Imperial Documents (_Instrumenta Imperatorum_).
4. Decrees of Magistrates (_Decreta Magistratuum_).
5. Sacred and Public Documents (_Acta Sacra et Publica_).
6. Private Documents (_Acta Privata_).
7. Wall Inscriptions (Inscriptiones Parietariae).
8. Consular Diptychs (_Diptycha Consularia_).”
MS. BOOKS, &C.
Books in the making—as compared with ordinary inscriptions—are
capable of great compression or expansion, and may be said to have a
quality of _elasticity_. Nearly all other ordinary inscriptions are
_set inscriptions_ (p. 350), requiring a given number of words to be
set out in a given space. But in books, while it is convenient that
the treatment of the text should conform generally to a chosen size
of page (p. 103), the contents of the page may vary according to the
letter-form and the spacing (pp. 107, 262), and the number of the
pages is not definitely limited, so that another page, or a [p342]
number of additional pages, may always be taken to complete the
text.
The size of page, margin, and writing having been settled (see Chap.
VI.)—and the pages ruled—the penman writes out the text with the
utmost freedom, not stopping to make fine calculations, but leaving
such spaces and lines, for Initials, Headings, &c., as his fancy and
common-sense dictate, and letting the text—or its divisions—smoothly
flow on from page to page till a natural termination is reached.
And if the terminal page has only one or two lines on it, it is not
necessary to attempt a balance with the previous page—the book or
chapter[91] ends just there, for the good reason _that there is no
more of it_.
_Colophons, Tail-pieces, &c._ (see p. 142), make a pleasant finish,
and may complete the page or not as convenient.
_Planning: Sections and Pages._—Calculations of the amount of text,
of the number of sections or pages required, and so on, are useful,
and planning the pages may be convenient—for example, one or more of
the verses of a poem, or a given number of words, may be allotted
to the page—provided always that the scribe preserves his freedom,
and treats each case on its merits. If he think it most suitable to
devote a complete page to each paragraph, he may do so in spite of
its resulting in the pages all being of different lengths.
The one general limitation which it is proper to [p343] observe is
that of the _Writing-line_—its length[92] and spacing—and to this
may be added the desirability of beginning the text of every page on
the first or _head_ line.[93] For most of us it is not practically
possible to do without the _aid_ of the writing-lines—which really
lead, through uniformity, to greater freedom—though a book written
without them[94] might be as beautiful as any ruled manuscript.
_Marginal Lines._—These, the terminals of the writing-lines, are
frequently made double, with about 1/4 inch between (see Plates XX.
and XV.). On the left this space is utilised for marginal capitals,
or is left blank; on the right the _first_ line acts as a warning
mark and the normal termination of the text, the _second_ as a
barrier beyond which the writing should not go. The double lines,
in being more obvious than single lines, are also more effective in
“straightening” the page (p. 109): presumably for this reason the
two upper and two lower _writing-lines_ were often ruled from edge
to edge of the page (see Plate XI.).
_Ruling._—Marginal and writing-lines, once ruled, are to be left
intact, and may be regarded as actual component parts of the
finished pages. They are best made with a hard blunt point (p.
108)—the _furrows_ so made give an interesting character, almost
a “texture,” to the smooth surface of the page. But they may be
ruled with a fine lead pencil, or with a fine pen and faint black
or [p344] coloured inks. Inked or coloured lines, however, are not
generally written _upon_ (see _footnote_, p. 305), but _between_
(see Plates XIII., XVII., XX., &c.).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 192.›]
_Correcting Mistakes._—A neatly made rather small letter above and a
“carat” below (as in ordinary writing) may be used for an omission
(fig. 192). A superfluous letter may be neatly struck out. Erasures
are usually unsatisfactory, and a simple, unostentatious correction,
besides disarming criticism, is in accordance with the proper
freedom of the craft (see p. 174).
_Annotations, &c._, preferably in smaller _coloured_ writing, are
very decorative in the broader margins (pp. 144, 315).
_Special Books._—A MS. book is necessarily unique, and some special
or personal interest—either of the craftsman (see p. 142) or his
“client”—inevitably attaches to it. This may affect its size and
form, the treatment of the text, and the decoration and construction
generally (see p. 100). Every legitimate opportunity of adding
to its individual character should be taken by the scribe and
illuminator. [p345]
Fig. 175 and Plate XX. are both taken from private prayer books or
psalters; in each the name of the owner (e.g. “_Euanzelista famulo
tuo_,” Plate XX.) is frequently inserted. Plates XV. and XXII. are
also taken from specially commissioned MSS., and many evidences of
their ownership, such as portraits or coats-of-arms, form part of
the decoration of such books.
_Church Services, &c._—(For a special church or person.) Church
uses are so varied, that it is most important to ascertain the
custom, use, or taste of the persons concerned—especially as to
the order of, and the introduction or omission of, certain words,
paragraphs, or parts, the colours used in the text, the notation of
the music—and the manner in which the book will be used.
A service book for the use of a priest gives prominence to the
parts in which he is concerned—the responses[95] may be smaller,
and different in form or colour. The rubrics—in red (see pp. 140,
144)—are kept quite distinct, and may form a very decorative
feature. For a private person the other parts—such as are said
by the congregation—might be specially marked. In either case a
certain amount of planning—_e.g._ completing prayers, &c., in an
_opening_, to avoid turning over—may be justified by its convenience
to the reader. Should very careful planning ever be required, a
_pattern-book_ may be made, having the contents of each page roughly
indicated in it.
_Wedding Service Books, &c._—The interest and [p346] value is
enhanced if the book is specially prepared—containing the proper
names and dates, and only the special psalms, hymns, prayers,
homilies, &c., which will be used. Dated pages may be provided
at the end of the book for the signatures of the “friends and
neighbours” of the principals.
BINDING MSS.
MSS. should be bound without delay in order to complete and protect
them.
To bind books in stiff boards, in leather, requires considerable
practice and skill, but a very effective _limp vellum cover_ can
be made by the scribe himself, who, in binding his own books, will
learn to think of the binding _as a part of the book_, and to allow
for it in the writing and planning (see p. 106).
The following note[96] on covering books in limp vellum is specially
contributed by Mr. Douglas Cockerell:—
“_How to cover a book in a limp vellum cover without using special
appliances._
“Cut four strips of stiff vellum 3/8 inch wide and about four inches
long. On these slips you will sew the sections of your book.
“Add to your book a plain section at either end;[97] vellum for
a vellum book, paper for a paper book. Knock up the backs of the
sections squarely, keeping the heads level, and across the back mark
with a soft pencil guided by a square, lines to show the position of
the slips. The positions of the four slips should leave the space
between the slips the same as that between the [p347] top slip and
the head of the book; the space between the bottom slip and the tail
should be a little longer than the spaces between the slips. At
about 1/2 inch from either end make an additional line across the
back for the “kettle” or catch stitch. These lines will show as dots
on the back of single sections. Each individual section should now
have at the back a dot at either end for the kettle stitches, and
four pairs of dots 3/8 inch apart to show the position of the slips,
ten dots in all.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 193.›]
“To sew the book, fold the vellum slips about 1-1/2 inch from one
end and bend to a right angle. Place your front end-paper outside
downwards, with the back even with the edge of a table or board,
and place your folded slips with their shorter ends under it. Then
insert your needle from the outside, at the head “kettle stitch”
mark, into the centre of the section and bring it out at the first
band mark; put the slip in position and reinsert your needle at the
mark on the other side of the slip, and so on to the end of the
section, coming out at the tail kettle stitch. This should leave
your section with a thread,[98] passing alternately along the centre
fold inside and across the slips outside, with a loose end hanging
from the kettle stitch mark where you began, and a thread with the
needle hanging from the other kettle stitch mark (fig. 193). [p348]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 194.›]
“Lay on your next section and sew it in the same way but in the
reverse direction, tying up with the first loose end when you come
to it. Sew the whole book in the same way, tying on a new needleful
of thread as each is exhausted, making practically a continuous
thread going backwards and forwards inside the sections and across
the slips from end to end of the book. Each succeeding kettle stitch
should be caught up by a loop (fig. 194), and it is well to catch
together the loose threads crossing the slips.
“When the book is sewn, the back may be covered with thin glue and
lined with a piece of leather, but as this is a little difficult to
manage neatly, and as the book will hold together without it, for a
temporary binding the sections may be left without glue.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 195.›]
“For the cover cut a piece of covering vellum[99] (vellum with a
surface) large enough to cover the book and to leave a margin of
1-1/2 inches all round. Mark this with a _folder_ on the underside,
as shown at A, fig. 195. Spaces (1) and (2) are the size of the
sides of the book with the surrounding “squares,”[100] space (3)
is the width of the back, and space (4) the width for the overlaps
on the foredge.[101] Cut the corners as shown at (5), and fold the
edges over as at B, and then fold over the overlaps [p349] and back
as at C. Be sure to make all folds sharp and true.
“To avoid mistakes it is well to make a cover of stiff [p350] paper
first, and then, when that fits exactly, to mark up the vellum from
it.
“On the inside of the vellum cover, mark faint lines about 3/4 inch
from, and parallel to, the creases of the back, and further lines
about 1/4 inch from these. Place your book in the cover and mark the
places where the slips cross these lines. Make slits in the cover
there, and lace the slips through them (fig. 196), first putting a
piece of loose, toned paper inside the cover to prevent any marks
on the book from showing through the vellum. Then lace pieces of
silk ribbon of good quality[102] through the cover and end-papers,
leaving the ends long enough to tie.”
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 196.›]
BROADSIDES, WALL INSCRIPTIONS, &C.
_Set Inscriptions._—Ordinary inscriptions generally consist of a
given number of words to be set out in [p351] a given space. Careful
planning may sometimes be required to fit in the words suitably, or
to adapt the lettering to the space. But setting-out (p. 258) becomes
much simpler after a little practice, and the good craftsman avoids
over-planning.
_The Place of the Inscription._—The actual space for a wall
inscription is commonly suggested by an architectural feature—a
stone, a panel, or a niche—of the wall; but in choosing a suitable
space for a given inscription, or suitable lettering for a given
space, we must take into account—
1. _The office of the inscription._
2. _How it is to be read_—
(_a_) _“At a glance,” or_
(_b_) _by close inspection_.
3. _The distance from the reader._
4. _The lighting of the space._
5. _The character of the surroundings._
6. _Any special features._
_The Size of the Letters._—The all-important question of readableness
may be settled thus: the inscription having been planned suitably to
fill the space, one or two words are written or painted (the exact
size) on paper—smoked or otherwise coloured if necessary to resemble
the background. This is stuck upon the chosen part of the wall,
and then viewed from the ordinary position of a reader. When the
inscription is high up, the _thin_ parts—especially the horizontals
of the letters—must be made extra thick to be seen properly from
below.
_Margins._—_Wide margins are only required for comparatively
small lettering which demands the close [p352] attention of the
reader_,[103] and generally a set inscription looks best if the
lettering be comparatively large—covering most of the given surface,
and leaving comparatively narrow margins. The frame or moulding, or
the natural _edge_ or environment of the circumscribed space, is very
often sufficient “margin” (see Plate XXIV.).
