Parwáta several mountains together.
Turángga a steed, horse.
Giri mountain or great hill.
Réksi or resi a pandita, or holy or learned man.
Aksa buffaloe.
Baksu bull or cow.
Mandála a mountain which is rent or split.
Chála a mountain which shows its shape, &c. clearly.
Hemáwan the summit of a mountain.
Gúra cow, great noise.
Sapta seven.
Pandita a holy man.
Géngsiára the buzzing noise of flying insects.
Yamúni the sound of a lover courting his mistress.
Kúda horse.
Wiku an instructor.
Pitu seven.
EIGHT.
Nága serpent
Panágan the dwelling of a snake, the skin which a snake has
shed.
Sarira guana.
Básu tekké.
Tánu camelion.
Múrti lizard.
Kunjára place of confinement, prison.
Gájah elephant.
Dipángga an elephant fully caparisoned.
Samádia an elephant prepared for being mounted.
Hasta elephant.
Mang'gála an elephant with his tusks grown.
Diráda an enraged or savage elephant.
Hesti female elephant.
Matáng'ga a large elephant.
Bramána a pandita from Sabrang or opposite coast.
Liman a tame elephant.
Kála time.
Was, áwas a scorpion.
Ula a snake.
NINE.
Rudra a muddy hole.
Trústra the hollow of a tube, a hollow in any thing.
Trústi the same.
Múka the face, the mouth.
Gapúra the gate or door-way of a palace.
Wiwára a door-way, the opening of a case.
Diára the gateway of a fort.
Drúna door-way into a holy place, or place of misfortune.
Yútu the eye of a needle, or the like.
Gátra a small hole or cell in the earth, made by insects.
Gua a cave.
Wadána the front of a door.
Léng all kinds of holes or hollow places.
Láwang doors of every description.
Sóng a long passage underground.
Babáhan the hole made for the entrance of a thief.
Náwa nine.
CYPHER.
Búma decayed grass, dried grass, hay.
Súnya solitude, quiet.
Gegána endless space, as between the earth and the sky,
indefinite space.
Ng'ambára flight.
Widik widik that which is seen or heard but not known, as
thunder.
Malétik to fly off, drop off, anything small which is
knocked off from what is greater.
Sirna gone, vanished.
Lang'it that of which one has an idea but cannot see
clearly, as the sky.
Kásia the air, atmosphere.
Maláyewa to run off.
Windu the period of revolving, a cycle.
Sakáta a carriage.
Ilang gone, lost, past.
* * * * *
EXAMPLE.
Búma, netra, gni, bányu, marúta,
Earth, eyes, fire, water, air,
1 2 3 4 5
sadrása, ardi, nága, láwang, lang'it.
taste, hill, snake, doors, sky.
6 7 8 9 0
APPENDIX H.
TRANSLATION OF THE MÁNEK MÁYA.
CHAPTER I.
Before the heavens and earth were created, there existed _Sang yang
Wisésa_ (the all-powerful). This deity, remaining in the centre of the
universe, inwardly and earnestly desired of the Almighty Ruler to grant
a wish that he had. A dreadful conflict of the elements ensued, in the
midst of which he heard a repetition of sounds, like the rapid striking
of a bell. On looking up he saw a ball suspended over him, and on his
laying hold of it, it separated into three parts: one part became the
heavens and earth, another became the sun and moon, and the third was
man, or _mánek máya_.
All having made obeisance to the _Sang yang Wisésa_, he addressed
himself to _Mánek máya_, and said, "Hereafter thou shalt be called
_Sang yang Gúru_; and placing entire confidence in thee, I give up
the earth and all that is attached to it, to be used and disposed of
according to thy will and pleasure." Having spoken thus, _Sang yang
Wisésa_ vanished.
The earth being in great distress, unfixed and liable to be driven
to and fro by every gust of wind, anxiously petitioned of _Sang yang
Wisésa_ that its situation and condition in the universe might be
fixed. The sun, moon, and sky, deeply affected with the distress in
which the earth was, all came to lend their assistance; a violent
hurricane at the same time arose, and, by their united influence, the
earth became still and fixed, the contending waters then receiving
their saltness and disposition to turbulence. The continual presence
of the sun and moon occasioned perpetual day. _Sang yang Gúru_,
empowered by the deity, then directed that those two luminaries should
show themselves alternately, relieving each other by turns; the sun
dispensing light and heat during the day, and at the close thereof
entering into the bosom of fire; the moon continuing to light the earth
by night, for fifteen days in a month, and descending in due season
into the bosom of the waters.
At the request of _Sang yang Gúru_, the deity granted that he should
have nine male and five female children born unto him, without the
assistance of a mother.
One of the sons, called _Mahadéwa_, being furnished with one of the
daughters, called _Mahadéwi_, as a wife, was sent to preside in the
east. He was, moreover, provided with a fort and palace of silver, a
sea of cocoa-nut milk, and a white _pári_ bird. His letters were _ha_,
_na_, _cha_, _ra_, and _ka_, (the five first letters of the Javan
alphabet), and his day, _légi_ (which signifies sweet).
The second son, _Sang yang Sámbu_, was sent to preside in the south:
the daughter allotted to him for a consort was _Sangyána_. His _kráton_
was of copper; his bird was a _bhramána_ kite; his sea was of blood;
his letters were _da_, _ta_, _sa_, _wa_, and _la_; his day _páhing_.
The third son, _Sang yang Kamajáya_ (the most beautiful), was sent to
preside in the west: the daughter allotted to him for a wife was _Dewi
Ratéh_ (which signifies the most beautiful female). His _kráton_ was of
gold; his sea was of honey; his bird was a _kapádong_, or yellow minor;
his letters were _pa_, _da_, _ja_, _ya_, and _nia_; his day was _pon_.
The fourth son, _Sang yang Wísnu_, was sent to preside in the north:
the daughter allotted to him for a wife was _Sri_. His day was _wágé_;
his _kráton_ was of iron; his sea was indigo; his bird was _gága_, or
crow; his letters were _ma_, _ga_, _ba_, _ta_, and _nga_.
The fifth son, _Sang yang Báyu_, was appointed to preside over the
centre of the earth: the daughter allotted for his wife was _Dewi
Súmi_. His _kráton_ was of bell-metal; his day was _klíwon_; his
letters were _ga_, _lang_, _nia_, _ma_, _ma_, _la_, _pa_, _ya_, and
_a_; his sea was of hot water; his bird was a _gogek_.
The four remaining sons were appointed to preside in the north-east,
north-west, south-west, and south-east quarters, respectively.
The god of the north-east was _Sang yang Pretanjála_, and the letter
attached to him was named _b'ya_.
The god of the south-east was _Sang yang Kwéra_, and the letter
attached to him was named _narasúnya_.
The god of the south-west was _Sang yang Mahayákti_, and the letter
attached to him was named _gandéa_.
The god of the north-west was _Sang yang Séwa_, and the letter attached
to him was named _norwíti_.
These arrangements being made, _Sang yang Gúru_ went under the earth to
put things to rights there. The earth consisted of seven regions, one
under the other, like so many folds. In the first region he appointed
the goddess _Déwi Pratiwi_ to preside; in the second region, a god
named _Sang yang Kusíka_; in the third region, a god named _Sang yang
Gáng'ga_; in the fourth region, a god named _Sang yang Sindúla_; in the
fifth, _Sang yang Dasampálan_; in the sixth, a god named _Sang yang
Manihára_; in the seventh region, a god named _Sang yang Anta Boga_,
and who was head over all the others.
Then _Sang yang Gúru_ returning from under the earth, and observing
that it was depressed towards the west, and elevated towards the east,
summoned all the deities to a consultation respecting what might be
the cause of this inclination. The deity of the west said that it was
in consequence of a large mountain that was towards the west, and
whose weight bore down the earth in that quarter. _Sang yang Gúru_
then directed that the mountain should be removed from the west and
placed in the east, so as to preserve the earth in due balance. All the
deities were accordingly forthwith dispatched to effect the same.
_Sang yang Gúru_, at the same time, got _Sang yang Wisésa_ to create
him a Vulcan or _Empu_, whose name was _Ramádi_. Of this Vulcan,
his mouth served to supply fire, his right and left hands served
respectively to hold and beat his work, while his knee answered the
purpose of an anvil.
CHAPTER II.
Besides _Sang yang Gúru_, _Sang yang Wisésa_ created another degree
of mankind, viz.: _Sang yang Derma Jáka_, who, having humbled himself
before _Wisésa_, petitioned him to bestow on him a son, which was
granted, and his son's name was _Chátur Kanáka_.
_Chátur Kanáka_ having previously done penance, petitioned _Wisésa_
to grant him a son, which he did, and his son's name was _Sang yang
Kanekapútra_. This _Kanekapútra_, who was superior in abilities to
all the other created beings, being grown up, was sent by his father
to do penance in the ocean, who gave him at the same time a precious
stone, called _rétna dumíla_, fraught with the wonderful power of
rendering its possessor insensible to hunger, cold, thirst, &c. and
which completely fortified him against the effects of water, fire, &c.
_Chátur Kanáka_ also instructed his son to remain quiet and silent
during his penance.
CHAPTER III.
The deities who were sent to remove the heavy mountain which weighed
down the west end of the earth, were so fatigued with the labour
it cost them, that they were all very thirsty. In looking out for
wherewithal to quench their thirst, they discovered issuing from the
side of the mountain a clear stream, of which they all drank and died
shortly after, the water being impregnated with poison.
_Sang yang Gúru_ himself having come to the mountain, and being also
very thirsty, drank from the poisonous stream: perceiving, however,
in time that the water was not good, he immediately vomited it, and
so saved his life. The only bad effects of it was a blackness which
remained about his throat, and from which he received the appellation
of _Níla Kánta_. The water was called _chála kúta_, which signifies the
most potent poison.
On a further search, _Sang yang Gúru_ discovered another stream issuing
from the summit of the mountain, and of which the water was of an
aromatic and excellent quality. The name of this water was _kamandálu_,
and was so called from its having the property of bringing the dead to
life.
Instructed by _Wisésa_, _Sang yang Gúru_ drank of the life-giving
water, and at the same time carried with him some of it, in order to
give it to those deities who had died in consequence of their having
drunk of the death-giving stream. On the water being applied to their
lips they all immediately revived.
What remained of the mountain on removing it from the west to the east
formed the hill called _Tempaka_ (at _Chiríngin_, in Bantam).
In the course of the conveyance of the mountain towards the east, a
piece of it dropt off, and became the large mountain in Bantam, called
_Gúnung Kárang_. Other pieces falling off became the mountains _Hala
Húlu_, near _Pajajáran_, _Gúnung Géde_, the mountain called _Chermái_
(which is in _Cheríbon_), and the _Gúnung Agung_, (which is in _Tegál_).
The fragments which continued to fall all the way along, on either side
of the large mountain, during its conveyance from the west to the east,
formed the two ranges of hills stretching along the south and north
coasts, and known by the name of _Gúnung Kéndang_.
Two large pieces fell off and formed the Brothers, called _Sindóro_
and _Sindári_, or _Súmbing_. The deities employed in transporting
the mountain stopped to rest themselves in that part of the country
afterwards known by the name of _Kedú_; and the perspiration which
then ran off their bodies was the cause of that country being so well
supplied with water.
These deities seeing _Ramádi_ above in the clouds, at his ease compared
with them who were working so hard, asked how he came to be there so
much at his ease? He replied, that he was ordered by _Sang yang Gúru_
to remain there and work for the gods. High words, and at last a
battle, ensued, in which all the deities were defeated. So great was
the power of _Ramádi_, whose mouth sent forth flame, and whose breath
was fatal to those exposed to its baneful influence.