The margins vary, however, according to circumstances; especially the
foot margin, which may be very narrow if all the space is required
for the lettering (see fig. 211), or very large[104] if there is
plenty of space (see fig. 210). And, as in special pages or _terminal
pages_ of books, so in _single sheets_, _panels_, &c., the “foot
margin” may show—as it really is—as _the space which did not require
to be filled_, and was therefore “_left over_.”
_Number of Different Types._—While in a book of many pages
considerable diversity is allowed, it is essential to the strength
and dignity of a single sheet or set inscription to limit the number
of types employed in it. Three or four ordinary types will generally
give sufficient variety, and if it be necessary—as in notices and
placards—that ‹Important Words› be put in _special_ types to catch
the eye, let two—or at most three—special types suffice, and let the
remainder of the text be as quiet and reserved as possible. “Display
Types” commonly defeat their object by being _overdone_. A simple
contrast is the most effective (fig. 197). [p353]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 197.›]
ILLUMINATED ADDRESSES, &C.
_Forms of Addresses, &c._—The writer should be prepared to advise his
“clients” on the form which the address may take, on special features
in its writing and illuminating, and on its general treatment.
Ordinarily an Illuminated Address is prepared either as a _Framed
Parchment_ (p. 356), a _Parchment Scroll_, or sheet (p. 356), or a
_small bound MS._ (_i.e._ in book form: p. 357).[105]
The wording commonly consists of three parts: the ‹Heading› (usually
the name of the addressee), the ‹Text› (usually divided into
paragraphs), the ‹Signatures› (or a list of names) of the subscribers.
An address is commonly in the 1st or 3rd person, and in case of any
confusion of these, any slip of the pen, or other oversight in the
draft, the penman [p354] should, if possible, call attention to it
before the document is put into permanent form.
A very convenient and agreeable style of “address” is a formal
letter, beginning “_Dear Mr. A———— B————_,” and ending in the
ordinary way. This is a form which may be drawn up more simply, and
which reads more naturally, than the ordinary 1st or 3rd personal
statement.
An “address” is sometimes in the form of a resolution passed by
a public or private body or committee. For municipal or other
important corporations, such an extract from their minutes, neatly
and “clerkly” written out on parchment, and duly attested by the
signatures of their “head” and their secretary, and without ornament
save their seal—on a dependent ribbon—or their coat-of-arms, or
badge, would not only be the most natural, but possibly the most
dignified and effective shape which might be given to the formal
presentation of their compliments.
An “address” accompanying a present is frequently little more than a
list of names with a brief complimentary or explanatory statement.
If possible such an inscription should be written or engraved on
the article itself, or be specially designed to accompany it. In
some cases this is very simple: when a volume, or set of volumes, is
given, the inscription may be written in the first volume—or on a
parchment which may be inserted—or it may be prepared in book form,
in a binding to match. A silver or other ornament sometimes has a
little drawer provided to hold a narrow scroll of names. A portrait
may have an inscription on the frame—or even in a corner of the
picture—or be accompanied by a simple, framed parchment. [p355]
_Signatures._—A neatly written out list of subscribers—especially
when their number is large—is very convenient: it does not require
individual personal appointments, nor involve risks of damage to
the address. The actual signatures of subscribers, however, are of
greater interest and sentimental value, and on such grounds are
preferable to a mere list of names.
To avoid risks (or with a view to incorporating the signatures in the
decorative scheme) the decoration, gilding, &c., may sometimes be
deferred until _after the signing of the address_.
When the exact number and the names of the subscribers are known
beforehand, lines may be provided for their signatures, marked with
letters in alphabetical order (the proper number of lines under
each). This method solves any difficulty in regard to _precedence_ in
signing.
‹Note.›—Ordinary signatures require about 1/2 inch by 3 inches space
each. If there are many they may be conveniently arranged in two or
more columns, according to the space available.
_Directions for Signing_[106]—
_Edges of parchment not to project beyond desk or table, lest
they be creased._
_Paper to be provided to cover the address, with_
‹FLAPS› _to raise when signing._
_When lines for signatures are grooved (p. 108), signatories to
face the light (this makes the lines more evident)._
_Ink of one colour to be used if possible._
_Clean_, ‹ORDINARY› _pens to be provided, and pieces of
paper for trying them on._ [p356]
_Framed Parchments._—The parchment may have—beyond the top and foot
margins—spare pieces which (after the writing and illuminating is
finished) are bent over the ends, and glued to the back, of a stout,
white card, or millboard—covered with white or light coloured paper.
Or—extra margin being allowed all round—the edges of the parchment
are cut into tags or “scallops,” and folded over an ordinary canvas
stretcher, and well tacked at the back with small brads. The wedges
are carefully adjusted till the parchment lies flat.
A parchment glued to the surface of a millboard is more convenient
for framing, but has a less natural surface, and is not so easily
managed by the penman as the plain, flexible parchment.
_Frames_ should be gold, black, or white; very plain, and generally
without mounts. The parchment, however, must be framed so that there
is no danger of any part of it coming into contact with the glass (as
that, being damp, would lead to cockling).
_Parchment Scroll._—The foot edge of the parchment may be folded
over twice,[107] a strong, silk ribbon (see _footnote_, p. 350) is
laced along through slits in the folded part (_a_, fig. 198), so that
the two ends come out again at the centre—where they may be knotted
together—and are ready to tie round the scroll when it is rolled up
(_b_). A rather narrow, “_upright_” parchment is most convenient
(_c_). An “_oblong_” parchment may be very effectively arranged in
long lines of writing (_d_). If a special casket or case is not
provided, a neat [p357] japanned tin case may be obtained for a few
shillings.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 198.›]
_A small Bound MS._ is certainly the most easily handled form in
which an address may be prepared—its convenience to the penman,
the signatories, the reader, and the addressee, is strongly in its
favour. A lengthy address, or a very large number of names, may be
contained in a comparatively small book.
_Method of Planning out Addresses, &c._—If in the [p358] _book
form_, the address is treated much as an ordinary book (see Chap.
VI., and _Binding_, p. 346). The _framed_ or _scroll_ address is
planned similarly to a single sheet (p. 90). The following notes of a
working method were made during the planning out of an address:—
(1) Decide approximately the general _form_, shape, and
decorative treatment of address.
(2) Count words in TEXT (leaving out
HEADING and SIGNATURES) = 130
Count paragraphs = 3
(Decide whether first or last paragraph is
to be in a different form or colour.)
Decide approximate width = 12 inches.
Decide approximate side margins (2-1/2
inches each) = 5 ”
Hence _length of writing-line_ = 7 ”
Allow 1/2 inch lines, and approximately
_eight_ words to the line. ‗‗‗‗‗‗‗‗‗‗‗‗‗‗‗
(3) 130 words TEXT, approx. 16 lines = 8 in. deep.
Allow extra (on account paragraphs) 1 line = 1/2 ” ”
(Roughly sketch out HEADING
on lines each 1/2 inch by 7
inches.) Allow for HEADING 6 lines = 3 ” ”
Allow for two SIGNATURES, &c. 3 lines = 1-1/2 ” ”
————————————————————————
_Total depth of Writing, &c._ 26 lines = 13 inches.
Allow for Top margin 2 ”
Allow for Foot margin 3 ”
(‹Note.›—_This was a “scroll,” and the
foot margin was folded up to within an inch
of the SIGNATURES. A plain sheet would have
required about 4 inches foot margin._)
———————————
Length of Parchment 18 inches.
(4) Cut a paper pattern, 12 inches by 18 inches. Rule (in
pencil) _Side margins_ (2-1/2 inches and 2-1/2 inches),
and _Top margin_ (2 inches), and 26 (1/2 inch) lines.
On this write out the address in ordinary handwriting,
using ordinary black and red (or coloured) inks: make
approximately eight words to the line, and _write as fast
as possible_; this helps to keep the spacing uniform.
This written pattern should not take more than twenty
minutes for its entire preparation: it is intended to be
used as a check on the previous calculation (not as an
exact _plan_), and as a _copy_, it being easier to copy
from your own, than from another’s, handwriting.
If the original draft is typewritten, it is hardly
necessary to make such a pattern.
(5) Check this _copy_ very carefully with the original to
see that the words, &c., are correct.
(6) Cut, rule, and pounce the _parchment_ (pp. 343, 174).
(7) On some _scraps_ of parchment, ruled with a few
similar lines, and pounced, try one or two lines of
writing, both in vermilion and black, to see that all
goes well. This enables you to get the pens and inks into
working order, and will very likely save the carefully
prepared _parchment_ from being spoilt.
(8) Write out the address, leaving suitable gaps for
_gold_ or special letters.
(9) Put in special letters, decorative capitals, and any
other decoration.
(10) Check the finished _address_ very carefully with
the original draft (see (5) above) and look it over for
mistakes, dotting i’s, and putting in commas, &c., if
left out. It is important that such a formal document
should be accurate.
_General Remarks._—The above simple mode of planning out can be
further simplified in custom and practice. By the penman _keeping to
regular shapes, proportions,[108] and modes of treatment for regular
[p360] occasions_, the addresses, &c., will practically “plan
themselves” (p. 101), and better workmanship is the natural result.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 199.›]
Generally the simpler the form and the treatment of an Illuminated
Address, the better the effect. The most effective decoration is
the plain coloured or gold capital, and the finest ornament is a
coat-of-arms (see “_Heraldry_,” below; and for general, [p361]
simple Illumination, see Chapters VII. to XIII.). A symbolical
mark, such as a crest, badge, monogram, cypher, or other device (p.
362), boldly and decoratively treated, may be used in place of a
coat-of-arms.
There is too much “Illumination” in the conventional “Address,”
which looks like a “_piece of decoration_” _with a little writing_.
A really reasonable and effective Illuminated Address is _a piece of
writing suitably decorated_.
* * * * *
_Heraldry._—A reliable handbook must be consulted, for accurate
“_blazoning_” is essential. Early examples should be studied (see p.
387). The diagram, fig. 199, is given as an example of how a charge
was evenly arranged on the shield (see _balanced_ background, p.
419). Another example—showing a diapered chequer—is given on p. 336.
Shields in _Illuminated_ borders may be coloured before the border,
lest the brilliant mass of colour of the shield clash with the
border. The shield, if large, may with advantage set the tone of the
whole colour scheme.
MONOGRAMS & DEVICES
A _Monogram_ consists of two or more letters combined in one form, as
the diphthong «Æ», and the amperzand[109] @ for @@: its legibility
may be helped by compound colouring. A _Cypher_ consists of linked or
interlaced letters, as @, [p362] and may be repeated and reversed if
desired (see fig. 200).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 200.›]
Monograms and cyphers may be very decoratively employed as ornaments,
and may be used to mark a man’s goods, or as a _signature_ on
his work: something easily recognized—either very legible or
characteristic—is therefore desirable. The two modes may be combined,
and there is no limit to [p363] the effective devices and ornaments
which may be composed of letters. Simple and straightforward devices,
however, are generally preferable to very ornate or intricate designs.
_Chronograms._—A chronogram consists of a word or words in which the
numerical letters indicate a date. The following is from a very fine
memorial inscription at Rye (see fig. 207):—
I_oannes Three_L_e_ M_e_DI_o_ L_ætæ ætat_I_s f_L_ore ob_II_t_.
It expresses the date I + L + M + D + I + L + I + L + I + I (or 1 +
50 + 1000 + 500 + 1 + 50 + 1 + 50 + 1 + 1) = 1655. As every letter
having a numerical value (_i.e._ C, D, I, (J), L, M, (U), V, (W), X)
may be counted, a proper chronogram is not easily composed.
The letter-craftsman will discover many ways of “playing” with
letters, and of expressing—or concealing—names and numbers in other
words, and he may take every liberty he chooses in his private
pleasure, provided it does not clash with public convenience.
TITLE PAGES
If large capitals be used, the _Name of the Book_, _the Author_,
_&c._, above; the _Name of the Publisher_, _the Date_, _&c._,
below,[110] may together fill the page. Ordinary capitals (as used in
the text) leave a space in the centre (see Title Page of this book):
often pleasantly filled by a small woodcut—a symbolical device,
monogram, or printer’s mark.
Generally, the fewer and simpler the types, the better: though
contrasts of size, form, or colour [p364] (see p. 327)—such as
printing one or two words in large «CAPITALS», or in <f>Black
Letter</f> (p. 331), or part in red—may sometimes be used with good
effect. When the types are rather varied, single or double _framing
lines_ (called “_rules_”) placed round the page have the effect of
binding the whole together. The page may also be divided into parts
by transverse “rules”—these further solidify it. Black rules are
preferable to red (p. 144): if they are double, the outer line may be
thicker than the inner.[111]
_Relation of Title Pages, &c., to the Text._—Generally the practical
part of the book is to be considered and settled before the
ornamental and the decorated Title page conforms to the treatment
of the text pages, and should be clearly related to them by the
character of its letters or its ornaments. Its margins (especially
the top margin) should be approximately the same as those of the text
pages, though framing borders may occupy part of, or nearly all, the
marginal space. Without doubt the artless, ordinarily printed title
page is preferable to those specially designed “title pages” that
have little or no relation to the rest of the book.
_Wood Engraving_ (see pp. 365, 371).—Of all the “processes,” wood
engraving agrees best with printing. The splendid effect of Title
and Initial pages engraved in wood may be seen in the books of the
Kelmscott Press. In early printing, woodcut ornaments or borders were
commonly used to [p365] decorate the printed title page. An example
of this combined method—of which unfortunately the greater part of
the borders have to be left out—is shown in fig. 201 (from a 16th
century book).[112]
_Initial Pages and Openings._—The claim of these to decorative
treatment should be considered (p. 128). We generally look at the
outside of a book for the _title_—which should be clearly stamped
on the cover. But inside the book we look rather for its _actual
beginning_ than for its name, and, while something in the nature of
the “sub-title” might be used, it would be quite reasonable to revive
the ancient fashion—especially in the case of MS. Books—of making
the actual beginning the most decorative part of the book. Or a very
fine effect may be obtained by the decoration of the entire _initial
opening_—the title on the _verso_ (left page), the beginning of the
first chapter on the _recto_ (right page).
LETTERING FOR REPRODUCTION
Where it is possible, it is generally best to make use of ordinary
typography. A good fount of type and a natural _setting-up_ or
arrangement of it, are more effective than many special designs (see
pp. 364, 267).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 201› (_see footnote_, p. 365)]
_Wood and Metal Engraving._—If special forms or arrangements of
letters are required, for which type is lacking or unsuited, they are
best cut in wood or [p367] metal. The engraver leaves the mark of
his tool and hand upon, and so gives character to, such lettering;
while, if he has some knowledge of letters, he may give fresh beauty
to their forms.
_The Zincotype Process_ reproduces, either in _facsimile_ or on a
reduced scale, the “design” made by the craftsman in “black and
white.” This it does more or less exactly according to the pains
taken by the zincographer, the quality of the paper employed, &c.
The literalness and facility of this process, however, seem to
have had a prejudicial effect on the work of the designer. Unless
he conscientiously determines that his design shall stand without
“touching-up,” the knowledge that he may blot out or trim a faulty
line with white, that he may fill out or finish a deficient stroke
with black, that he may work _large_ and zincograph _small_, is apt
to result in carelessness combined with over-finishing—or a sort of
_perfection without character_.
If zincography be used, a strong, rather type-like letter, or a
built-up letter—arranged to give a general effect of richness of
mass, would appear more natural than the doubtful “reproduction” of
delicate writing or fine pen-lettering.[113]
_Etching._—Calligraphy might be reproduced with very fine effect,
retaining its natural delicacy and on a plane surface, if a process
of etching writing in facsimile were possible.
PRINTING
The general question of fine printing and its relation to calligraphy
can only be briefly referred [p368] to here. A proper study of the
art of typography necessitates practice with a printing press, and
probably the help of a trained assistant.
To would-be printers, printers, and all interested in typography,
the easily acquired art of writing may be commended as a practical
introduction to a better knowledge of letter forms and their
decorative possibilities.
In this connection I have quoted in the preface (p. 13) some remarks
on _Calligraphy_ by Mr. Cobden-Sanderson, who, again, referring to
typography, says—[114]
“The passage from the Written Book to the Printed Book was sudden
and complete. Nor is it wonderful that the earliest productions of
the printing press are the most beautiful, and that the history
of its subsequent career is but the history of its decadence. The
Printer carried on into Type the tradition of the Calligrapher
and of the Calligrapher at his best. As this tradition died out
in the distance, the craft of the Printer declined. It is the
function of the Calligrapher to revive and restore the craft of the
Printer to its original purity of intention and accomplishment.
The Printer must at the same time be a Calligrapher, or in touch
with him, and there must be in association with the Printing Press
a Scriptorium where beautiful writing may be practised and the art
of letter-designing kept alive. And there is this further evidence
of the dependence of printing upon writing: the great revival in
printing which is taking place under our own eyes, is the work of
a Printer who before he was a Printer was a Calligrapher and an
Illuminator, WILLIAM MORRIS.
“The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to communicate
to the imagination, without loss by the [p369] way, the thought
or image intended to be communicated by the Author. And the whole
duty of beautiful typography is not to substitute for the beauty or
interest of the thing thought and intended to be conveyed by the
symbol, a beauty or interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to
win access for that communication by the clearness and beauty of the
vehicle, and on the other hand, to take advantage of every pause or
stage in that communication to interpose some characteristic and
restful beauty in its own art.”
_Early Printing_ was in some points inferior in technical excellence
to the best modern typography. But the best early printers used finer
founts of type and better proportions in the arrangement and spacing
of their printed pages; and it is now generally agreed that early
printed books are the most beautiful. It would repay a modern printer
to endeavour to find out the real grounds for this opinion, _the
underlying principles_ of the early work, and, where possible, to put
them into practice.
_Freedom._—The treatment or “planning” of early printing—and
generally of all pieces of lettering which are most pleasing—is
strongly marked by _freedom_. This freedom of former times is
frequently referred to now as “spontaneity”—sometimes it would seem
to be implied that there was a lawless irresponsibility in the early
craftsman, incompatible with modern conditions. True spontaneity,
however, seems to come from _working by rule, but not being bound by
it_.
For example, the old Herbal from which figs. 135 to 141 are taken
contains many woodcuts of plants, &c., devoting a complete page to
each. When a long explanation of a cut is required, _a smaller type
is used_ (comp. figs. 135 & 138); when [p370] the explanation is
very short, _it does not fill the page_. This is a free and natural
treatment of the greatest convenience to the reader, for illustration
and text are always in juxtaposition. And though the size of the type
and the amount of the text are varied, yet the uniform top margins,
and the uniform treatment and arrangement of the woodcuts, harmonise
the pages, and give to the whole book an agreeable effect of freedom
combined with method.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 202.›
_Diagram shewing arrangement of pages (about 1/7 size). Note: Inner
columns of Commentary narrow (Text cols equal)_]
An old way of treating a text and its commentary is indicated by
the diagram (fig. 202). The text is printed in large type, the
commentary, in smaller type, surrounds it; such portion of the text
being printed on each page as will allow sufficient surrounding
space for the accompanying [p371] commentary on that portion.
The proportions and treatment of every page are uniform (note,
particularly, the uniformity of the upper parts of the pages, five
lines of commentary being allowed to enclose the text, or bound it
above, on every page) with the exception that the height of the
text-column varies—one page having as few as three lines of text to
the column, another having fifty-nine lines. This free treatment of
the text gives a charming variety to the pages.
_Poetry._—A broader and freer treatment is desirable in the printing
of poetry. The original lines and the arrangement of the verses
should be more generally preserved. And though the opening lines of
a poem may sometimes be magnified by printing them in capitals—which
necessitate their division—to sacrifice the naturally varying line to
the “even page” is questionable, and to destroy the form of a poem
_in order to compress it_ is a “typographical impertinence” (see p.
95).
<f>DECORATION OF PRINT @
MUCH MAY BE DONE BY
ARRANGING IMPORTANT
TEXT IN “ITS OWN” CAPITALS;
OR BY THE OCCASIONAL USE
OF EXTRA LARGE CAPITALS.</f>
For special letters or ornaments, woodcuts are best (see p. 364).
The early printers generally had little, simple blocks of ornamental
devices which might be used separately, or be built up into a frame
border for a whole page—a simple method and effective, if used
reasonably. [p372]
The judicious use of colour, especially of _red_ (see pp. 127, 144),
is very effective. The extra printings required for additional
colours may make it worth while (in the case of limited editions) to
put in simple initials, paragraph marks, notes, &c., _by hand_ (see
pp. 194, 113). The earliest printed books, being modelled on the MS.
books, employed such rubrication freely, in spaces specially left in
the text or in the margins. There are still great possibilities in
the hand decoration of printed books.
* * * * *
The following note on printing, reproduced here by the permission
of Mr. Emery Walker, appeared in the _Introductory Notes_ of the
Catalogue of the first exhibition of _The Arts and Crafts Exhibition
Society_, in 1888.
“PRINTING
“Printing, in the only sense with which we are at present
concerned, differs from most if not from all the arts and crafts
represented in the Exhibition in being comparatively modern. For
although the Chinese took impressions from wood blocks engraved in
relief for centuries before the wood-cutters of the Netherlands,
by a similar process, produced the block books, which were the
immediate predecessors of the true printed book, the invention
of movable metal letters in the middle of the fifteenth century
may justly be considered as the invention of the art of printing.