_Sang yang Gúru_ interposed his authority, and having appeased the
combatants, the deities returned to the work of carrying the mountain.
More pieces of the mountain dropped, and formed the mountains _Merápi_
and _Merbábu_, into which the volcanic fire they have ever since
contained was then breathed from the nostrils of the fiery Vulcan
_Ramádi_.
_Ramádi_ then asked _Wisésa_ to give him a son, which was granted, and
his son's name was _Bráma Kadáli_. _Bráma Kadáli_ resembled his father
in every respect, and was equally powerful and formidable.
Other pieces of the mountain dropt, and formed the mountains _Láwu_,
_Wílis_, _Antang_, and _Klut_, besides a number of small hills. What
remained of the mountain when it had reached the east, was set down
and formed the _Gúnung Semíru_ (which is in the country now called
_Proboling'go_), the height of which reached the sky.
Having removed the mountain from the west to the east end of the
island, the several deities presented themselves before _Sang yang
Gúru_, who then ordered them to take _téja_-grained wood, earth, and
stones, for the purpose of making him a heaven of the most transcendant
beauty, it being his intention to vie with the Almighty himself; and in
order that he might be on an equality with the Almighty, he gave orders
for the construction of a _báli márchu kúnda_, which should resemble
the _âras_ of the most divine; and like unto the _Súrga Púrdos_ he
made the _Surga Loka_. To resemble the _Yamáni_ he formed a _káwah_;
corresponding to the _Wailul_, or hell of perishing cold, he made
_Endut Blagdába_, or the place of filth; similar to the bridge _Seratal
mastakim_ he made the bridge _Ogalágil_. He at the same time made
himself as many _jawátas_ as the Almighty himself had _malaikat_ (or
male angels), also 100,001 _widadáris_ (or female angels), the odd one
being _Batárī Ráteh_. _Sang yang Gúru_ further provided himself with a
consort, whose name was _Batári Uma_.
All this having been accomplished, the _Jawátas_ and _Widadáris_
assembled under the _báli márchu kúndo_, and began to drink of the
_térta komandálu_, or invigorating beverage, which soon made them quite
happy.
While they were still quaffing, _Rémbu Chúlung_, one of the _Rasáksa_
(who are the dregs of creation) having observed them, descended
from above and joined the party. When one of the _Jawátas_, called
_Chándra_, perceived this, he made a motion to _Wísnu_ to apprize him
of it. Before therefore the beverage, which the _rasáksa_ had applied
to his lips, had time to descend into his stomach, _Wísnu_ shot an
arrow into his throat and stopped his passage. The head only of the
_Rasáksa_ (being all that experienced the effects of its immortalizing
quality) re-ascended, and became the devourer of the sun and moon
(observable at eclipses); the whole of the rest of the body perished.
Hence originates the great noise and clamour which is always made on an
eclipse of the sun or moon, the object of those who make it being to
drive away the animal which on those occasions attacks the luminaries,
and thereby produces what are termed eclipses. * * *
(The scene which follows is too indelicate to be inserted).
_Sang yang Gúru_ immediately dispatched all the deities to destroy it,
and to prevent its growing into any thing gross or unnatural.
The deities accordingly went forth and commenced their attack, darting
all their missile weapons at it. Instead, however, of suffering from
the effects of their weapons, it only increased in size, and forthwith
began to assume a shape, of which the weapons called _cháhra deksána_
formed the head, those called _lampang mang'gala_ formed the two
shoulders, and those called _gáda_ the rest of the body. The former
being now complete, and of a very terrific appearance, all the deities
were greatly afraid and ran away from _Sang yang Kála_, the name of
the monster, as it continued to pursue them. The deities fled to _Sang
yang Gúru_ for protection and assistance, informing him of what had
happened, and telling him, at the same time, that the _Sang yang Kála_
was advancing in order to inquire and find out who was his father.
The _Rasáksa_ immediately made his appearance, having eyes like the
blazing sun, hair long, lank, and clotted with filth and dirt, his body
covered all over with hair like a wild beast, and large tusks sticking
out of his jaws.
Thus disfigured, he stood before _Sang yang Gúru_, and asked him who
he was? The latter replied, that he was a powerful being and the ruler
of many deities. "If that be the case," said _Sang yang Kála_, "then
must thou be able to tell me who my father was?" _Gúru_ then said, "I
know thy father, and will inform thee who and where he is, provided you
comply with what I shall require of thee."
_Sang yang Kála_ assented, and then inquired what it was that _Gúru_
wished him to do. "That," said _Gúru_, "I will point out to you, and
if you fail to do it, I will instantly devour you. You must, in the
first place, however, make obeisance to me." While the _Rasáksa_ was in
the act of prostrating himself before _Gúru_, the latter plucked two
hairs from his head: upon which the former opening wide his mouth,
_Gúru_ thrust his hand into it, and wrenched out his tusks and the
poison which was at their roots. The poison he deposited in a small
vessel, and of the tusks he formed two weapons, called _limpung_ and
_neng'gála_, so heavy that it required seven hundred men to lift one of
them.
* * * * *
_Sang yang Gúru_ then confirmed to the _Rasáksa_ the name of _Sang
yang Kála_: after which, becoming greatly enraged with his consort,
he seized and held her by the toe, upon which she began to bellow,
and was immediately transformed into a female monster, receiving the
name of _Dúrga_. He then gave her to _Sang yang Kála_ for a consort,
and allotted them for a place of residence the island called _Núsa
Kambángan_, where they continued to live very happily.
_Sang yang Gúru_ then ordered the deities, _Bráma_ and _Wísnu_, to go
and destroy the forty children of _Rémbu Chúlung_, the devourer of the
sun and moon. They accordingly destroyed all the children except one,
named _Putút Jantáka_, whose severe penance alone saved him.
After this _Gúru_ saw in his sleep an appearance like a rainbow, and
which seemed to be portentous of some great event. _Sang yang Támban_
being sent by _Gúru_ to make inquiries respecting the nature and
meaning of this sign, which, from its being in the water, he termed
_súba síta_, _Támban_ went under the water, and saw there a devotee,
who, notwithstanding his situation, was quite unwet from the water, and
undergoing the penance of remaining perfectly still and quiet.
_Gúru_ being informed of this, and feeling jealous of what the devotee
might gain by his penance, became very desirous of causing him to break
his vow: he accordingly sent a number of _Dewátas_ and _Widadáris_ to
tempt the hermit. On their reaching the spot where the latter was,
they were not asked to sit down, and were completely disregarded by
the hermit. _Bráma_, who was one of those sent, then observed to the
hermit, that such haughty and neglectful conduct was highly unbecoming,
and that if it proceeded from ignorance, on his part, of the rank of
the persons sent to him, he begged to inform him that they were the
messengers of the Great Deity, and ought to be attended to.
These words making no kind of impression on the hermit, who continued
obdurately silent, the deity, _Sang yang Séwa_, then advanced, and
addressing himself to the hermit, spoke thus: "Holy hermit, be not
offended with what _Bráma_ has just said to thee. I come not to disturb
or annoy you, but merely to apply to you for the means of curing the
sickness of _Batári Uma_, who has been taken very ill." Neither this,
nor any other of the devices which the rest of the deities successively
had recourse to, succeeded in making the hermit break his silence. The
deities, however, being determined to do all in their power to make the
hermit break his vow of uninterrupted silence, _Sang yang Sámbu_ took
a vessel of water and emptied it upon him, while others, at the same
time, began to belabour him with sticks. Notwithstanding all this, the
hermit persevered unshaken in his resolution of maintaining a dead
silence. Seeing this, _Sang yang Báyu_ came up and began to batter his
head with stones, which, instead of doing any injury to that usually
tender part, were only broken themselves into many pieces. _Bráma_ had
then recourse to fire, which he heaped about the hermit, so that he
was, for a considerable time, entirely concealed from the view, by the
vast flames thereof, and supposed to be completely destroyed. When the
fire had done burning, however, the hermit was observed to continue in
the same situation as before, uninjured by the destructive element,
and, like gold, only the more pure and beautiful.
Astonished and exasperated at all this, the deities then began to
assail the hermit with all their various weapons, viz. 1. _chákra_; 2.
_kónta_; 3. _hardadáli_; 4. _neng'gála_; 5. _parátu_; 6. _límpung_;
7. _pasopáti_, and 8. _trisúla_. The body of the hermit proved
invulnerable. The deities then, quite confounded and ashamed of their
failure, returned to _Gúru_, and informed him of all that had been done.
_Sang yang Gúru_ then went himself to the hermit, and asked him what it
was he wished to obtain by his penance, telling him at the same time,
that if he was desirous of having beautiful and accomplished virgins,
he had plenty at his service. Receiving no reply, _Sang yang Gúru_ then
said to him, "I know what the object of this penance is, and I should
possess very limited power if I did not know every wish of thy heart.
Thou art ambitious of supplanting me in the power and rule which I hold
in heaven; but thou deceivest thyself. Wert thou to do penance for one
thousand years, while I should continue to enjoy myself in a series
of uninterrupted pleasures, thou wouldst never be able to come near
to me in power or glory; for after _Téja_ or _Cháya_ (which signifies
light or brightness), _Búmi_ (the earth), and _Lángit_ (the sky), I
stand the next eldest work of creation; and the power superior to these
just mentioned is _Sang yang Wisésa_, who is the oldest and greatest
of all." Upon this the hermit could contain himself no longer, but,
bursting into laughter, said, "Thou art wrong, and what thou hast said
of _Sang yang Wisésa_, is true of the Almighty himself only, whose
displeasure thou hast consequently incurred by what thou hast just
stated. Know that I am _Sang yang Kanekapútra_; and to prove to thee
that I know better than to believe what thou hast said of _Sang yang
Wisésa_, I would only ask thee who could have been the cause of those
sounds which were heard by _Wisésa_ before the heavens and earth were.
Without doubt they were occasioned by a power older and greater than
him."
On this _Gúru_ was silenced, and had not a word to say. He then
entreated _Kanekapútra_ to tell him who this eldest and most powerful
being was, proposing, at the same time, that he should go with him, and
become joint ruler over the deities in heaven. "These sounds," answered
_Sang yang Kanekapútra_, "were the voice of the Almighty, signifying
his will that there should be created things of an opposite nature to
each other, as male and female, above and below, father and mother,
beautiful and ugly, &c. &c.--every thing created having its opposite,
except thee and me, who are one and the same."
_Sang yang Kanekapútra_ and _Sang yang Gúru_ then ascended to heaven,
and seated themselves on the _Báli márchu kúnda_. After they had
remained there for some time, _Sang yang Gúru_ perceiving a case
belonging to _Sang yang Kanekapútra_, to remain constantly shut,
inquired of him the cause thereof, and was told by him that it
contained the most precious of all precious stones, which had the
wonderful power of making the possessor of it feel neither hunger,
cold, nor thirst, &c. and which fortified him against the effects of
water, fire, &c.
When _Sang yang Gúru_ heard this, he requested to have the stone; but
_Kanekapútra_ told him it was of so subtile a nature, that it would
pass through the hands of innumerable people, and would never remain
with any one but him destined to be the possessor of it. _Sang yang
Gúru_ asked _Kanekapútra_ to part with the stone, and give all the
other deities an opportunity of getting it, provided it should not
remain with him. _Kanekapútra_ then threw up the precious stone, and
_Gúru_ caught hold of it. It not only passed through his hands, but
also through the hands of all the deities who successively caught and
attempted to retain it. The precious stone then falling down upon the
first region of the earth, where presides the deity _Pratiwi_, dropped
successively through all the others, without the presiding deities
_Bagáwan Kusíka_, _Sang yang Gáng'ga_, _Sindúla_, _Drampólan_, and
_Manik Kóga_, being able to retain hold of it, till, coming to the
last region, _Anta Bógo_, the presiding deity, who was in shape like a
dragon, opened his mouth and swallowed it.