And it is worth mention in passing that, as an example of fine
typography, the earliest dated[115] book, the Gutenberg Bible
of 1455, has never [p373] been surpassed. Printing, then, for
our purpose, may be considered as the art of making books by
means of movable types. Now, as all books not primarily intended
as picture-books consist principally of types composed to form
letterpress, it is of the first importance that the letter used
should be fine in form; especially, as no more time is occupied,
or cost incurred, in casting, setting, or printing beautiful
letters, than in the same operations with ugly ones. So we find
the fifteenth and early sixteenth century printers, who were
generally their own type-founders, gave great attention to the
forms of their types. The designers of the letters used in the
earliest books were probably the scribes whose manuscripts the
fifteenth-century printed books so much resemble. Aldus of Venice
employed Francesco Francia of Bologna, goldsmith and painter, to
cut the punches for his celebrated italic letter. Froben, the great
Basle printer, got Holbein to design ornaments for his press, and
it is not unreasonable to suppose that the painter may have drawn
the models for the noble Roman types we find in Froben’s books.
With the decadence in handwriting which became marked in the
sixteenth century, a corresponding change took place in the types;
the designers, no longer having beautiful writing as a model and
reference, introduced variations arbitrarily. The types of the
Elzevirs are regular and neat, and in this respect modern, but they
altogether lack the spirit and originality that distinguish the
early Roman founts of Italy and Germany: Gothic characteristics
inherited from their mediæval predecessors. In the seventeenth
century type-founding began to be carried on as a craft apart from
that of the printer, and although in this and the succeeding century
many attempts were made to improve the “face” (as the printing
surface of type is called), such examples as a rule reflect only
too clearly the growing debasement of the crafts of design. Notable
among these attempts were the founts cut by William Caslon, who
started in business in London as a letter-founder in 1720, taking
for his models the Elzevir [p374] types. From this time until the
end of the century he and his successors turned out many founts
relatively admirable. But at the end of the eighteenth century
a revolution was made, and the founders entirely abandoned the
traditional forms of their predecessors, and evolved the tasteless
letters with which nearly all the books published during the first
sixty years of the present century are printed, and which are
still almost universally used for newspapers and for Government
publications. Particularly objectionable forms are in everyday use
in all continental countries requiring Roman letter. (The last two
sentences are set in a type of this character.)
“In 1844 the Chiswick Press printed for Messrs. Longmans ‘The Diary
of Lady Willoughby,’ and revived for this purpose one of Caslon’s
founts. This was an important step in the right direction, and its
success induced Messrs. Miller & Richard of Edinburgh to engrave
a series of ‘old style’ founts, with one of which this catalogue
is printed. Most other type-founders now cast similar type, and
without doubt if their customers, the printers, demanded it, they
would expend some of the energy and talent which now goes in cutting
Japanese-American and sham seventeenth-century monstrosities in
endeavouring to produce once more the restrained and beautiful forms
of the early printers, until the day when the current handwriting
may be elegant enough to be again used as a model for the type-punch
engraver.
“Next in importance to the type are the ornaments, initial letters,
and other decorations which can be printed along with it. These,
it is obvious, should always be designed and engraved so as to
harmonise with the printed page regarded as a whole. Hence,
illustrations drawn only with reference to purely pictorial effects
are entirely out of place in a book, that is, if we desire seriously
to make it beautiful.
EMERY WALKER.”
[p375]
INSCRIPTIONS ON METAL, STONE, WOOD, &C.
As the material naturally modifies the shapes of the letters cut or
formed on its surface, and as the object bearing the inscription
affects their arrangement, it is essential that the inscription
cutter make himself familiar with various stones, metals, woods, &c.,
with the various chisels and gravers which are properly employed
on them, and with fine inscriptions or examples of good pieces of
lettering (see pp. 388, 237).
A knowledge of penmanship will be found useful, and the pen may
be appealed to to decide questions of abstract form in regard to
letters which have come from pen forms (_e.g._ Roman Small-Letters,
Italics, &c.). And in this connection it may be noted again that the
“slanted-pen forms” (pp. 305, 43) are generally the most practical.
_Engraving on Metal._—Letters incised in metal may most nearly
approach pen forms, as the fine grain of the metal and the
comparatively small scale of the work allow of fine “thin strokes.”
The engraver, however, while following generally the “thicks” and
“thins” of the penman, allows the metal and the tool and, to a large
extent, his own hand, to decide and characterise the precise forms
and their proportions.
_Inscriptions in Stone_ (see Chap. XVII., Plates I., II., and XXIV.,
and pp. 292, 36).—The grain of stone does not generally allow of very
fine thin strokes, and the “thicks” and “thins” therefore tend to
differ much less than in pen-work. Their origin, moreover, is much
less easily traced to the _tool_—_i.e._ the chisel—and the difference
was less in the [p376] early inscriptions (see Plate II.) than we
are now accustomed to (see Plate XXIV.): perhaps it may be explained
as a fashion set by penmanship (see p. 241).
_Inscriptions on Wood_ are frequently in relief (see raised letters,
p. 377), matching the carved ornament. Incised letters may be painted
or gilded to make them show more clearly.
_Sign-Writing and Brush-Work._—Inscriptions, such as shop signs,
notices, &c., painted on wood or stone, require—besides a practical
knowledge of materials—a considerable facility with the brush
or “pencil.” Directness and freedom of workmanship are most
desirable.[116]
A suitable brush will make letters closely resembling pen letters.
But the pen _automatically_ makes letters with a uniform precision,
which it is neither desirable nor possible for the brush to
_imitate:_ and greater skill is required to control the brush, which
in the hand of a good “Writer” will be permitted to give its own
distinct character to the lettering (see also p. 292, and fig. 164).
The brush is properly used for temporary inscriptions, especially on
the surface of painted wood or stone, but, for more important work,
_incising_ or _carving_ (painted if desired) are to be preferred
as [p377] being more permanent[117] and preserving the original
form[118] of the lettering.
OF INSCRIPTIONS GENERALLY
(_See also Chapter XIV. and pp. 350–353_)
_Alphabets._—For practical purposes the best letters are the
_Roman Capitals_, _Roman Small-Letters_, _and Italics_. These are
susceptible of very decorative treatment without loss of legibility.
And there are many varieties of the pure Roman Capital (see figs.
203–207), besides the “Gothicised” Roman and the simple “Gothic”
Capitals, which are all essentially readable.
_Different Sizes of Capitals_ in inscriptions in wood, stone, metal,
&c., are generally kept approximately equal in “weight” (see p. 328).
‹Note.›—A downward decrease in height of the letters is common in
early inscriptions (p. 410).
_Incising_ is generally the most simple, and therefore the most
natural, method for making an ordinary inscription. The letters
should be large rather than small, and be deeply cut. Note, however,
an _incised_ stamp or die produces an impression in _relief_ on clay,
&c. This may be seen in the lettering on Roman pottery.
_Raised Letters._—From the earliest times letters in relief (or
_litteræ prominentes_) have been used for special purposes. They
are generally rather more legible than the incised letters, and the
difference between “thicks” and “thins” tends to disappear. [p378]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 203.›—Hübner’s _Exempla_, No. 187 (1/4 scale
of inscription), “_Rustic Capitals_” (see p. 297) _between_ ‹A.D.›
14–37.]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 204.›—Hübner’s _Exempla_, No. 384 (one-fifth
scale of inscription). 1st or 2nd Century, ‹A.D.›]
[Illustraton: ‹Fig. 205.›—Hübner’s _Exempla_, No. 1084 (one-fourth
scale of inscription). 2nd Century, ‹A.D.›]
[Illlustration: ‹Fig. 206.›—(_Two portions_) From a Rubbing of a
Florentine marble dated ‹MCCCCLXVII.›, slightly reduced (scale
twelve-thirteenths). Note the interlinear spaces are 1-3/4 inch.]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 207.›—From a Rubbing of a Slate at Rye, dated
1655 (see p. 363). Exact size.]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 208.›—From a Rubbing of a Stone at Oxford (by
A. E. R. Gill, 1905). Reduced, two-thirds scale.]
[p384]
It is quite possible to make a beautiful and characteristic alphabet
of equal-stroke letters, on the lines of the so-called “Block Letter”
but properly proportioned and finished (such letters may be _Raised_,
or _Incised_ or _Painted:_ see _incised form_, p. 391).
Raised letters, if exposed to wear or damage, may be protected by
being on a sunk panel or having a raised frame or ornament. The
background also may be left in raised strips flush with the letters,
between the lines of the inscription.
_Punctuation._—In early inscriptions the words were separated by
points; in the more ancient they are square shaped @, @, @, in the
more elaborate, triangular @, @, @, sometimes with curved-in sides @
(Plate I.). These developed later into the ivy leaf @ @, or “_hederæ
distinguentes_.” Such points may be used occasionally in modern work
with fine effect, but should seldom be used between every word,
unless the words are _necessarily_ so close that distinguishing marks
are required.
_Phrasing and Arrangement._—An inscription may be arranged in
sentences or phrases, and occasionally, by the use of larger letters,
greater prominence is given to a word or phrase (see figs. 197, 204,
211). This method is particularly adapted to the nature of a _set
inscription_ (p. 264), and may help both its readableness and its
appearance, but it must be borne in mind that to lay stress on any
one statement or word may pervert its meaning or attract too much
attention to it.
Any confusion of sense, or accidental word (p. 259) or phrase,
_appearing in the setting-out_ is [p385] avoided, if possible, by
a slight rearrangement of the part, or, if necessary, of the whole
inscription. Great care is taken that the spelling is accurate: a
pocket dictionary should be carried.
Reading is further facilitated by avoiding, where possible, the
dividing of words at the ends of lines. It may be observed that in
the more ancient inscriptions words were generally kept _entire_.
_Exercises in letter form and arrangement_, more profitable than mere
paper “designing,” might be devised by the craftsman. Inscriptions
might be cut—on a small scale—in gesso or chalk, or inscriptions
might be variously spaced and arranged on a properly coloured
surface—such as a drawing-board covered with light or dark cloth—in
letters cut out of sheet-lead or card.
BIBLIOGRAPHY, &C.
The few books and pamphlets given below are generally, of recent
date, practical, and inexpensive. The prices quoted are, I believe,
those at which the books are generally sold (not necessarily their
published prices). They are all illustrated, except Nos. *9, 10, 11,
and 19.
_WRITING, &c._ (See also Nos. 8, 12, 14, 19, 28, 29, and 31.)
1. The Story of the Alphabet: Edward Clodd, 1900. 9d.
2. Greek and Latin Palæography: Edward Maunde Thompson. 3s. 9d.
(The extracts in these pp. 36, 41, 416, &c., are from the 2nd
edition, 1894.)
3. The Journal of the Society of Arts, No. 2726, Feb. 17, 1905;
Papers on [p386] _Calligraphy and Illumination_: Edward Johnston
and Graily Hewitt. 6d.
4. Fac-similés de Manuscrits Grecs, Latins et Français du V^e
au XIV^e Siècle exposés dans la Galerie Mazarine: Bibliothèque
Nationale Département des Manuscrits. 5s.
5. “A Guide to the Manuscripts” in the British Museum, 1906 (30
plates). 6d.
6. Bible Illustrations: _Oxford University Press_, 1896. About 2s.
_ILLUMINATION, &c._ (See also Nos. 3, 4, 5, 12, 14, 29, and 31.)
7. Illuminated Letters and Borders: John W. Bradley, 1901 (19
plates). (Price at South Kensington Museum) 1s. 8d.
8. English Illuminated Manuscripts: Sir E. M. Thompson, 1895.
(_Now out of print._)
*9. The Journal of the Society of Arts, No. 2368, April 8, 1898;
a Paper on _English Art in Illuminated Manuscripts_: Sir E. M.
Thompson. 6d.
*10. The Book of the Art of Cennino Cennini (a contemporary
practical treatise on 14th-century Italian painting): Translated
by Christiana J. Herringham, 1899. 6s.
*11. Some Hints on Pattern Designing: (lecture, 1881), William
Morris, 1899. 2s. 6d.
(11_a_. “Books for the Bairns.—No. 50,” contains 55 reproductions
of _Bewick’s Birds_. 1d.)
_BOOKS—MANUSCRIPT & PRINTING._ (See also Nos. 2 to 9, and 29 and
31.)
12. Books in Manuscript: Falconer Madan, 1893. 6s. (_Frontispiece
drawn from this by permission._)
13. The Story of Books: Gertrude Burford Rawlings, 1901. 9d.
[p387]
14. The Old Service-Books of the English Church: Christopher
Wordsworth and Henry Littlehales, 1904. 7s. 6d.
15. Early Illustrated Books: Alfred W. Pollard, 1893. 6s.
16. Facsimiles [in colour] from Early Printed Books in the British
Museum, 1897. 7s. 6d.
17. A Guide to the Exhibition in the King’s Library (illustrating
the History of Printing, Music Printing, and Bookbinding): British
Museum, 1901 (36 illustrations). 6d.
18. “Arts and Crafts Essays by Members of the Arts and Crafts
Exhibition Society”—_Printing_: William Morris and Emery
Walker—(1st pub. 1893), 1899. 2s. 6d.
*19. “Ecce Mundus,” containing _The Book Beautiful_: T. J.
Cobden-Sanderson, 1902. 2s. 6d.
20. Printing (a technological handbook): Charles Thomas Jacobi,
1898. 3s. 9d.
21. Bookbinding and the Care of Books (_The Artistic Crafts Series
of Technical Handbooks_), 1901: Douglas Cockerell. 5s.
22. A Note on Bookbinding: Douglas Cockerell, 1904. 1d.
_HERALDRY, SYMBOLISM, &c._ (See also Nos. 1, 12, 15, 29, and 31.)
23. The Journal of the Society of Arts, No. 2309, Feb. 19, 1897;
A Paper on The Artistic Treatment of Heraldry: by W. H. St. John
Hope. 6d.
24. English Heraldry: Charles Boutell, 1867. 6th ed. 1899, about
3s. 9d.
25. The Stall Plates of the Knights of the Garter, 1348–1485: W.
H. St. John Hope (90 coloured plates, Imp. 8vo). About £3. [p388]
26. Didron’s Christian Iconography (or the History of Christian
Art in the Middle Ages): 2 vols. 3s. 9d. (each).
_LETTERING, &c._ (See also Nos. 1 to 8, and 12 to 20.)
27. Lettering in Ornament: Lewis F. Day, 1902. 5s.
28. Alphabets: Edward F. Strange (1st ed. 1895). 4th ed., 3s. 9d.
29. _The Palæographical Society’s Publications_ (out of print),
containing hundreds of facsimiles (chiefly of MSS.), are of
great interest. They may of course be seen in the British Museum
Library. _The New Palæographical Society_ publishes a selection of
facsimiles annually.
30. Hübner’s _Exempla Scripturae Epigraphicae Latinae a Caesaris
dictatoris morte ad aetatem Justiniani_ (Berlin, 1885, price 46s.)
contains many fine outline drawings of ancient Roman inscriptions
(see figs. 203–5). It is kept with the books of reference in the
Reading Room at the British Museum.
31. Photographs of fine pieces of lettering may be obtained at the
Book Stall in South Kensington Museum (see _footnote_, p. 409).
Original MSS. or Inscriptions—from which we can learn much more
than from photographs or drawings—may be found in most parts of
the country, and in London especially in the British Museum, South
Kensington Museum (see p. 391), the Record Office (_Rolls Chapel_,
see p. 11), and Westminster Abbey (MSS. in the Chapter-House).
――――――――――――――――――――
FOOTNOTES TO APPENDIX A:
[90] p. 224, J. C. Egbert’s “Introduction to the Study of Latin
Inscriptions,”—1896.
[91] If there is sufficient room left on the terminal page _for a
clearly marked beginning_ (such as a decorative initial), the _next_
chapter may begin there, and so fill the page—but generally there is
no objection to leaving blank what the text has failed to fill.
[92] The line need not always be _filled_ by the writing (p. 425).
[93] It would not be necessary for the first page of a chapter to
have the ordinary _dropped head_ and blank upper space if a fine
initial or decorative heading were used to mark it.
[94] Some of the books _engraved_ by William Blake suggest
possibilities of such _un_-conventional treatment, both of writing
and “illumination” (see also p. 21).
[95] The distinction in the Prayer Book between “Amen” and
“_Amen_”—used as a response—is best marked by the sign @ (for
Responsum) in red, placed before the _latter_, as: @ Amen (see pp.
144, 25).
[96] Figs. 195 and 196 are from Mr. Cockerell’s “Bookbinding and the
Care of Books,” in this Series.
[97] These form the fly-leaves (p. 111).
[98] _Thread_ should be unbleached. Silk of the best quality is
better than thread.
[99] _Forrel_ may be used as a cheap substitute for vellum.
[100] “_Squares_” = “_the portion of the boards projecting beyond the
edges of the book_.”
[101] “_Foredge_” = “(fore edge) _the front edge of the leaves_.”
[102] A good, rather dark green ribbon looks well—such as that known
as “Church lace,” used for the “tyers” in some of the Kelmscott
books. Very good ribbons may be obtained from a bookbinder, at 6d. to
1s. 6d. a yard.
[103] _E.g._ all ordinary written and printed matter intended to be
read _at a short distance_ (see pp. 103–106).
[104] As much as two-thirds, or more, of the whole space.
[105] The addressee’s taste and convenience ought to be considered:
_e.g._ to one the framed inscription might be an embarrassment, while
by another it might be preferred.
[106] To be given to the person in charge of the address.
[107] The original intention of this fold, in deeds, was to provide
for the attachment of the seal, and, perhaps, to prevent any addition
being made. If the folded part be fairly wide, say, 3/4 to 1 inch,
little or no foot margin need be allowed.
[108] _E.g._ to keep to 1/2 inch writing-line spaces (except for
extra small addresses, or small books). This being approximately
the right space for ordinary SIGNATURES, results in further
simplification of ruling and arrangement.
[109] In the common form «&», the letters @ @ (see Plate VI.) are now
barely traceable.
[110] Other particulars may be put in the colophon (p. 142).
[111] The use of “rules,” though quite legitimate, will be found
misleading if it be depended on to “doctor” and “pull together” any
weak arrangement of lettering.
[112] More, Sir Thomas: “_Utopia, et Mori et Erasmi Epigrammata”:_
4to, Froben, Basle, 1518. Woodcut borders and Title pages by
Holbein. (The reproduction is from the title page to the Epigrams.)
‹Note.›—The exceptionally fine type of capitals (see p. 373) here
shown is used throughout the book for headings, &c.
[113] _Doubtful_, because, unless unusual care be taken, its delicate
quality may be lost in the process, and also because of the type-like
impress of the block on the paper.
[114] “_Ecce Mundus_ (_The Book Beautiful_),” 1902.
[115] _It was dated 1456 by a rubricator, not by the printer._—_E.W._
[116] This is recognised in the Sign-writing profession, where, I
understand, an applicant for work is sometimes given a blackboard or
a piece of American cloth, on which he writes out a short inscription
in “sharp white.” It is not necessary to watch the writer; good,
direct workmanship shows itself, and also every hesitating stroke or
fault, every patch or “touching-up” or “going over,” is made evident.
[117] Brush lettering may be used very effectively on Tiles and
China, &c. (see p. 339), when it is of course rendered permanent by
baking.
[118] The original form of a painted inscription (not carved) is
inevitably spoilt by re-painting.
[p389]
APPENDIX B
CHAPTER XVII
INSCRIPTIONS IN STONE
(_By A. E. R. Gill_)
Treatment & Arrangement — The Three Alphabets — Size & Spacing — The
Material — Setting Out — Tools — A Right Use of the Chisel — Incised
Letters & Letters in Relief — The Sections of Letters — Working _in
situ_.
TREATMENT & ARRANGEMENT
_Treatment._—Inscriptions are carved in stone for many uses:
for Foundation Stones and Public Inscriptions, for Tombstones
and Memorial Inscriptions, for Mottos and Texts, for Names and
Advertisements, and each subject suggests its own treatment.
Names and Advertisements should be easily read, and usually entirely
unornamental. The Treatment of Texts, Memorial Inscriptions,
Foundation Stones, &c., may, according to the needs of the case or
the opportunities of the carver, be either simple or elaborate.
Colour and Gold may be used both for the beauty of them and, in
places where there is little light, to increase legibility.
_Arrangement._—There are two methods of arranging Inscriptions: the
“_Massed_” and the [p390] “_Symmetrical_.” In the former the lines
are very close together, and approximately equal in length, and form
a mass. Absolute equality is quite unnecessary. Where the lines are
very long it is easy to make them equal; but with lines of few words
it is very difficult, besides being derogatory to the appearance of
the Inscription. In the “_Symmetrical_” Inscription the length of
the lines may vary considerably, and each line (often comprising
a distinct phrase or statement) is placed in the centre of the
Inscription space.
Short Inscriptions,such as those usually on Tombstones or Foundation
Stones, may well be arranged in the “_Symmetrical_” way, but long
Inscriptions are better arranged in the “_Massed_” way, though,
sometimes, the two methods may be combined in the same Inscription.
THE THREE ALPHABETS
_The Roman Alphabet_, the alphabet chiefly in use to-day, reached its
highest development in Inscriptions incised in stone (see Plate I.),
and it became absolutely suited to the material.
Besides ROMAN CAPITALS, it is necessary that the letter-cutter should
know how to carve Roman small-letters[119] (or “Lower case”) and
_Italics_, either of which may be more suitable than Capitals for
some Inscriptions.
Where great magnificence combined with great legibility[120] is
required, use large Roman Capitals, [p391] Incised or in Relief,
with plenty of space between the letters and the lines.
Where great legibility but less magnificence is required, use “Roman
Small-Letters” or “Italics,” or Roman Capitals, either small, or
close together, or both.