_Sang yang Gúru_ then asked _Sang yang Kanekapútra_ what he should do
to become possessed of the precious stone? _Kanekapútra_ replied, he
must go and search for it as far as even the seventh region of the
earth. _Sang yang Gúru_ approved of this, but at the same time wished
that _Kanekapútra_ should go himself, accompanied by all the deities.
_Kanekapútra_ accordingly set off, and on his arrival at the different
regions, was successively told by the presiding deities, that the
_retna dumíla_ had slipt through their hands, and had passed down
into the seventh and lowest region. When he came there, he and all
the deities who accompanied him, were kindly received by _Anta Bógo_.
_Kanekapútra_ then told _Anta Bógo_ that _Gúru_ was desirous of having
the precious stone, and would be greatly obliged by his giving it up to
him. _Anta Bógo_ declined compliance, and immediately his body became
extended so as to encircle the whole of his region. It is further
reported that he had ninety nostrils. _Kanekapútra_ perceiving that
_Anta Bógo_ was making a display of the power he possessed, gave orders
for all the deities to enter his body by his various nostrils, and to
make search for the vessel called _chúpu mánek astagíni_, in which the
_rétna dumíla_ was deposited.
* * * * *
_Wisésa_ seeing what had taken place, reprimanded the parties concerned
for their folly and mistake, and at the same time ordered that they
should all forthwith depart out of the body of _Anta Bógo_. He next
desired that the body of _Anta Bógo_ should be carried away by the
deities, in the same manner in which they had formerly carried the
mountain. On their way with it to _Sang yang Gúru_, the body decreased
gradually in size, till it vanished entirely.
_Kanekapútra_ was highly incensed against _Anta Bógo_ for his provoking
conduct, and was just going to complain of it to _Sang yang Gúru_,
when, to his surprise, he perceived _Anta Bógo_ himself under the seat
of _Sang yang Gúru_.
_Sang yang Gúru_ seeing _Kanekapútra's_ displeasure increase, he
requested he would not be offended with _Anta Bógo_, as his conduct
was merely intended for a little merriment. _Sang yang Gúru_ then
desired _Anta Bógo_ to deliver up the _chúpu mánek astagína_, which he
accordingly did.
_Sang yang Gúru_ not being able himself to open the _chúpu_, handed it
over to _Kanekapútra_; but neither he nor any of the other deities,
who successively attempted to open it, could succeed. _Anta Bógo_ was
then applied to: but he said, that so long as he had had the _chúpu_,
it opened and shut of itself, without his knowing how. Holding up the
_chúpu_, _Sang yang Gúru_ then threw it down with great violence; upon
which it broke in pieces, and vanished from the sight. The _chúpu_
and the _rétna dumíla_ which it contained then became, the former a
_Báli simarakáta_, the latter a virgin, to whom _Sang yang Gúru_ gave
the name of _Tesna-Wáti_, and who continued to remain in the _Báli
símarakáta_ till she grew up. _Sang yang Gúru_ afterwards taking a
fancy to this virgin, wished to make her his wife. She consented, on
condition of his giving her such proof as she required of his divinity
and power, and that was by his supplying her with three things, viz.:
1. A suit of elegant apparel, which would last her for ever without
being in the least tarnished; 2. A meal which would cause her never to
feel hunger more; 3. A musical instrument called _gatóplak_, of the
most melodious sound. All these _Sang yang Gúru_ promised to get for
her on her agreeing to prove faithful to him.
In furtherance of his intentions, he ordered the deity _Chítra lága_
to go to _Núsa Kambángan_ and call _Sang yang Kála_. When _Sang yang
Kála_ came, _Sang yang Gúru_ desired him to bring his son, called _Kála
Gamárang_, in order that he might dispatch him in search of the three
things required by the virgin, _Tesna Wáti_.
To induce _Kála Gamárang_ to exert himself in procuring them, _Sang
yang Gúru_ told him, that if he should be successful, he would be
rewarded by the privilege of coming to heaven whenever he chose,
without molestation from the other deities.
_Kála Gamárang_ then took leave, bellowing and making a great noise,
so as to alarm and bring out all the deities, whom, as they stood in
his way, he insulted and disgraced by striking some, and spitting in
the faces of and treading upon others. Highly indignant at such base
treatment, the deities, one and all, pronounced a curse upon him, that
he should never be allowed to defile heaven with his presence, and that
he should be transformed into a wild beast.
_Kála Gamárang_ then proceeded to a place called _Táman Banjáran
Sári_, where he saw _Déwi Sri_ (the wife of _Wísnu_) bathing in the
azure main, (or _Segádra Nila_). Enamoured by the enchanting display
of the naked beauties of that lovely female, his whole soul was fired
with such an irresistible desire, and so rivetted and attracted was
he, that he unconsciously rushed forward towards her, when she,
greatly terrified, and leaving all her clothes behind, ran off with
all speed to her husband. _Kála Gamárang_ pursued the lovely fugitive
till she reached the abode of her husband _Wisnu_, and being informed
on inquiry of him that she was his wife, _Kála Gamárang_ demanded her
of him. _Wísnu_ consented to let him have her, provided she herself
would consent. The question being put to her she refused to go to _Kála
Gamárang_, who then said that her not liking to come to him was all a
pretence, and nothing more than one of those tricks which the female
sex are constantly in the habit of practising. On _Kála Gamárang's_
attempting to carry her away by force, _Wísnu_ whispered her to run
off to _Mendang Kamúlan_, and enter and take refuge in the body of
the king's wife, called _Dérma Nastíta_. _Wísnu_ at the same time
disappeared. _Kála Gamárang_ followed, and continued to pursue her
over hill and dale, and through jungle and forest, till becoming tired
and exhausted, she was on the point of being overtaken, when _Wísnu_,
causing his weapon to be changed into the root end of a rattan, it
got entangled about the legs of _Kála Gamárang_, and threw him down.
Notwithstanding that, however, _Kála Gamárang_ still attempted to
pursue her, when she, aware of the advantage she then had over him,
cursed him, and pronounced him to be a hog, which he immediately
became. _Kála_ then attempted to stand upright, but he could not.
Resolved, however, not to desist from the attempt to obtain the object
of his desire, he said within himself, that he would follow and pursue
her into whatever recess she might betake herself. Coming to a river,
he saw the image of what he now was.
When _Sri_ reached _Méndang Kamúlan_ she entered the body of _Dérma
Nastíti's_ wife, who was most beautiful. _Wísnu_ at the same time went
into the body of the king himself, and assuming the title of _Prábu
mang ngukúhan_, became the first king of Java. _Sang yang Gúru_ being
informed of the fate of his messenger, _Kála Gamárang_, sent again to
the virgin, _Trésna-Wáti_, to entreat her to become his. This, however,
she positively refused, on any other terms than those she had already
made known to him. Upon this, _Sang yang Gúru_ began to embrace her.
The resistance she made, joined to the rough and violent manner in
which he proceeded, caused her to expire in his arms. He then sent for
_Kanekapútra_ to carry her body to _Méndang Kamúlan_, and there bury
it in the wood, called _Kéntring Kendayána_, which he ordered to be
previously put in order for its reception.
The body being buried there, from its head sprung up a cocoa-nut
tree, * * *. From the hands grew up plantain trees, from the teeth
Indian corn, from other parts _pari_, &c. &c. The _pari_ was guarded
by * * * and over these three was placed a head called _Ráden Jáka_.
_Sang yang Pretanjála_, the deity of the north-east, anxious to know
where _Wísnu_ was, ascended into the air, and having looked down and
seen some fine rice growing, he immediately descended in the shape of
a bird, and began to devour it. _Ráden Jáka_ perceiving this, threw a
stone at the bird and frightened it away.
_Kála Gamárang_ (the hog) having ascertained where _Sri_ was deposited,
went to the wood _Kéntring Kendoyána_, and began to eat of what grew
there. When _Wísnu_ saw this, he changed his weapon from the root end
of a bambu into that of pointed bambu stakes, which being trod upon by
the hog, caused blood to issue. * * *
The birds which came to eat the _pari_, and which were frightened away
by those who guarded it, flew up into a tree, which, from the retreat
it afforded to the birds, received the name of _Arén_ (_Lirénan_,
signifying a place of refuge). _Ráden Jáka Púring_ then ordered the
protectors of the _pári_ to make a flight of steps up the tree, and to
lop off the branches. In doing this, the juice which issued from the
tree being tasted, was found to be sweet and capable of making sugar,
which was then first discovered.
Some of the juice of the tree being carried and presented to _Wísnu_,
was ordered by him to be taken to _Sang yang Gúru_ by _Kanekapútra_.
On _Kanekapútra_'s opening the hollow bambu in which it was contained,
previously to presenting it to _Sang yang Gúru_, the fermented liquor
flew up into his face, and caused him, when he tasted it, to put
out and smack his lips with pleasure and satisfaction. _Sang yang
Gúru_ then ridiculed him for his simplicity, and pronouncing in
ironical terms his opinion thereof, the words were irrevocable, and
_Kanekapútra_ then had his lips turned up, his hinder parts pointed and
projected, a gruff voice and a pot-belly.
* * * * *
Of the children of _Pútut Jantáka_, the first was in form like a white
rat and about the size of a dog, and was named _Tíkus Jenánda_: he had
an innumerable host of followers. The second was in shape like a hog,
and was named _Demálung_: he also had thousands of followers. The third
was in shape like _Kutíla_, and had likewise many followers. The fourth
was like a buffalo, and was called _Maisa Dánu_. The fifth and sixth
were _Kála Sering'gi_ and _Kála Músti_, and resembled the male and
female _bánténg_, or wild bull and cow. The next was _Ujang_, and was
in shape like a _kídang_, or small deer. The next, _Kirandé_, was like
a stag. The next, were like sea and land tortoises.
All were greatly distressed for want of food, and annoyed their parent
by constant craving for it. The father then told them to go to _Méndang
Kamúlan_, where they would find all sorts of produce; enjoining them,
however, to take nothing without first asking for it. The children,
one and all, immediately answered in an assenting voice, and forthwith
repaired to _Méndang Kamúlan_, where they arrived in the middle of the
night, and being very hungry began to help themselves to what they
saw before them, without leave or ceremony. The persons who guarded
the _pari_ (_júru sáwah_) heard the noise they made, and were at a
loss to know what it was. At last one of them came out with a torch
in one hand, and a large knife in the other. When the son that was
like a hog saw him, he ran towards him to attack him, and received a
cut in the head, which, as he was invulnerable did him no harm. When
the _júru sáwah_ found that he could not cut the hog, he immediately
assembled all his fellows, who commenced an attack upon the hog, and
whose numerous torches made the night as light as the day. Unable,
however, to hurt him, they went with _Ráden Jáka Púring_ to report to
_Prábu Méndang Kamúlan_ what had happened. The king then gave orders
for all his people to go with whatever weapons they could muster, and
use their utmost endeavours to kill the animals which had got amongst
and were destroying the various plants. With the king at their head,
all the people who could be assembled went forth to destroy the noxious
animals. When the latter saw the host approaching, they made a vigorous
charge and dispersed the enemy, who were unable to make any impression
on their invulnerable bodies, but received themselves many wounds
in various parts of the body. The king then recollecting something
prophetic of the event, instantly retreated with all his people,
pursued by the victorious animals to a considerable distance.
The king then dispatched his younger brother, the _Júru Sáwah Ráden
Jáka Púring_, to his old friend at _Méndang Agung_, who was called
_Andong Dadápan_, and also to _Ké Géde Pengúkir_, who was along with
the former, to solicit their assistance in extirpating the wild
animals, which had, as they must well know, overcome the king and all
his people.
_Andong Dadápan_ and _Ké Gedé Pengúkir_ were found sitting. Another,
named _Ráden Séngkan_, then came up, as also _Ráden Jáka Púring_
himself, who kissed the feet of the two first mentioned, having his own
feet kissed in turn by _Ráden Séngken_.
_Ráden Jáka Púring_ then began to inform them of all that had taken
place; but _Andong Dadápan_ told him there was no occasion to proceed,
as, from his divine power, he was perfectly acquainted with the
circumstances.
_Andang Dadápan_ and _Ké Gedé Pengúkir_ signified to their respective
sons, that they wished them to call their warriors, whose names were
_Wáyu yang_ and _Chándra Máwa_. The first, who belonged to _Andang
Dadápan_, was black, short, stout, round-shouldered, pot-bellied, with
a short neck, large ears, whence exuded a waxy substance, red eyes,
a projecting forehead, a snub nose, with long hair hanging over his
forehead. The second, who belonged to _Ké Gedé Pengúkir_, was short, of
an awkward appearance, having a long neck and a small head.
When those two extraordinary persons made their appearance, their
masters placed them under the orders of _Jáka Púring_, and at the same
time furnished him with a short spear and a stick, instructing him,
when he unsheathed the former, to keep it always pointed towards the
ground. _Ráden Turúnan_ and _Séngkan_, which were the names of the sons
of the two warriors, also presented _Jáka Púring_ with a bambu cane,
with which they instructed him to beat violently, when he should be in
need of their assistance, promising that they would immediately be with
him.
_Jáka Púring_ then returned to the king of _Méndang Kemúlan_, and
presented to him the two warriors, &c. The king then ordered all his
people to prepare for an attack upon the wild beasts, which was not
attended with any better success than before.
The two warriors, who had remained behind drinking, the one cocoa-nut
water, and the other rice water, being perceived by the queen (_Déwi
Dérma Nastíti_), were reprimanded by her for skulking, while all the
others were engaged in fight, and were accordingly recommended by her,
in the event of their not choosing to bestir themselves, to return
whence they came.
Ashamed of themselves, the two warriors began to weep, and having
entreated her forgiveness, they repaired with the rapidity of lightning
to the scene of action. When they reached it, _Wáyu yang_ had himself
washed with rice water, and the dirt which was scraped off his body
was formed into a _black dog_, with a streak of white extending from
the tip of his nose along the ridge of his back, to the extreme point
of his tail. This dog was called _B'lang Wáyung yang_. _Chándra Máwa_
having had his body cleaned with cocoa-nut water, the dirt which was
got off it became a _white cat_, with a corresponding black streak from
the tip of its nose to the end of its tail.
This wonderful dog and cat were then directed to go and attack these
destructive animals. Commencing with the hog, the dog, after having
dispatched him and all the more fierce and strong animals, killed
the monkeys, and others which he could not follow up the trees they
ascended, by the powerful sound of his voice alone; while the cat
busied herself in putting an end to the rats, and such other animals as
she was peculiarly calculated to destroy.
_Kalamúkti_ and _Kála Seréng'gi_, distressed and enraged on account of
the death of their brothers (the noxious animals), who had thus been
exterminated, petitioned their father, _Pútut Jantáka_, to permit them
to go and revenge themselves on the authors of such a dire calamity.
This being granted, these powerful personages, whose bones were as hard
as iron, their skin like copper, sinews like wire, hair like needles,
eyes like balls of fire, feet like steel, &c. went forth, and in the
strength of their rage made a road for themselves, by tearing up trees
by the roots, and removing every other obstacle which stood in their
way.
The two _Kálas_ attacked them with such fury, that the warriors flew
up into the air, and then darting down, carried off the almost dead
dog and cat, which they then put down again in a place of safety at
some distance, where they washed their bodies with cocoa-nut and rice
water, and rubbed them with bambu leaves. In shaking themselves to dry
their skins, a number of hairs fell out of both dog and cat, and became
respectively so many more animals of the same species.
All of the dogs and cats thus produced commenced an attack upon the
_Kála_, but without being able to make any impression on them. Compared
to them, they were only like so many ants by the side of the mountain
_Merápi_.
_Ráden Jáka Púring_ perceiving that the dogs and cats were no match
for the _Kálas_, immediately began to beat with the _bámbu_ which was
given him to use in times of distress. _Ráden Séngkan_ and _Turúnan_
forthwith made their appearance. Being armed each with a rattan, seven
cubits in length, and of a most exquisite polish, they beat the _Kálas_
till they were nearly dead. _Wáyu yang_ and _Chándra Máwa_ then secured
the two _Kálas_ with ropes, and tied them to a tree.
On recovering from the miserable state into which they had been beaten,
the two _Kálas_ began to lament this unhappy fate. Their father, _Pútut
Jantáka_, hearing their cries, determined to attack the enemy himself.
Proceeding with _Ujong Randi_, he found on his way a large square
stone, measuring ten fathoms: throwing this stone high up in the air,
and placing himself under it, so as to receive it upon his head, the
stone, instead of breaking his head, was itself broken into several
pieces.
At this mighty deed he became transformed into a large and frightful
monster. In this new shape he attacked the enemy, who being dreadfully
alarmed at this horrid appearance, betook themselves for protection to
their master the king.
_Ráden Jáka Púring_ then coming out and pointing his unsheathed spear
towards the ground, it immediately sent forth a huge snake, in size
like a tall tree, and whose poisonous breath was like the smoke of a
crater. This snake was a species of the _sáwah_ kind.
On _Pútut Jentáka's_ reaching the royal presence, he found that the
king no longer appeared in his former and assumed character, but
had returned to that of himself, viz. _Wísnu_. _Jentáka_ was so
much confounded and alarmed at this unexpected and wonderful event,
that he was greatly terrified, and ran away to hide himself among
the scarecrows in the rice fields. The king pursued him for a short
distance, and then returned with all his people. On their way back one
of the _jùru sáwahs_, called _Kiai Túeh_, began to boast of _Jentáka_
having run away from him, and the ludicrous manner in which he spoke
of _Jentáka_ occasioned great merriment among the party. While holding
forth in his own praise, and in disparagement of _Jentáka_, he happened
to come against the scarecrow where _Jentáka_ was, upon which _Jentáka_
immediately shewing himself, put on such a horrible look as quite
petrified _Kiai Túeh_, and made him drop apparently dead with fear. The
king being informed of this then came up, when _Kiai Túeh_ seeing the
king, and being no longer afraid of _Jentáka_, got up, and walked off.
This circumstance occasioned all the people to laugh very heartily.
On the king's approaching _Jentáka_, the latter addressed him thus: "I
beg your pardon for what has happened. I have no wish or intention to
be your enemy: on the contrary, I am ready to become your humble slave,
and to do whatever you command me." The king accepted his proffered
friendship and services, and told _Jentáka_ that he would dispose
of him as follows, viz. that he should reside under _lúmbungs_ (or
granaries), and live upon such quantities of rice as should exceed that
which the owner calculated upon having. That he, and all his family and
posterity, should also inhabit the troughs in which rice is beaten
out, and the fireplaces of kitchens, also the front courts of houses,
of the highways, and dunghills, &c.
The king then commanded that all persons, after beating out rice, or
after washing it in the river, or after boiling it, should leave a
small quantity, as food for _Jentáka_ and his family.
The snake of the _sáwah_ species, above spoken of, having gone over
all the cultivated grounds which had been destroyed by the wild and
noxious animals, and caused them all to be restored to their former
state, extended itself along the ridges of the rice fields and died.
The king hearing this was greatly distressed, and on approaching to the
place where the snake had expired, instead of its dead body he beheld
a beautiful virgin, elegantly dressed out in maiden attire. The king
was struck with her appearance, and going up to her spoke thus: "Lovely
damsel, my only life, behold thy brother, who comes to carry you to the
palace he has prepared for you, and in which he will be ever happy to
guard and protect you; when there thou shall reign sovereign mistress."
The virgin, who was called the _Lúeh Endah_ (or the most beautiful
damsel), replied that she felt much honoured by his handsome
compliments and kind intentions, and that she would be most happy
and willing to meet his wishes; but as a proof of the sincerity of
his protestations of love and affection, she required of him that he
should come every morning and evening to the rice fields, and that on
his having done so she would consent to be his wife. Having spoken
to this effect, the lovely virgin disappeared. The king was at first
inconsolable for the loss of her, but recovering himself, he returned
to his palace with all his retinue.
The country became very rich and productive, living and provisions of
all kinds being very cheap and the people all good and happy.
APPENDIX I.
_TRANSLATION of an INSCRIPTION in the ancient JAVAN, or KAWI
Character, on a Stone found near SURABAYA, and sent from thence
to Bengal, to the Right Honourable the EARL of MINTO._[302]
(Date) 506. Verily know all the world, that the _Pandítas_ wrote on
this object of veneration describing the greatness of the _Rátu_, and
that the whole is inserted on a stone prepared for the purpose.
When first this large stone was considered a place of worship, people
were accustomed to swear by it: it was held in great respect, and
considered a repeller of impurity. To this is added, with truth and
sincerity of heart, a relation of the perfection of the monarchy, the
provinces of which are flourishing. His empire is renowned for the
excellence of its laws, and his knowledge most evident and undoubted:
the _Rátu's_ name _Srí Wíjáya_, and place of residence _Lorkóro_.
Certainly he is firm who gives stability to virtue. His _Pepáti_
is named _Bráta Wismára_, celebrated in the world: whose advice is
constantly had recourse to by the _Rátu_, and necessary to him like the
Beryl of the ring to the stone, because he assists him in the conduct
of affairs, and is quickly heard by the _Déwas_. When at war he can
increase the arms an hundred-fold to annoy the foe. And that _Páti_ is
admired by the women; but this does not withdraw him from attention
to the country, and the _Rátu_ confides in the conduct of the _Páti_,
and the _Ratu_ gave orders to make images. No other than _archas_ were
made, fifty in number, all erect; and they are deified, being placed to
that end in order, on consecrated ground.
* * * * *
The _Rátu_ is not sparing of his own property, and continues seeking
the comfort of his chiefs. He arranges all kinds of pictures agreeable
to their respective stations in the apartment of his queen. It is
related of that _kadáton_, that figures of rhinoceroses are carved on
the walls, which are railed with iron and barred across; its floor most
clean and shining, a stream of water running along the foot of the
wall, with a flood-gate to open or shut exactly where it should be; and
the chief of the watchmen distributes the guard to their respective
posts.
* * * * *
Be watchful of such knowledge as is real. The virtue of good men is
like gold which is hoarded up; apparently they possess nothing, but
in reality what they develop is sharpened by addition: they are
spoken of throughout their career as blameless until their death,
their ashes are then adorned and embellished, as well as held in
veneration, and the virtues these possess are very great and without
fail. If difficulty should arise, do you ask assistance with a heart
pure and undefiled; and if you have any urgent petition to make, do it
with submission. Clothe yourself entirely clean, throw off what is not
so, and what you have to bring forward let it be with propriety. When
it is known to the deity what your wishes are, they will be quickly
complied with openly to your satisfaction, and made to correspond with
the devotion manifested. And the knowledge of what is requisite in
sincere supplication is this: to punish yourself; to divest yourself of
hearing; to reject evil-doing of all kinds; to have your eye fixed on
one; to seek the road to the bestower of benefits; to desire without
delay, and not to trifle. Yea, the formed stone which is reverenced,
is to be considered only a veil between you and the real divinity.