All three Alphabets may be used together, as, for instance, on a
Tombstone, one might carve the Name in Capitals and the rest of the
Inscription in Small-Letters, using Italics for difference.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 209.›]
_Beauty of Form_ may safely be left to a right use of the chisel,
combined with a well-advised study of the best examples of
Inscriptions: such as that on the Trajan Column (see Plates I., II.)
and other Roman Inscriptions in the South Kensington and British
Museums, for Roman CAPITALS; and sixteenth and seventeenth century
tombstones, for Roman small-letters and _Italics_.[121] If the simple
[p392] elementary form of the letter be cut firmly and directly, it
will be found that the chisel will suggest how that form may be made
beautiful. This may be shown, for example, by an attempt to carve a
quite simple Incised letter with no Serifs and with all the strokes
equally thick. In making the ends of the strokes nice and clean it
will be found that there is a tendency to spread them into Serifs,
and the letter is at once, in some sort, beautified (see fig. 209).
SIZE & SPACING
_Drawing out._—Take paper and pencil, or what you will, and write out
the words of the Inscription in Capitals, or small-letters (or both),
without any regard to scale or the shape of the space the Inscription
is to go in. The carver will then see easily of what letters and
words his Inscription is composed. Next draw the shape of the
Inscription space (say to 1 inch or 1-1/2 inch scale), and in that
space set out the Inscription, either “_Massed_” or “_Symmetrical_,”
as has been decided. The drawing should be neither scribbled nor
elaborated. A good plan is to cut the lead of the pencil to a chisel
shape. The natural _thicks and thins_ of the letters (see p. 44) may
then be produced easily and quickly. The carver will thus be able,
after a little experience, to calculate quite easily what size he
will be able to carve his letters, what space he will be able to
leave between the lines, and what margins he can afford.[122] [p393]
_The Size of Lettering_ depends on where it is to go (_i.e._
outdoors or indoors, far away or near), the material to be used, and
the space at the carver’s disposal.
_Out of Doors_ letters should not, as a rule, be less than 1-1/4 inch
high, more if possible.[123]
_Indoors_ smaller lettering may be carved, but even then 1 inch is
quite small enough, and that only in marble, slate, or the finest
stones.
In such stones as _Ancaster_ or _Ham-Hill_ it is not possible to
carve good letters less than 3 inches high.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 210.›]
More than one size of letter may be used in the same Inscription to
give emphasis to certain words, thus: on a Foundation Stone the Date
(see fig. 210), [p394] and on a Tombstone the Name (see fig. 211),
may be made larger than the rest.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 211.›]
_Spacing._—Proper spacing is essential to a good Inscription. As a
general rule, Roman letters should not be crowded together. Space
should be left between each, varying according to the letters—a
narrower space between two O’s, for example, and, generally, a wider
space between two straight letters. The lines may be about the height
of the lettering apart (see Plate I.) or pretty close together (see
Plate XXIV.).
_Margins._—If the Inscription is to be carved in a panel, the
surrounding mouldings take the place of margins, and the lettering
may fill the panel (see fig. 211). If any space be left, let it come,
as it [p395] naturally will, at the bottom. If the lettering is not
to be in a panel, the margins depend primarily on what the carver
can afford, and where the Inscription is to go. Every case must be
treated on its own merits, but as a general rule one may say that the
bottom margin should be the widest and the top margin the narrowest.
THE MATERIAL
The best quality a stone can have, from a letter-cutter’s point of
view, is fineness or closeness of texture, combined with freedom from
holes and flints or occasional shells, and the letter-cutter will do
well to choose the stone himself, if possible, having regard to this
quality.
The following is a list of a few of the best stones for outdoor and
indoor use:—
_Outdoors or Indoors._
Portland.—Especially good for lettering on account of its
fineness and its excellent weathering qualities, for it not only
hardens on the surface, but also becomes quite white if exposed to
wind and rain, thus showing very clearly any differences of light
and shade.
Hoptonwood Slate
Fine and hard: good weathering qualities. Great delicacy may be
attained in these.
Ancaster Ham-Hill Ketton
Only suitable for large lettering.
_Indoors only._
Clunch Chalk
Very fine and delicate work may be done in these.
Bath.—A cheap stone, and easily carved; but unsuitable for small
lettering.
Marbles and Alabasters.—Excellent for Inscriptions indoors, but
much colour or veining tends to confuse lettering.
[p396]
SETTING OUT
The stone being ready for the setting out, _i.e._ smoothed and
cleaned, lines are ruled on it for the lines of lettering and
margins with a pencil or point. If the Inscription is to be arranged
“_Symmetrically_,” a centre line is ruled from top to bottom.
The carver should rule and set out one line and carve that before
ruling another, as pencil marks are liable to be rubbed off by the
hand in carving.[124]
In “_Setting Out_,” the spacing of the letters is thought of rather
than their forms. And though the beginner may find careful drawing
helpful, the forms which may best be produced with the chisel are
found only by practice and experience (p. 399).
TOOLS
_The chisels_ needed for simple work are flat chisels of the
following sizes:—
1/16 inch, 1/4 inch, 3/8 inch, 1/2 inch, 1 inch.
The shanks should be about 7 inches long.
It will be found useful to keep a few “_Bull-nosed_” chisels (see 7,
fig. 212) for use in cutting curves, and a few “_skewed_” chisels (8,
fig. 212) for use in cutting the background of Raised letters, as a
chisel of that shape is more easily used in a corner.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 212.›]
The chisels are either _Hammer-headed_ or _Mallet-headed_, or they
may have wooden handles [p397] (see fig. 212, and pp. 401–2).
The Hammer-headed are the most used, and a good number should be
procured. The best are made with _cupped_ ends, to prevent them from
slipping on the hammer (see 5, fig. 212). [p398]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 213.›]
_Temper and Sharpness._—Above all things the chisels must be of the
right temper, and sharp.[125] They may be tempered by a smith or
tool-maker—if the craftsman can do it for himself, so much the [p399]
better. They are sharpened on a piece of _Grit-stone_ (hard York
stone, for instance) with water. The Temper of a chisel may be seen
by the colour (blue shows a soft or low-temper, straw colour a hard
or high temper), and felt by the way it rubs on the Grit-stone (a
hard tool will slide easily over the stone, while a soft one will
seem to stick or cling).[126]
_Mallets._—A wooden mallet or _Mell_, a Zinc mallet or _Dummy_, and
an iron or steel hammer are required (fig. 213).
_The Mell_ is made wholly of wood, and should, for letter cutting, be
about 5-1/2 inches in diameter.
_The Dummy_ has a head of zinc and a wooden handle. It should be
about 2-1/2 inches in diameter.
_The hammer_ should be about the same size and weight as the Dummy.
A RIGHT USE OF THE CHISEL
The workman must find out, for himself, how best to use his tools. In
the ordinary way, it is best to hold the chisel at an angle of about
45° with the surface of the stone—in the manner shown in fig. 214—in
cutting both straight stems and curves. The chisel is held firmly
(usually in the left hand, with the little finger about an inch from
the cutting end of the chisel) and tapped rather than banged, and
lightly rather than heavily.
The best way to cut a letter is to start at the extreme left-hand
point of the bottom Serif, and, working upwards, to cut the left side
of the stroke first. Then start similarly at the extreme right-hand
point of the bottom Serif, and cut the right side of the stroke. Then
finish the Serifs. [p400]
When cutting a curve, cut the inside first (fig. 214), and start as
near the narrowest part of the curve as possible.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 214.›]
In Incised letters unnecessary junctions of the parts may be avoided
(see fig. 215). Where they are necessary, as in a capital E, or in
a small «y», cut [p401] away from the junction or down on to it,
rather than towards it.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 215.›]
The Mallet-headed and wooden-handled chisels are used with the Mell
for large work and for cutting surfaces. [p402]
The Hammer-headed chisels are used with the hammer for ordinary work,
and with the Dummy for small and delicate work.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 216.›]
A Mallet or Dummy is not used in carving chalk, but the chisel is
pushed; the right hand doing the pushing, and the left hand guiding
and steadying the chisel (see fig. 216). If the chisel [p403] were
struck, the surface of the chalk would flake off.
In cutting an Incised Inscription with the ordinary “V” section (see
fig. 217), use one size of chisel throughout. The width of the chisel
should generally be about the width of the letter stem required. More
elaborate sections necessitate the use of several sizes of chisels.
INCISED LETTERS & LETTERS IN RELIEF
Inscriptions may be _Incised_ or in _Relief_, that is, sunk or
raised.[127] The _modus operandi_ and the time spent in carving the
actual letters are the same in either case, but whereas when the
Incised letter is carved there is nothing more to be done, after the
carving of the Raised letter there is still the stone surrounding
it (_i.e._ the background) to be dealt with, and this may simply be
carved smooth,[128] or, if our imagination be strong enough, and our
hand have the cunning, it may become under the tool a field of roses
and lilies in which the letters are set.
Other things being equal, it becomes a question of economy which
form of lettering one will carve, as the necessity of dealing with
the background of a Raised Inscription, while more than doubling
the opportunities of the carver, at least doubles the time spent in
carving.
Raised lettering will show out more clearly than Incised lettering
where there is little light. [p404]
Roman Capitals are more adapted for carving in Relief than are Roman
small-letters or Italics, which are directly derived from the pen.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 217.›]
Raised lettering is more allied to ordinary carving, while Incised
lettering may be thought of as writing in stone. [p405]
THE SECTIONS OF LETTERS
_For Incised letters_, a “V” section (1, fig. 217) of about 60° is
best for regular use; deeper rather than shallower. The letters may
with advantage be cut a little deeper towards the Serifs (see fig.
218).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 218.›]
Although the simple “V” section is the most useful, other sections
may be used for large letters (_i.e._ letters more than 6 inches
high), or letters in a very fine material (2 & 3, fig. 217).
If the lettering is to be gilded, and the stone will permit of it,
Section 4 (fig. 217) is a good one to use. Only the curved part is to
be Gilded, and not the small bevelled sides.
_For Raised letters_, the best and most useful section is No. 5; the
slightly bevelled sides tell as part of the letter. Experience, and
the weathering conditions, will suggest the amount of Relief to be
given. For letters 1-1/2 inch high, out of doors, 3/16 inch of relief
is ample, and if there be good light 1/8 inch is enough. Excessive
relief looks clumsy.
Sections Nos. 6 and 7 are suitable only for large letters; and
elaborate sections should as a rule be used only for letters standing
alone.
WORKING _IN SITU_
If possible the carver should work _in situ_. When that is
impracticable,[129] he should consider most carefully where his
Inscription is to go. [p406]
In an Inscription which is much above the eye level, the letters may
be narrower in proportion to their height, and the horizontal strokes
extra thick to allow for foreshortening. (See also pp. 351, 270.)
The advantages of working _in situ_ are great, for by so doing the
carver sees his job as he works under the same conditions of light
and environment that it will finally be seen under, and the work is
more likely to become a part of the place because it has grown there.
And it is good to carve an Inscription on the actual wall of a fine
building, and better still to work in the inspiriting atmosphere of
building in progress, or to work in the open air where the artificial
notions of workshop or studio are dissipated and the feeling of life
and freedom gained.
――――――――――――――――――――
FOOTNOTES TO APPENDIX B:
[119] With which we may include Arabic numerals.