Continue to supplicate for whatever are your desires that they may be
known: when the blood will have stopped three times your object will be
gained; verily, it will be added to, there will be no obstacle to its
full completion. By one saying your solicitation is directly expressed,
and correctness of life is obtained. And what you say is like the sun
and moon: in proportion as reverence is paid to the deity, men know
that their supplication will be listened to, and the _Batára_ become
familiar and much attached. Your existence will be as bright as the
sun and its splendour, which is evident, truly beautiful. When you die
you will be guarded and aggrandized, and not without companions. Such
will be his lot who seeks the good of the country, for he furthers the
happiness of the people.
* * * * *
Do you observe this course until you excel in it. Make figures of
stone like human beings, which may be supplicated; persons who reject
them will suffer sickness and ruin until their death, which will be
most bitter: on that account it is necessary to entreat and pray for
the favour of the _Déwas_. Stones situated in places of worship are
ornamented with many articles of state; they are feared by those who
wish to ask forgiveness, and cannot be destroyed.
It is related, that only persons who are stedfast in the acquirement of
letters, cause such as the following to be made (here follow fifteen
cabalistic characters, which are totally unintelligible): those will
certainly serve the purpose of your forefathers, who have been the
medium of existence; they are the veil which separates you from that
which is exalted, and also written on the stone. Give credit to them in
a moderate degree.
* * * * *
First, let all pray to and seek the favour of the deity in this and the
next world, and each require an interpreter who will obtain his pardon:
but he must reject fickleness to arrive at a discriminating heart.
Speak with reverence to your parents, their existence is replaced by
those who are named after them. In the place of worship, when the
ornament of good works is shewn, it is mentioned in the same manner
as delight, as established gratification. It is difficult to cause
advantage to the workings of the heart; your faith, which you received
from _Sang yang Sudriya_ and _Sang yang Táya_ is acknowledged by the
extent of your ability, and is different from other feelings.
* * * * *
Different are the rewards of those who come to heaven; happiness is
bestowed on them; delightful their state; verily they have arrived in
the land of silver. Whatever your reward at your death may be fixed
at, when obtained it cannot be lost: all is settled, the whole is
distributed, as well as the certainty of death. Truly you are directed
to a place which is exalted, pointed out by _Déwas_, who preside at
death and become your guide; because the dead are mixed in a land which
is wide and level, are given occupations and quickly go, each flying to
the first place until they arrive at the seventh. Verily they at length
come to the extremity with those who accompany: there are none among
them who have been terrified: the existence of the body is dissolved
and lost. There are none acquainted with books who are terrified.
* * * * *
_TRANSLATION of another INSCRIPTION in the ancient JAVAN, or KAWI,
Character, on a Stone found in the interior of the District of
SURABAYA._
_On the Face of the Stone._
The year of this inscription being made on a solid stone was 467,
in the season _Katíga_. It was made by a _Pandíta_ skilful, and who
performed wonders; to relate, explain, and make known the greatness and
excellence of the _Rátu_ (prince), in order that your actions too may
speedily become clear and manifest; yes, that will be your _kadáton_.
That _Sri Rája_, ever surrounded by majesty and his family, observes a
correctness of conduct grateful to the pure _Déwas_, and by _Mántris_
exalted by the _Rátu Bráma Wijáya_, celebrated in the universe for
his eminence, whose empire is firm and not to be shaken. Such is the
_Rátu_; yes, he who caused to be inscribed on a stone all these his
actions, observant to the utmost of the forms of worship, moderate in
his complaints of distress, whose appeals are correct and most true
and without guile, and have enabled the slave to associate with the
divinity, without there being a difference between them. He is my
father, who is implored and who caused my existence: do not trifle;
there is no one greater than he. What remains to you to solicit,
mention it with humility; yes, that too is what mankind must observe.
Do you watch and observe the duties of mankind, and you will certainly
profit; reject entirely sayings which are improper and untrue, and
avoid theft, robbery, anger, boasting of prowess and false promises,
for they are despicable, and their effect, like the atmosphere,
giving heavy rain which overflows, to the accomplishment of wishes,
improving the cultivation, making all fresh and equally bright and
sparkling; but the wind of which is presently strong and cuts off
the buds. If you ever wish to fortify your soul, go to the summit of
a mountain, which is the place for earnest supplication in silence,
awaken your firm and sincere heart, let there not be any dregs of your
nature; but let the soul assume non-existence and pray. Be aware of
the disorders of the demon of bad actions, who inimically annoys and
misleads; undoubtedly, if you conduct yourself with firmness, you will
approach to perfection, and seclusion will truly be there. Let there
not be a mixture of discontent of mind. Cast away the veil however
delicate it may be; truly it is better conversing with letters which
have been written; what they convey to you will be most painful to
the body, but your hopes will be accomplished. Do not give place to
the evil thoughts which have occupied the minds of men and are most
vexatious; fortify yourself so that you recede not; remember well the
three established powers of mankind. Commune with the wise in words
which are seen proceeding from the mouth; truly faith is different from
what is heard of your corrupt body, which is the ornament of human
life. Let the actions of superior men who seek stability be examples
to you like the _krangrang_ ant; the indication which you make cannot
be disapproved, those persons certainly may be accounted near to the
wishes of the country. Sometimes clear, sometimes obscure, yes, such
indeed let your situation be, so that the train of your actions may
become most direct and manifest, as by day the sun lights all places,
so their benefit be not thrown away, and you may cast off care and
sorrow. Truly the departure of life is most uncertain. Human nature,
when it will not receive advice, is like a stony plain without grass,
animals will not approach, all remain at a distance from it. I will
teach you: pay attention and fail not to receive instruction, so that
you approach most nearly; but first purify your heart which pays
reverence, not reverence which is heard by the ear. Yes, that is indeed
true devotion which I have taught you, and without which there is no
purity, for a perfect heart is derived from the Deity. Words proceeding
from the mouth are vain to the utmost, their effect not to be depended
on. The devotion of a pure heart is like moonshine, not hot but cool
and delightful; the beauties you see in which the stars are scattered
over as though in attendance on the moon, adding to the grandeur of
the scene. And also a person becoming a _Rátu_ commands his subjects
and distinguishes good people from bad, for the limits of this country
are all under his orders. The _Rátu_ selects from his subjects such as
are eligible to be his associates, and they are four, who become the
pillars of the state, and cause its happiness and welfare; he thereby
shews a pattern for future _Rátus_. Further, too, as you have been
given life, do not reject the precepts of the _Sástra_, which have been
diffused through the world by the virtuous, but weigh them in your
mind, for that is the duty of a slave; bad and good are from your Lord.
So the wisdom of man is extended like the firmament, immeasurable even
by the bird _garúda_, which knows how to fly in the heavens, though he
should arrive at the extremity of space; such is human wisdom. Do not
be surprised at people's conversation, though it correspond not with
the dictates of the _Sastra_; yes, that is most injurious to morals.
Even should one become a _Rátu_, if he knows not this he certainly will
not succeed, he will not arrive at the height of his wishes; because
the action of a vicious heart is different from the inclination of a
pure one, which is in attendance on its Lord. And a living man should
know the advantages of these places, which are, the earth, the sky,
and the space between; for to-morrow, when dead, your body and soul
will be there; before it knows the road it will change its habitation
into a living being; there, if you find enjoyment, you may search
for a place, because you have discernment from the heart. But a man
who is so while he lives, effects it by abstinence and moderation in
eating and drinking. Yes, in the time of _Rátu Dérma Wangsa_, when he
began to benefit the country, that _Rátu_, it is related in history
of former times, would not depart from his word, and all his subjects
were devoted to him. And when the _Rátu_ sat in his _kadáton_, his
conversation with his wives was very sweet, as well as his playfulness
with them. His wives were therefore much attached to him, and by the
_Rátu's_ wisdom being so great, he was sought after by women, and was
very watchful in his attentions to them: of that there is no doubt,
and thus too the wisdom of the _Pandíta_ is like that of the bird
_garúda_, in obtaining food without trouble from the very great power
and sagacity which it possesses; the same arises from the _Pandíta_.
Yes, the reason of letters having been formed by the point of a knife
is that you should recollect the way which is correct, and that is
no other than reverence to the _Batára_; yea, devoting yourself to
the _Batára_ is the height of human excellence. While a man lives, he
should day and night ask pardon from the _Batára_. For what was first
written in letters, and they are a cause of eminence to him, was by
the _Pandíta Pangéran Aji Saka_; yes, he who has left his mark to
the _Rátus_ of Java, for those _Rátus_ made places of worship, named
_Sangga Pamalungan_, and placed in them drawings of their forefathers:
but when they prayed they petitioned the _Batára_ only for their
existence, that when they died they should inhabit their places,
quickly changing their bodies, because their former bodies had returned
to the pristine state, that is to say, earth, water, fire, air. So says
the _Sástra_.
_On the Left Side._
And the powers of letters, which are forty-seven, keep those in your
mind, so that they be within you all of them. I will establish them in
such a manner that they can be brought forth by your three fingers;
those who are skilful may make good letters. Do not neglect the
application of letters, give each its proper place, for those letters
are most useful in the transactions of the people of this world during
their continuance in it. Thus the use of letters to the nations of
the world is to open the hearts of ignorant men, and to put in mind
persons who forget; for I give directions to men who can write, in
order that the whole of the knowledge I have in my breast may be known:
and this I have taught you, because that knowledge is the essence of
the body and illuminates it. And you who have wives and children to
look after, do not make light of it, for a woman, if she truly do her
duty to her husband, is invaluable; she is a printer of clothes, a
spinner, weaver, sempstress, and embroiderer; a woman such as this do
you cherish, for it will be creditable to you. If a married couple love
each other, whatever they wish they can effect, that is the way by
which you can attain your wishes. So too a woman towards her husband,
even to death; yes, she follows to the _pasétran_ (place of depositing
the corpse) or the place of self-sacrifice; this is taught in letters
which have been written on tablets; truly those writings are like
histories, which explain every kind of science. But the fate of man
cannot be learned or known by letters; such as a person's being able
to acquire profit, knowledge, poverty or distress: of these there is
no certainty. However, do not you reject the sayings of letters. It
is your evil inclinations that destroy your bodies; for he who first
made war, his magic was very great, because he could throw off the
passions of mankind, like _Arjuna_, whose power in war and in mounting
his chariot was celebrated, for he was guarded by all the _Dewas_;
yes, he could become a _tapa_ (a devotee, released from the wants, &c.
incident to mankind) and pray fervently. _Arjuna_, when he became a
_tapa_, annulled his body, his heart did not stray from his duty to the
_Dewas_; his wishes were therefore complied with until his death; yes,
_Arjuna_ was indeed favoured by his _Dewas_. And on any one of your
forefathers dying and ascending to heaven, do you immediately make a
picture to personify that forefather; and do you adorn and provide it
with all sorts of eatables, and respect it as your forefather who has
descended to you, and will administer to all your wants: such will be
the case with a person who pays respect to his forefathers. At night
burn incense and many lamps: truly _Sang yang Jagat_ (the omnipotent)
and _Sang yang Suria_ (the sun) will be favourable to you; for _Sang
yang Suria_ is the enlightener of the world, and every day gives light
to darkness. A man who has arrived at the half of his term of life
conceives well the separation of his soul from its covering; your
existence is like that of the moon, that is to say, from the new to
the full, and from that to its extreme wane on the twenty-ninth day
of its age. When the moon is thus lost from the east, it will then
certainly appear in the west, and recommence the first day of its age.
While you live ask from those who know the setting of the soul; a
person who knows that is certainly discovered by his actions. But it
is best losing that covering by four causes, water, fire, air, earth;
if it is lost by means of those four, the body will certainly quickly
be removed, in the same manner as gold which is purified, verily, its
colour will become like that which is old. Thus the _Pandíta_ makes
preparations for prayer. The best mode of praying is by familiarizing
ourselves with seclusion, which is by excessively torturing the body;
but if you should have been much reduced, your soul will not arrive
at those three places. Should a man become a _Rátu_, his soul is one
selected by the _Dewas_ which has been introduced into a covering, and
that covering is not a covering which has not been favoured by the
_Dewas_, truly a covering which has been elevated by the _Dewas_,
for its good fortune has been very great. The descending of that good
fortune from heaven is not like clouds dropping rain, which, if it
fall, does so equally on all vegetations. Look at mankind; if you
contemplate its state when living, its existence is no more than that
of a herb which shoots up on the face of the earth. Concerning your
soul, it is like dew, which hangs on the points of grass: such is its
state.
_On the Back of the Stone._
It is further related of the three particulars of his state, which
it is requisite should be the ornament of a man, as well as of a man
becoming a _Rátu_. Those three things are a handsome woman, arms, and
a house; the first, because a woman is the dispeller of grief from a
heart which is sad; the second, because arms are the shield of life;
the third, because a house is medicine to a fatigued body. Let not
a man be at a distance from the above-mentioned, for they are the
ornament of a living man. This stone is the means of facilitating the
access to the _Dewas_ of your supplications, for human nature is feeble
and very faulty towards the Supreme. And moreover, if you have formed
any wish in the world, then ask assistance from that stone, and adorn
that stone with all kinds of perfumes and eatables which are most
grateful. If you do so, certainly the _Batára_ will be ashamed not to
grant you whatever you desire, because the life and death of man are
the same; but his body, to appearance, is worthless when deserted by
the soul, and remains of no further use in the earth: it is better,
therefore, that it should be lost, so that it return to its original.
It is different when the soul is there during life. If you wish to seek
for food there are many modes to adopt, so that you gain a subsistence,
such as becoming a blacksmith. There are some who are goldsmiths;
others who draw figures of different kinds; some practice cookery;
those who understand no trade gamble; some thieve; some plunder. Yes,
such as these are influenced by the passions, which are violent in
their action and make the faculties morbid. Of the things forbidden
by the _Sástra_, the first is deceit; the second, pride; the third,
hypocrisy: cast these away from you. If you are a good man, do not
make a habit of mixing with the bad; for those bad persons have been
marked by the _Dewas_, because they cannot do good. You do well in
associating with learned people, who have followed the sayings of the
_Sástra_; make those your inseparable companions and attach yourself
to them. But do you not despise the poor and the timorous, and do not
be ashamed before the bold and the rich; do not very much elevate
yourself, better you be humble amongst men: curb your passions, for
your passions are an enemy within you. So, too, it is with pleasure and
pain; they are like the _mayang_ flower without fruit, truly as yet
uncertain. It is the same with a living person who has not yet arrived
at the end of life, he will be very much misled by his riches: there
are poor who become rich. Like the state of a fool who is unconscious
of his real situation, that fool suffers pain from himself, because
his actions are of his own dictating. In his own mind he asks, Who is
there like me? I have a _gada_ (a warlike instrument), who dares cope
with me? Such a person is like a mountain which thinks, "I am large! I
am high!" Afterwards it is trodden under foot and defiled by all kinds
of animals, but is unconscious; so too says the fool, but no one cares
for him. As to the sign by which to know such a fool, you have it from
his harsh speaking and obstinate heart; he is without politeness and
has confidence only in his own powers. And that fool, if he become
great, uses an umbrella on a moonlight night: surely, one who does so,
has no shame, no sense; a white ant seeking its food does not act in
that manner. Let the wise man observe the conduct of the white ant,
its caution in searching for food; even a large tree, an embrace in
size, becomes consumed. So can men do who are united, whose wishes are
similar, for there is no performance of living men so well executed as
by unanimity. All great actions are owing to the union of many men, not
to violence; for if your conduct be true and sincere, your heart, in
whatever your wishes may be, will be enlightened by the Supreme. And
besides, if in like manner you pray to and adore the _Dewas_, certainly
the _Batára_ and all the _Dewas_ will bestow favours on you. Such as
I have mentioned are the precepts held out by virtuous men of former
times: different from the subject of animals being brought up by men.
In case a man in the service of a _Rátu_ be at length advanced to
dignity by that _Rátu_, and is given a village, if he fail to weigh
how much he should with propriety be in attendance on that _Rátu_, and
this arise from being engaged in his own pleasures, he must certainly
lose his situation. It is the same with a man being a _Rátu_ who is not
provided with scales, and investigates matters too superficially to
benefit his subjects; he is, in truth, like a pond without water, which
of course is entirely void of fish: account him one who has received
favour. And again, do you evermore obey the commands of the _Pandítas_,
and do not deceive your _guru_ (spiritual guide), or you will surely go
to hell eternally. Better you obey your _guru_: your excellence will
descend to your sons and grandsons, who will profit by your goodness.
Oh! living man, do not fancy your life permanent, although you are
great, little, rich, or poor. When you have arrived at the end of life
your body will be corrupt, it cannot be otherwise: yes, all are earth.
When alive, people gather together wherewithal to bury their body, so
that it mix not with the earth, and that is only by paying reverence to
the _Batára_. All that live in the world are not like mankind, who have
been given wisdom and excellence by the _Batára_. Although the _rátu_
(king) lion is said to be the chief of animals, yet he is held captive
by man: the same with the _garuda_, the king of birds, which resides in
the air, it is likewise subject to the commands of man. It is different
with the sun, the moon, the earth, the sea, the air, the firmament, the
stars; they certainly are not under the orders of man, but they are
subject to be accounted good or evil in their course; like clouds which
discharge rain, and that in the rainy season are delightful to the
husbandman. But be it known to the cultivator, that he who superintends
the implements of tillage is the son of a _Dewata_, named _Sang yang
Kalamerta_; he is very good, for he protects all the cultivation in
the country. It is that _Sang yang Kalamerta_ who, from the first, has
caused terror to all such subjects as do not obey the commands _Batára
Guru_: because that _Sang yang Kalamerta_ has been empowered by _Batára
Guru_ to destroy first all vicious persons; secondly, evil speakers;
and thirdly, liars. These three vices do you reject; and you will do
well in asking forgiveness from the _Batára_, so that you avoid the
fury of the _Sang yang Kalamerta_.
_On the Right Side._
And such is the case with merchants, who understand circulating money,
and can calculate on the return it makes for five times; such as the
profits of money laid out, and how much that will amount to which has
been laid out, and how much the loss on that money will be, and how
much the profit thereon, so that, by that means, they may be satisfied
during life. Concerning those men who seek wealth: before they commence
gaining all persons laugh at them; but when they profit, those who
before laughed approach and ask their favour. Persons who profit are
compared by _Pandítas_ to flowers after a shower of rain, in appearance
very beautiful, but in existence not permanent. And let not a living
man discontinue supplicating his _Déwa_, so that the favours bestowed
on him by the _Déwa_ may not leave him during life: but whether that
living man be a poor man or a _Rátu_, let every one seek to acquire
what is permanent, that by so doing there may be no other knowledge
than that which is perceived within the heart. A great man and rich
man who is wise, must commence with the road to knowledge, which is
undeviating. Concerning real knowledge, with all its excellencies and
utilities, it is respected by the virtuous: that real knowledge is
certainly sent by the _Déwa_ to favoured men. And do you not indulge
your passions, as is forbidden by the _Sastra_; better had you preserve
your heart pure, for that pure heart will for ever be your companion.
And do you not associate and communicate with bad men, but remove to a
distance from them. It is best as much as possible, to curb pleasure
and ill-timed laughter; putting a check to them is far removed from a
bad heart: the fault of a person fond of ill-timed laughter is that
he suffers pain. It is unfortunate that man forgets such information
as is worthy of being remembered, and recollects such as is not worth
remembering. In like manner, you eat food which should not be eaten,
and do not eat that which is wholesome. A person acting thus is void of
sense, and similar to a porter; although the viands are very agreeable
to you, if you load yourself with them immoderately, the weight you
carry will certainly distress your body. Moreover, if you meet with any
thing of such estimation as to be worth imitating, do you immediately
write it down, so that you thereby acquire a good name, and men may
look up to you, and to the end that the _Rátu_ may have confidence in
you, because that _Rátu_ can act well and ill; but let the _Rátu_ not
neglect the commencement, middle, and end, for there is nothing in the
world of greater excellence than mankind; different from the existence
of a _Rasaksa_, whose actions cannot be spoken of; like those of a
fish in the sea, which no one knows except the Omnipotent, who alone is
acquainted with the truth thereof.
TRANSLATION _of another_ JAVAN INSCRIPTION _of the same description_.
Truly the reckoning of the year when this was composed was 1216,
named _Milir_, written on a tablet the fifth of the moon on its wane,
the mind tallying with the season, precisely in the _Wukun Manda
Kung'an_. It is a description of the _kraton_ and its arrangements,
put into writing in the country of _Mauspati_, of which the chief is
exalted, merciful, wise, and discerning; at this period, the greatest
in the world, and adapted to the situation he fills and its duties;
on that account, women say they are fond of him: powerful, skilful, a
sovereign whose commands to his subjects are undisputed, unequalled in
politeness, guarded by genii, and having a large army, all-skilful in
their profession when at war: the arrangements of his troops superior,
and they and their arms excellent; his army, too celebrated. At that
time those troops guarded well his country, and the orders issued by
his relations were correct. That _Rátu_ never punished his children: he
was good, and did not inflict punishment on them.
It is related of the _Sri Maharája_ that he intended going to the high
mountains: leaving his country and arriving at the declivity, the
boundary of _Gedung Peluk_, his army soon met the enemy, and engaged.
So it is related in history.
* * * * *
That army of the _Sri Jaya_ being established, the _Ratú_ formerly
considered beneficial to the country, giving firmness to the country of
_Kedíri_. What the _Sri Jaya_ says is certain; all the people are glad;
a large and faithful army is established there.
* * * * *
Be cautious but firm; the _Sri Maharaja_ cannot injure the descendants
of _Prabu_; great their wisdom, impatient their sway, extensive their
power. Young men fearless and bold; the army followed, and were taken
by the enemy, because the _Sri Nara Nata_ so intended. _Sri Kerta
Najura_, when he died, died like a _Buda_ man. Formerly, _Sri Jaya
Katong_ came from _Gegelang_, and entered like a man in desperation;
sent to _Kerta Niaka_ requesting assistance of foreigners, and desired
them to advance in front. _Sri Kerto Najara_ went into that country,
and assembled the arms of the _Sri Jaya Katong_, with the son-in-law
and brother-in-law of _Ng'uda Raja_ and the _Sri Nara Nata_. Of _Sri
Nara Najura_ and _Ng'uda Raja_ they were seated in the centre, their
brightness shining in the halting place; their symmetry like _Sura
Denawa_, majestic as well as awfully powerful, and their hearts at
rest. Such was the truth. They were prevented by the magic of fire;
supremely powerful the _Sri Maharaja_; the enemy's army was destroyed
by fire. The _Yewang Derma_ advanced and assisted in the labours of
the _Rátu_. _Kerta Jaya_ was beaten and fled, his power destroyed,
afterwards the whole army fled, and met the army of the insurgents.