[120] It should be clearly understood that legibility by no means
excludes either beauty or ornament. The ugly form of “_Block_”
_letter_ so much in use is no more legible than the beautiful Roman
lettering on the Trajan Column (see Plates I., II.).
[121] Roman small-letters and Italics, being originally pen letters,
are still better understood if the carver knows how to use a pen, or,
at least, has studied good examples of manuscripts in which those
letters are used.
[122] Some advice from the letter-cutter might be useful to the
client as to _the number of words_ and _the space they will occupy_
in cases where it is possible to adapt the one to the other.
[123] Small lettering is less convenient to read out of doors, and is
apt to get filled with dirt or moss.
[124] Whenever it is possible the carver should not be bound
to follow a drawing strictly, but should do his work in the
straightforward manner described above. Unfortunately he is often
obliged to set out the whole Inscription exactly before carving it,
and in such a case it is usual to carve the bottom line of letters
first and to work upwards, cutting the first line last.
[125] Really sharp, _i.e._ sharp enough to cut a piece of paper
without tearing it.
[126] The harder the stone to be carved, the more highly tempered
will the chisels need to be.
[127] In learning to cut Inscriptions one would naturally begin with
Incised letters.
[128] Where the ground between the letters is left plain, an absolute
flatness and evenness is not necessary. The common method of jabbing
or “pecking” the background is objectionable.
[129] _E.g._ Tombstones and Memorial Slabs are not usually fixed
until finished.
[p409]
NOTES ON THE
COLLOTYPE PLATES
(‹Note.›—_In order to make the illustrations [whether of facsimiles
or enlargements] as large and as full as possible, I have sacrificed
“appearance” to use and allowed most of the collotype plates, and
many of the diagrams in the book, to encroach on the margins.—E. J._)
_GENERAL NOTE._—All the plates are in _facsimile_ as to size (or
_nearly so_, allowing for errors in reproduction) except I., II.,
XXII., and XXIV., which had to be _reduced_, and therefore only
_portions_ of the MSS. can be shown. ‹Note.›—All the MSS. are on
“Vellum” (see p. 173). In order to get a better impression of the
size and general proportion of a MS., the student might reconstruct
it—or at least mark off the margins, text, &c.—on paper, from the
measurements given. Or a sheet of paper might be cut to the size of
the given page or _opening_, with an aperture (in its proper place)
through which the plate might be viewed.
The plates are arranged in chronological order as nearly as
possible. They are intended briefly to illustrate the _Development
of the Formal Book Hands from the Roman Capital_ and _the General
Development of the Illuminated MS._: I hope, moreover, that,
fragmentary as they are, they will prove usefully suggestive in
regard to _the Arrangement of Text and Lettering and Ornament_. The
wonderful effect of the colouring cannot be given here, but, in any
case, the illuminator should look at some original MSS. Several of
the MSS. from which the plates are taken are exhibited in the British
Museum.
_PLATE I.—Portion of Inscription on base of Trajan Column,^* Rome,
circa 114 ‹A.D.› Scale approx. 1/9th linear._
THE STONE (within the internal line of the moulding): 3 feet 9 inches
high, and 9 feet 3/4 inch long. [p410]
THE BORDERS.—The lettering practically fills the panel (see p. 352):
the surrounding moulding is approx. 4 inches wide.
THE LETTERS (_for their forms_ see next note).
Approximate heights
First two lines: 4-1/2 inches high.
Second two lines: 4-3/8 ” ”
Fifth line: 4-1/8 ” ”
Last line: 3-7/8 ” ”
THE SPACES (between Lines) decrease from 3 inches to 2-3/4 inches. A
decrease in the height of the letters from the top to the foot line
is common in early inscriptions (see figs. 203–205). Several reasons
for this suggest themselves: (_a_) (Sometimes the beginning words,
being farther from the reader, may require to be larger). (_b_) The
architectural beauty of a large heading (comp. _stem heads_, p. 288).
(_c_) The importance of _beginnings_ generally (there is very often a
marked difference between the upper lines containing important words
and the rest of the inscription: comp. figs. 197, 91).
‹Note.›—The WORDS are separated by triangular points (p. 384).
――――――――――――――――――――
* There is a cast (No. 1864–128) in the Victoria and Albert Museum,
South Kensington, where also the photograph of the inscription is
obtainable, from portions of which Plates I. and II. are reproduced.
PLATE II.—_Alphabet from Trajan Inscription._ (_Circa_ 114 ‹A.D.›)
_Scale approx. 1/6th linear._ (See note above.)
THE “TRAJAN” ALPHABET.— Very fine letters for inscriptions in stone:
possibly painted before incision (see p. 292); see also remarks on
Roman Capitals, pp. 268–296, and note:—
SERIFS.—Small and carefully curved.
THIN PARTS about half the width of the _thick stems_ (pp. 375, 285).
A (M and N), _pointed_ (p. 280).
B—a very beautiful form, with large lower _bow_ (p. 278).
C, G, and (D)—Upper parts rather straight (p. 281).
E and F—_mid arm_ slightly shorter than upper arm.
E and L—_lower serif_ pointed out (p. 282). [p411]
LO (shown sideways in collotype) and LT show L’s _arm_ projecting
under next letter.
M—_pointed_: slightly spread (p. 284), distance apart of points
above equal to _inside_ distance of stems below.
N—_pointed_: practically no difference in thickness of vertical and
oblique parts (p. 285).
O—very beautiful: _width slightly less than height_ (p. 270);
slightly _tilted_ (as are all the other curved letters: see p. 285).
P—_Bow_ not joined to stem below (first P rounder topped).
Q—_tail_ carried under V (U).
R—_large bow_: straight tail, with finishing-curve (p. 291).
S—leans forward slightly (p. 286).
_Proportions of widths to heights_ (comp. with pp. 269–273)
OCDGMNQ width slightly _less_ than height.
ARTV width approx. 1/6th _less_ than height.
BX width rather more than _half_ height.
P width approx. equal _half_ height.
LS width slightly _less_ than half height.
EF width approx. 3/7ths of height.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 219.›]
H, (J), K, (U), W, Y, Z are not present in the inscription. A rough
diagram (fig. 219) is given below showing approximately suitable
forms for these (_Re junction of_ «U» _in stone;_ see p. 400, & fig.
215). [p412]
PLATE III.—_Written Roman Capitals, Fourth or Fifth Century._
(_Virgil’s “Æneid”_).
(From a facsimile in the Palæographical Society’s Publications,
1st Series, Vol. II., Pl. 208, of a MS. in the library of S. Gall,
Switzerland. See also “Greek and Latin Palæography,” p. 185.)
LETTERS.—Simple-written (slanted-pen) Roman “Square Capitals.”
WORDS in early MSS. were not separated (p. 112).
LINES ruled with a hard point (p. 343). The letters appear to have
been written between every alternate pair (p. 299), but slightly over
the line.
A very handsome writing which might still be used for special MSS.
(see pp. 304, 300, 299).
PLATE IV.—_Uncial Writing, probably Italian Sixth or Seventh
Century. (Latin Gospels). Brit. Museum, Harl. MS. 1775._
(Shown in Brit. Mus. Department of MSS., Case G, No. 11.)
THE VOLUME contains 468 leaves (7 inches by 4-3/4 inches).
MARGINS, Approx.: _Inner_ 5/8 inch, _Head_ 7/8 inch, _Side_ 9/8 inch,
_Foot_ 8/8 inch. (They may have been cut down by the binder.)
WRITING.—A fine _round_ Uncial MS. (pp. 38, 302), arranged in long
and short lines.
‹Note.›—On many of the letters there are fine hair-line curved
_tails_ and _flourishes_, which are scarcely visible in the
photograph. (These tails were also used in the earlier Uncial shown
in fig. 5—see also _Addenda_, p. 23.)
SECTIONS.—Marked by built-up letters of an Uncial type, and numbered,
m‹R› cxxiiii to m‹R› cxxvi (with references to “Harmonies”). The
passage is S. Mark xi. 21–25. [p413]
PLATE V.—_Uncial Writing, probably Continental Seventh Century.
(Gospel of S. John). Ex libris Stonyhurst College. (See also
enlargement, fig. 169.)_
(From a facsimile in the Palæographical Society’s Publications, 1st
Series, Vol. II., Pl. 17.)
THE VOLUME contains 90 leaves, approx. 5-3/8 inches by 3-5/8 inches.
The _Inner margin_ is approximately 1/2 inch wide.
WRITING.—A very beautiful pointed (slanted-pen) Uncial. The “pointed”
character of the letters, which yet retain their typical roundness,
give this writing a peculiar charm. Note the top of the P has a
marked angle, and the M and H, and even the O, have this slightly or
strongly.
RULING.—Single lines, rather wide (p. 305).
ARRANGEMENT.—Certain of the lines are _indented_ one letter (p. 264).
LARGE LETTERS.—On _verso_ Col marking a “Chapter” is built-up in
_red_, on _recto_ the three large letters (marking sections) are
simply written with the text pen (p. 299). (The passage is S. John
xi. 46–56.)
_PLATE VI.—Half-Uncial (Irish), Seventh Century. “Book of Kells”
(Latin Gospels). Ex libris Trinity College, Dublin._
(From a facsimile—part of Pl. XLVII.—in “Celtic Ornaments from the
Book of Kells,” by the Rev. Dr. T. K. Abbott.)
THE LEAVES—which are cut down and much damaged—measure 13 inches by
10 inches.
WRITING.—A beautiful and highly finished (approx. straight pen)
Half-Uncial (pp. 40, 304), tending to ornamental and fanciful forms
whenever opportunity offered. (Note the treatment of inde.)
ARRANGEMENT.—Long and short lines: wide spacing. [p414]
THE LETTERS combine extreme gracefulness with an unusual appearance
of strength. This is mainly due to the ends of _all_ the strokes
being finished; the thick strokes have large, triangular heads (p.
327) on the left, and bases broadened by an additional stroke below
on the right (thus @). And the horizontal thin strokes are either
finished with a triangular terminal (p. 246), or run on into the next
letter—_joining the letters together_.
The extreme _roundness_ of the letters is contributed to by their
being written between DOUBLE LINES (pp. 304, 88), the upper line of
which tends to flatten the tops.
The pen not being quite “straight” (see _footnote_, p. 304),
together with a tendency to _pull_ the left hand curves, gives a
characteristic shape to the letters @. @. @. @. @. @.
THE ILLUMINATION throughout the book is most elaborate and beautiful.
Each division has an entire Initial page occupied with the first
few letters. The COLOURS were “_paled green_, _red_, _violet_,
_and yellow_, _intense black_, _and white_, _but no gold_”: see
description of Celtic MSS., p. 40, Bradley’s “Illuminated Letters and
Borders,” and also the Palæographical Society’s 1st Series, Vol. II.,
Pl. 55–58, 88, 89.
This notable book may be taken as an example of the marvellous
possibilities of pen-work and complex colour-work (see p. 216).