A _Mantri_ rallied the good army, that the _Mantri_ might be able to
fight; the battle was commenced in _Sela Sringing_. The _Sri Maharaja_
coming to his ground, was firm at the foot of the mountains, and he
came to _Yewang Derma_ to request food for his people and chiefs:
he got as much as he wished with an open heart. Thus may that army
continue until the end of time, until death, in the fulfilment of their
wishes.
FOOTNOTES:
[302] "I am very grateful for the great stone from the interior of
your island, which you tell me, in your letter of the 5th May, was put
on board the Matilda. The Matilda is not yet arrived, so that I have
not received Colonel Mackenzie's account of this curiosity, which, in
weight, at least, seems to rival the base of Peter the Great's statue
at Petersburgh. I shall be very much tempted to mount this Javan rock
upon our Minto Craigs, that it may tell eastern tales of us, long after
our heads are under smoother stones."
_Letter from the late Earl of Minto, 23d June, 1813._
APPENDIX K.
ACCOUNT OF BÁLI.
To the east of Java lies the island of _Báli_. This interesting spot
exhibits the same mineralogical structure as Java, and probably at one
period composed a part of the same island. Possessing the same climate
and a similar soil, having mountains of a proportionate height, and
streams equally fitted for the purpose of irrigation, it enjoys the
same degree of fertility; but having an iron-bound coast, without
harbours or good anchorage, it has been in a great measure shut out
from external commerce, particularly with traders in large vessels.
Like _Madúra_, it seems naturally situated for being a tributary to
Java. But the most striking features in the character and institutions
of its inhabitants are owing to that long independence on the greater
island and its fortunes, which has preserved to them many traces of
their original condition, many of their distinctive laws and religious
rites.
The natives of _Báli_, although of the same original stock with the
Javans, exhibit several striking differences, not only in their manners
and the degrees of civilization they have attained, but in their
features and bodily appearance. They are above the middle size of
Asiatics, and exceed, both in stature and muscular power, either the
Javan or the _Maláyu_. Though professing a religion which in western
India moulds the character of the Hindu into the most tame and implicit
subserviency to rule and authority, and though living under the rod
of despotism which they have put into the hands of their chiefs, they
still possess much of the original boldness and self-willed hardihood
of the savage state.
Their general indifference to the oppression which they endure, their
good humour and apparent satisfaction, together with their superior
animation and energy, give to their countenances, naturally fairer and
more expressive than those of the Javans, a higher cast of spirit,
independence, and manliness, than belongs to any of their neighbours.
They are active and enterprising, and free from that listlessness
and indolence which are observable in the inhabitants of Java. To
a stranger their manners appear abrupt, unceremonious, coarse, and
repulsive; but upon further acquaintance this becomes less perceptible,
and their undisguised frankness commands reciprocal confidence and
respect. Their women, in particular, who are here on a perfect equality
with the men, and not required to perform many of the severe and
degrading labours imposed upon them in Java, are frank and unreserved.
In their domestic relations their manners are amiable, respectful, and
decorous. The female character, indeed, seems to have acquired among
them more relative dignity and esteem than it could have been expected
to have attained where polygamy has been long established.
The conduct of parents to their children is mild and gentle, and it is
requited by unreserved docility and obedience. To their chiefs they
show a respectful deference: among themselves they stand on a footing
of equality, and feeling no dependence pay little homage. The abject
servitude of Asia has not proceeded further with them than necessary
obedience to indispensable authority. Their prince is sacred in their
eyes, and meets with unreserved obedience; but their minds are not
broken down by numerous demands on their submission, nor are their
manners polished by the habit of being frequently with superiors. An
European or a native, therefore, who has been accustomed to the polite
and elegant manners of the Javans, or with the general courtesy of the
Malayus, is struck with the unceremonious, rude, and uncivilized habits
of the people of _Báli_.
In the arts they are considerably behind the Javans, though they seem
capable of advancing rapidly. They are happily not subjected to a frame
of government so calculated to repress their energies, or to waste
their resources. They are now a rising people. Neither degraded by
despotism nor enervated by habits of indolence or luxury, they perhaps
promise fairer for a progress in civilization and good government than
any of their neighbours.
They are strangers to the vices of drunkenness, libertinism, and
conjugal infidelity: their predominant passions are gaming and cock
fighting. In these amusements, when at peace with the neighbouring
states, all the vehemence and energy of their character and spirit
is called forth and exhausted. Their energy, their modes of life,
and their love of independence, render them formidable to the weaker
states in their neighbourhood, and secure them against all attacks from
any native power in the Indian Archipelago. What they now are it is
probable that the Javans once were, in national independence, as well
as in religious and political institutions.
The island of _Báli_ appears to be divided at present into seven
different states, each independent of the other, and subject to its own
chief.
The population of these states is estimated to amount in all to above
eight hundred thousand souls. This estimate is formed from the numbers
of males whose teeth have been filed, which in the different states
stood in round numbers as follows:
_Klongkong_ 30,000
_Karang Asem_ 50,000
_Badung_ 20,000
_Bliling_ 30,000
_Tabanan_ 40,000
_Mengui_ 20,000
_Giangar_ 15,000
_Taman Bali_ 10,000
-------
215,000
-------
As the operation of filing the teeth immediately precedes puberty, this
list of course excludes all males who have not arrived at that period,
as well as all females whatever. From the early age at which marriages
are contracted, those who have undergone the operation may for the most
part be considered as having entered into family connections[303], and
a calculation of four to a family will give the same result. This great
population has doubtless increased since the abolition of the slave
trade.
Of this heptarchy, _Klóngkong_ is admitted to be the most ancient
sovereignty. Its princes are said to have originally emigrated from
Java, and a period is recorded when the whole island of _Báli_
acknowledged their authority. Even still they retain evidences of
their former dignity, and traces of their former influence. Among the
regalia are still preserved a _kris_, and other articles that belonged
to _Majapáhit_, and the other princes of the island recognize them as
the stock from whence they sprung, though they limit their fealty to
general respect, and jealously maintain their own independence.
_Báli_ is generally supposed to have been originally peopled from
different parts of Celebes. The first person who is said to have
established the religion and government which still exist, was _Déwa
Agung Kátut_, son of _Rátu Browijáya_ of _Majapáhit_ in Java. The cause
of his quitting Java is related by the Balians as follows.
"The father of _Browijáya_ was informed by his head _Bramána_, that it
was written in a sacred book that after the expiration of forty days
the title of _Rája_ of _Majapáhit_ should be extinct: to which the
Raja gave such implicit credit, that at the expiration of that time he
caused himself to be burnt alive. His son, not daring to disobey the
sentence of the book, removed to _Báli_ with a number of followers, and
established his authority at _Klóngkong_, taking the title of supreme
sovereign, which title still continues hereditary in the Rajas of
_Klóngkong_."
The inhabitants of _Báli_, like those of Java, are principally employed
in agriculture. The fertility of the island may be inferred from the
number of people maintained on so limited a spot. Rice is the chief
produce of the soil, and of course the chief article of subsistence.
From the mountainous nature of the country, advantage cannot so
easily be taken of the periodical rains for the purpose of the rice
irrigation, but the lands are irrigated by an abundant supply of water
from streams and rivers. In some places, as in _Kárang Asem_, two crops
of rice are obtained in one year; but over the greatest part of the
island only one. In the dry season the _sáwahs_ yield a crop of maize.
The natives reckon from fifty to sixty fold of increase in the rice
cultivation no extraordinary produce. The women are not employed, as
in Java, to plant the _pári_: their assistance in the field is only
required to reap it. The implements of husbandry are of the same simple
construction as those on Java, and nearly similar in form.
Bullocks of the _Bánteng_, or wild breed, and of very fine quality,
are almost invariably used in husbandry. The price of a pair of oxen
of this kind, fit for the plough, is generally about six Spanish
dollars, and seldom exceeds eight. The ordinary price of a _pikul_
(133¼ pounds English) of rice, is about three-fourths of a Spanish
dollar.
The tenure by which land is held differs widely from that which exists
at present in the native provinces of Java. The sovereign is not
here considered the universal landlord; on the contrary, the soil is
almost invariably considered as the private property of the subject,
in whatever manner it is cultivated or divided. It may be sold, let,
pledged, devised, or otherwise disposed of, at the option of the
proprietor, and without any reference to the will of the superior. The
divisions of this property are generally very minute, and the mode
of measurement not very defined, and there are instances of great
irregularity, even in the application of the same mode of measurement.
The measure of land is expressed by the quantity of seed required to
sow it, and said to be so many _tánas_. Some proprietors possess fifty
_tánas_, while others hold not more than one or two. The private estate
of the elder Raja of _Bliling_ did not exceed a few hundred _tánas_,
nor did that of the younger much surpass it.
But though the prince is not considered as actual proprietor of the
land of his dominions, he receives a certain share of the produce in
the way of tax. This tax is either paid in a small Chinese coin, called
_képeng_, or in kind, at the rate of about five _tánas_ of produce for
every _tána_ of seed sown.
Though in the lower districts the food of the people is universally
rice, in the higher and more mountainous parts they subsist principally
on sweet potatoes and Indian corn. The principal animal food that they
use is swine flesh, which is found in great abundance. The price of
a grown hog seldom exceeds a dollar, and scarcely ever amounts to a
dollar and a half.
The habitations of the Bálians differ from those of the Javans, in
being generally constructed of mud walls and surrounded by walls of
baked or unbaked bricks; in consequence of which, and the peculiar
formation of the entrances and doorways, the principal towns are said
to resemble the Hindu towns on the continent of India.
The arts are little practised. Though the island produces cotton of the
most excellent quality, and in great abundance, the natives have not
generally learned the art of painting or printing the cloth, which they
manufacture from it. The women here, as on Java, are the manufacturers
of all the cloth used by their husbands or families. Their principal
manufacture is in _kríses_ and warlike instruments; they make
fire-arms, and ornament the barrels, but purchase European locks.
The principal exports are rice, birds'-nests, coarse cloths, cotton
yarn, salted eggs, _dínding_, _gámbir_, and oil: the principal imports
are opium (which the inhabitants are unfortunately much addicted to),
_káyu pélet_, betel-nut, ivory, gold, and silver. The Bálians dislike
a seafaring life, and hold the profession of a merchant in disrepute.
Their fairs and markets are few and little frequented. The trade that
was at one time carried on with the greatest success was the traffic in
slaves. The usual price of a male slave was from ten to thirty dollars,
of a female from fifty to one hundred. This disgraceful traffic, it may
be hoped, will soon be entirely annihilated. While it existed in its
full vigour, all prisoners taken in war, all who attempted to evade
the laws by emigration, all insolvent debtors, and a certain class
of thieves, were subjected to the sad condition of slavery. These
laws still subsist, and are enforced, as formerly, for the purpose of
procuring the home supply; but the diminution of the foreign demand
must limit exceedingly their exercise, and in a short time ameliorate
the state of the unhappy individuals who had suffered by them[304].
But the most interesting character of the Bálians arises out of the
frame of their government, the code of their laws, and the system
of their religion. I have, in one part of this work, particularly
described, and in others repeatedly alluded to, the traces of Hinduism
on Java; and if these traces had not been decided and manifest in
themselves, their interpretation would have been rendered manifest by
what occurs in Báli.