In considering the value of the writing as a model, it may be noted
that its highly finished nature demands practised skill on the part
of the copyist, and that though modern _Irish writing_ (for which it
would be an excellent model) still employs @. @. @. @. @. @. @. these
letters would be apt to look peculiar in English. The Kells MS. @.
@. @. @. @. @. @. @. @. @. @. @. however, might be used, and a very
beautiful ornamental hand (p. 304) might be founded on this writing.
[p415]
_PLATE VII.—Half-Uncial (English), circa 700_ ‹A.D.› _“Durham Book”
(Latin Gospels). Brit. Mus., Cotton MSS. Nero D. IV._
THE VOLUME contains 258 leaves (13-1/2 inches by 9-7/8 inches).
THE WRITING is an English—or rather _Anglo-Irish_—Half-Uncial,
written at Lindisfarne (_Holy I._) under Irish influence (p. 40).
ARRANGEMENT—two columns of 24 lines—long and short—to the page (note
how «eis» is got into the fifth line): wide spacing.
The writing bears a strong resemblance to that of the “Book of
Kells,” but is generally much plainer; it is also less graceful,
being _heavier_ and _wider_ in proportion. The “Book of Kells” O is
a _circle_, while the “Durham Book” O is considerably wider than
its height, and all the other letters are correspondingly wide. The
RULING in both books consists of double lines, ruled with a hard
point _on both sides of each leaf_.
THE ILLUMINATION also resembles that of the “Book of Kells” (see
_opposite_), but a small amount of _gold_ is employed in it. (See
also Palæographical Society’s 1st Series, Vol. II., Pl. 3–6, 22.)
‹Note.›—The “Gloss,” or interlinear translation, is in the
Northumbrian dialect, and was put in in the tenth century, more than
200 years after the book was written.
A hand founded to some extent on the “Durham Book” hand is given in
Chap. IV. as an easy copy: see figs. 49, 50.
_PLATE VIII.—English Tenth-century Writing. (Psalter). Brit. Mus.,
Harl. MS. 2904._ (_See enlargement, fig. 172_). (Shown B. M.
Grenville Lib. Case 2, No. 9.)
THE VOLUME contains 214 leaves (13-1/4 inches by 10 inches), 18 lines
to the page; probably written at Winchester in late tenth century.
(_Pl. reduced scale 8/9ths._)
WRITING.—An extremely good, formal, “slanted-pen” writing, having
great freedom (note the very slight [p416] slope forward) and
simplicity. This type of letter may be regarded as a link between the
Half-Uncial and the Roman Small-Letter (see p. 310).
THE RULING: _single_ lines (see _footnote_, p. 305).
THE LETTERS show very strongly the effects of the “slanted pen” (see
pp. 43, 305). Note the heavy shoulders and feet in «n», «b», &c., and
the thick horizontals in @@. The curved tops or _arches_ are flattish
and strong: the thick strokes end in points and are hooked below,
thin strokes scarcely appear except as the _finishing strokes_ of
«a», «c», «e», «l», @, while «d», («h»), «i», «m», «n», «u» end in
small heavy _hooks_. Note generally the tendency to _internal angles_
and _external roundness_ (examples, @ and «o»).
Note particularly the junctions and accidental crossings of the
strokes (seen best in the enlargement, fig. 172) as bearing on the
mode of construction of the letters (see p. 84).
Note the fine shape of the _amperzand_ («&»: 3rd line).
THE ILLUMINATION (see _Characteristics of Winchester Illumination,
or “Opus Anglicum,”_ pp. 82, 83, Bradley: “Illuminated Letters and
Borders”). _All_ the CAPITALS beginning the verses are in raised,
burnished gold, in the margin. The titles are in _red_ in fancy
“Rustic Capitals” (p. 297). The Line-Fillings consist of groups of
red dots, in threes (@ @ @).
This extremely legible MS. would form an almost perfect model for
a modern formal hand («s» being substituted for long «ſ», and the
straight «t» for the curved @ (see fig. 183): the removal of the «e»
_flourish_ would also help readableness). And though it is somewhat
large and heavy for ordinary use, it is good for practising, and
might be developed into a form resembling any of the more difficult
later forms (Plates IX., X., XX.).
_PLATE IX.—English Writing, dated 1018. Two portions of a Charter
of CNUT. Brit. Museum._ (_See also enlargement, fig._ 173.) [_Pl.
reduced scale_ 11/12_ths._]
(Shown in Brit. Mus., Department of MSS., Case V., No. 3.)
THE WRITING resembles that in Plate VIII. [p417] (see above), but
is more slender and rounder—the pen being a little less slanted, and
the _arches_ more curved, and showing more of the _thin_ stroke. The
ascenders and descenders are longer, the heads are more marked, and
there is a general elegance and distinction, due perhaps to the MS.
being a charter. Charter-hands are generally more showy and less
legible than Book-hands, but in this hand there is great legibility,
and a very few changes (similar to those suggested above) would
make it quite suitable for modern use. Its relation to the Roman
Small-Letter is obvious.
‹Notes.›—The (black) @ «V» and «u» were probably built-up with the
writing pen.
The forms of «a», «e», «g», («h»), «r», may be noted as differing
considerably from the tenth-century hand.
The combined «ra» (in the 4th line) is curious; and the «r» in
_Anglorum_—this «r» (which represents the Bow and Tail of R) commonly
follows the round letters «b», «o», «p», in “Gothic” writing: there
is another curious form in the linked «rt» in _cartula_ (last line).
The word CNUT and several other names are in ornamental “Rustic”
Capitals (see p. 297).
The two lines of English from another part of the charter have very
long stems and ornamental serifs, giving a very decorative effect
(see _footnote_, p. 326).
_PLATE X.—Italian (first half of) Twelfth-century Writing. (Homilies
and Lessons). Brit. Mus., Harl. MS. 7183._ (_See also enlargement,
fig. 174._)
(Shown in Brit. Mus., Department of MSS., Case C [lower part], No.
101.)
THE VOLUME.—Homilies and Lessons for Sundays and Festivals from
Advent to Easter Eve—contains 317 leaves (approximately 21-1/2 inches
by 15 inches); two columns, each of 50 lines, to the page. The
MARGINS are, approximately, _Inner_ 1-1/4 inch, _Head_ [p418] 1-1/4
inch, _Side_ 3-1/4 inches, _Foot_ 4-1/4 inches (_between columns_
1-1/8 inch: see Plate). The portion of a page, shown in Plate X.,
consists of the last eleven lines, second column, of folio 78.
WRITING.—This has all the qualities of good writing (p. 239) in a
marked degree, and I consider it, taken all round, the most perfect
and satisfactory penmanship which I have seen.
Its simplicity and distinctiveness are very marked, so also are
its character and freedom. There is an almost entire absence of
artificial finish—the terminals are natural hooks, beaks and “feet”
made with a fine sleight of hand (p. 311)—and its very great beauty
of form is the natural outcome of good traditions and eminently
satisfactory craftsmanship.
‹Notes.›—The letters are very wide, and the _inside shapes_ differ
considerably from those of the tenth-century MS. (above)—with which,
however, there is a considerable affinity (see p. 416).
The «f» is longer than the «ſ», the «g» has a very fine form with a
_closed_ loop, the «r» is sharpened, the «t» _straight_.
Small (Uncial) CAPITALS «um» follow the Versal; the serifs on the
S and E are made with dexterous movements of the nib (p. 246),
and resemble those on the Versal C. V and U are both used for the
consonant (V).
There are very few VERSALS in this book: the C shown is in red (which
has been smudged).
The large “ILLUMINATED INITIALS” in the book are in yellow, blue, and
red, and appear to me to be comparatively poor, at least, to fall
short of the perfection of the MS.
Of this writing, Sir Edward Maunde Thompson (“Greek and Latin
Palæography,” pp. 271–2) says:—
“The sense of grace of form which we perceive in the Lombardic
writing of Italy is maintained in that country in the later writing
of the new minuscule type, which assumes under the pens of the most
expert Italian scribes a very beautiful and round even style. This
style, though peculiarly Italian, extended [p419] its influence
abroad, especially to the south of France, and became the model
of Spanish writing at a later time. We select a specimen from
a very handsome MS. of Homilies of the first half of the 12th
century (_Pal. Soc._ ii. pl. 55), written in bold letters of the
best type, to which we shall find the scribes of the fifteenth
century reverting in order to obtain a model for their MSS. of the
Renaissance. The exactness with which the writing is here executed
is truly marvellous, and was only rivalled, not surpassed, by the
finished handiwork of its later imitators.
“It will of course be understood that this was not the only style
of hand that prevailed in Italy. Others of a much rougher cast were
also employed. But as a typical book-hand, which was the parent of
the hands in which the greater proportion of carefully written MSS.
of succeeding periods were written in Italy, it is to be specially
noticed.”
(P. 284)—“we give a specimen of a hand of the Italian Renaissance, a
revival of the style of the eleventh or twelfth century, and a very
successful imitation of a MS. of that period. It was this practice,
followed by the scribes of the Renaissance, of reverting to that
fine period of Italian writing (see p. 272) to find models for the
exquisitely finished MSS. which they were compelled to produce in
order to satisfy the refined taste of their day, that influenced the
early printers of Italy in the choice of their form of type.”^*
(P. 285)—“in the comparatively small number of extant literary
MSS. of a later date than the close of the [fifteenth] century
it is noticeable that a large proportion of them are written in
the style of the book-hand of the Italian Renaissance—the style
which eventually superseded all others in the printing press. The
scribes of these late examples only followed the taste of the day in
preferring those clear and simple characters to the rough letters of
the native hands.”
――――――――――――――――――――
* The specimen hand given is of date 1466. Plate XVIII. may here be
taken as an example of the Renaissance revival; Plate XX. and fig.
175 as examples of later MSS.
_PLATE XI.—English (late) Twelfth-century Writing, with flourished
Capitals. (Breviary). Brit. Mus., Royal MS. 2. A. x._
(Shown in Brit. Mus., Department of MSS., Case D, No. 111.)
THE VOLUME—sometimes called the St. Albans or _Albanus_
Psalter—contains 200 leaves (6-7/8 inches by [p420] 4-7/8 inches);
twenty-seven lines to the page, some pages have two columns. MARGINS,
approximately, _Inner_ 5/8 inch, _Head_ under 1/2 inch (see Plate),
_Side_ 1-1/4 inch (part occupied by Versals), _Foot_ 1-1/8 inch.
THE WRITING is fairly legible, but approaches Black Letter (p.
331) too nearly to be of use to us for ordinary purposes. Note the
ornamental Semi-Rustic Capitals in text. Note the RULING of the two
head lines and of the foot line is carried into the margin.
THE VERSALS.—The main interest lies in the varied forms of the
Versals, which are most beautifully made in _red_ and _green_
alternately. There is one elaborate _gold_ initial in the book, and
several Versals in blue and white (_hollow_: see p. 208).
The five @’s—and the «D» in the text—on this page (folio 85b) by no
means exhaust the varieties of «D» alone, and there are very many
varieties of the forms of the other letters. On some pages each line
begins with a small Versal, while the more important Initials are
much larger, varying in size and ornament.