In Báli not more than one in two hundred, if so many, are Mahomedans,
and the great body of the people profess the creed and observe the
institutions of a religion which has become extinct in the rest of the
Archipelago. On Java we find Hinduism only amid the ruins of temples,
images, and inscriptions; on _Báli_, in the laws, ideas, and worship of
the people. On Java this singular and interesting system of religion
is classed among the antiquities of the island. Here it is a living
source of action, and a universal rule of conduct. The present state
of _Báli_ may be considered, therefore, as a kind of commentary on the
ancient condition of the natives of Java. Hinduism has here severed
society into casts; it has introduced its divinities; it has extended
its ceremonies into most of the transactions of life; it has enjoined
or recommended some of its severest sacrifices, such as the burning
of a widow on the funeral pile of her husband: but yet the individual
retains all the native manliness of his character and all the fire of
the savage state.
By this system the Bálians are divided into four casts: 1. The
_Bramána_, 2. _Rusi_ or _Satria_, 3. _Wisia_, and 4. _Sudra_. The
princes of the island are generally, but not always, of the _Bramána_
cast: the present Raja of _Bliling_ is of the second class. The
government is despotic, there being no check on the will of the chief
nor any sharer of his power[305]. He is assisted in his internal
administration by a head _Parbákal_; and in the general affairs of
his government, the management of foreign correspondence, and the
superintendence of his foreign relations, by an officer called _Ráden
Tumúng'gung_.
The system of village government is established here as on Java. The
constitution of each village is the same. The head, or chief, is
termed _Parbákal_, and the assistant _Kalían Témpek_: these officers
are invariably selected from among the people of the village which
they are appointed to govern. The office of _Parbákal_ is considered
hereditary, if the successor is competent; and on a vacancy occurring,
the _Parbákal_ recommends the successor of a _Kalían Témpek_.
Under the head _Parbákal_, who is termed _Parbákal Rája_, are several
inferior _Parbákals_, as assistants to that officer in conveying his
orders to the heads of villages; and under the _Ráden Tumúng'gung_ is
placed a similar establishment, consisting of about a hundred persons,
with the rank and title of _Kalían Témpek_.
Many of the _Parbákals_ of villages in _Bliling_ have the title
of _Gústi_, which descends in their families, and which serves to
distinguish them as nobles. These probably originated in their conduct
in war. The command of the military is at present vested in a chief
of the _Bramána_ cast, styled _Rája Bángen Senapáti_; _Bángen_ being
the district which contains the principal Braminical establishment. He
seems to receive honours and respect next to the Rajah himself.
The heads of _kampongs_ in which foreigners reside are termed
_Pang'gáwa_; and in speaking collectively of the heads of villages, the
Raja uses the term _Papang'gáwa_.
The administration of justice is generally conducted by a court,
composed of one _Jáksa_ and two assistants: in addition to whom, in
the determination of any cause of importance, several _Bramánas_ are
called in. Their decisions are guided by written laws. The civil code
is called _Degáma_, the criminal code _Agáma_. Before these courts
three or four witnesses are required to substantiate any criminal
charge. Their witnesses are examined on oath, and people of any cast
are competent to take such oath and to be so examined. The form of
administering the oath requires of the person who takes it to hold a
bason of water in his hand, and after repeating, "may I and my whole
generation perish, if what I allege is not true," to drink the water.
The form of procedure requires the prosecutor or plaintiff to be heard
first on oath: his witnesses are next examined, then the prisoner or
defendant and his witnesses, after which the court decides on a general
view of the whole of the evidence submitted to its consideration. No
torture is employed to procure evidence: mutilation is unknown. The
usual punishments are death, confinement, and servitude. The laws, in
some instances, are severe, in others lenient. In the execution of the
punishment awarded by the court there is this peculiarity, that the
aggrieved party or his friends, are appointed to inflict it: for though
the judge steps in between the prosecutor and person whom he pursues,
so as to restrain the indiscriminate animosity of the one and to
determine the criminality of the other, the Bálians have not advanced
so far in the refinement of criminal justice, as to consider criminal
offences in the nature of offences perpetrated against the state, and
punishable by its officers.
Theft and robbery are punished by death inflicted by a _krís_; murder
and treason are punished in some cases by breaking the limbs of the
convict with a hatchet, and leaving him to linger some days in agony
till death ensues. Adultery is punished with death in the man and
perpetual servitude to the prince in the woman. This severity restrains
the crime; but in the small state of _Bliling_ there occur sometimes
several trials for it during the year.
The Raja must confirm every criminal sentence before it is executed,
and every civil decision that involves the servitude of the party.
Confiscation of the culprit's property follows capital punishment only,
the amount of which is divided between the prince and judges. In other
cases there is no confiscation.
The laws of _Báli_ differ from those of Java with respect to marriages
and divorces. In the former island, divorces are permitted under
no circumstances whatever; in the latter, almost every caprice is
sufficient to procure one. In _Báli_ the husband generally buys his
wife by paying a sum of money to her parents: thirty dollars is
the common price. If unable to pay this sum, he becomes, as in the
patriarchal times of scripture, the servant of the party to whom he
thus becomes indebted, and resides along with his wife in the house
of his father-in-law. His services are received in diminution of the
dowry; and if he acts so as to please the family of his wife, the
exaction of it is either in part or in whole remitted.
Without entering into any theory concerning the history of the
religious system of _Báli_, or any detailed comparison of it with
systems in India, the following notices may be thought interesting.
The inhabitants, as before stated, are divided into casts, named
_Bramána_, _Sátria_, _Wísia_, and _Súdra_. The _Bramánas_ are of
two descriptions, _Bramána Séwa_ and _Bramána Búda_. The former are
most respected, and refrain from eating all animal food, except that
of ducks, goats, and buffaloes: hogs' flesh and that of the cow are
forbidden. The _Bramána Búda_ eat indiscriminately of animal food.
The _Bramána Séwa_ are said not to perform worship in the temples: this
is left to the lowest orders, generally the _Súdras_. The worship of
the lower orders, as performed in the temples, cannot be called Hindu.
In these temples, which are very numerous, mud figures are placed,
representing the tutelar deities of each particular country.
The _Bramánas_ of all descriptions are held in great respect, and never
condescend to pay compliments to any person whatever. The respect in
which they are relatively held, seems to be in proportion to the age of
the person, and his supposed learning and accomplishments. A _Bramána_
may eat from the hands of another of a similar age, but not from those
of a junior.
The _Bramána_ are said not to worship idols, nor do they perform public
worship in the temples, but in their private houses only.
A _Bramána_ may marry a woman of an inferior order, but the offspring
of such a marriage is called _Bujánga_, which forms a distinct class.
There is in _Báli_ a class of outcasts, called _Chandálas_, who are not
permitted to reside in villages; are generally potters, dyers, dealers
in leather, distillers, and retailers of ardent spirits. The dancing
women are of the _Wisia_ and _Sudra_ castes.
A _Bramána_ cannot be in any servile occupation. He cannot sit on the
ground, nor perform obeisance to any other class.
The religion of _Báli_ has been considered as of two descriptions,
that of _Budh_ and that of _Bráma_. The Budhists are said to have come
first to the country. Of the _Bramánas_ of _Séwa_ nine generations are
said to have passed over since their arrival. The name of the principal
_Bramána_ of the caste of _Séwa_, who first settled on _Báli_, is said
to have been _Wútu Ráhu_: he came from _Telingána_, and on his way is
said to have touched at _Majapáhit_.
The Rajas of _Báli_ are generally of the _Satria_ caste; but this does
not always hold.
From information obtained at _Bliling_, it would appear that the
greater part of the population of _Báli_ follow the worship of _Séwa_.
The Budhists are said to be rare, and the names of three districts only
could be stated, where the Budhist religion is supposed to prevail.
The sacrifice of the widow on the funeral pile of her husband is
frequent. All classes may perform this sacrifice, but it is most
common with the _Satría_. Force is said never to be had recourse to
on these occasions. The number of women who sacrifice themselves
is extraordinary:--the father of the present Raja of _Bliling_ was
followed by no less than seventy-four women. The dead body is usually
preserved in these cases for many months, and even for a year. The
corpse is preserved by daily fumigations with _benzoin_.
The bodies of the dead are burnt, except in the case of children
before they have shed their teeth, and of all persons dying of the
small pox: as in the latter case the body cannot be preserved, and it
is usual, even with the lower orders, to keep the body for two months.
Among some, however, it is said to be usual to throw the dead bodies
into the sea.
The flesh of the cow is eaten by all except the _Bramánas_ who have
led a life of austerity: these refrain from eating even rice, and live
wholly upon roots and fruit.
The Budhists are said to be so little scrupulous in their diet, as to
eat not only the flesh of the cow, but even that of dogs and all other
animals. Milk is never used as an article of food.
These particulars respecting the religious observances of the Bálians
were obligingly communicated to me by Mr. Crawfurd, who visited the
island in 1814. In the following year I visited _Bliling_ myself; but
my stay was too short to obtain any very detailed information on this
interesting particular, further than a collection of their different
manuscripts, which have been brought to this country, and already
adverted to under the head of Javan literature.
On inquiring into the rank of their deities, they replied at once:
The first is _Batára Gúru_.
The second _Batára Bráma_, emblematical of fire.
The third _Batára Wísnu_, emblematical of water.
The fourth _Batára Séwa_, emblematical of air.
Besides these they have several other deities, not however termed
_Batára_, as:
_Déwa Géde Segara_, the deity of the sea.
_Déwa Géde Dálam_, emblematical of death.
_Déwa Géde Báli Agung_, the deity in whose temple (which is near
the _kadaton_ of the Raja), the common people on particular days
pay worship.
_Déwa Géde Gúnung Agung_, a deity still more generally worshipped,
and to whom all the Rajas and people of _Báli_ pay adoration.
The deity _Mahadéwa_ is known and mentioned in the religious books, but
is not an object of worship.
_Batára Gúru_ is considered as the highest object of worship below the
divinity. _Sang yang Túng'gal_ (the _Lord who is one_).
I shall close this account of the religion of _Báli_ with the following
literal translation of an account of the Hindu religion, furnished to
me by an intelligent Mahomedan, a native of the island.
"The religion of _Búdh_, as it exists on _Báli_, is divided into
_Sakálan_ and _Niskálan_. The first regards all worldly concerns, such
as the orders of the prince, the laws of the land, &c., including the
common affairs and transactions of life; the second comprehends all the
duties and ceremonies of religion, the conducting of which is in the
hands of the _Maperwíta_, or learned Brahmins called _Padénda_.
"The different kinds of worship attached to this division of the
religion, are those of _Batára Permisti Gúru_, _Batara Naráda_, _Batara
Sang yang Túng'gal_, and all his descendants; of all of whom images are
made, some of gold, some of silver, some of bell-metal, and some in
iron; and to whom are dedicated temples and places for the reception of
their images on _Gúnung Agung_, _Gúnug Bátu_, _Gúnung Baturkahu_, and
_Gúnung Predung_; but it is _Gúnung Agung_ that is the famous place for
them; and those figures are the objects of worship to all the princes
of _Báli_.
"When there happens to be a _mabántan_, which signifies a festival on
some grand occasion, all the Rajas, with their families, descendants,
and subjects, repair to _Gúnung Agung_ and invoke all the deities, the
_Maperwíta Bramána_ being summoned to attend and conduct the ceremonies.
"On occasions of less importance, those images only of the deities
which are behind their houses are worshipped, a _Maperwíta Bramána_
being called to attend and officiate.
"At the _Pembákaran_, or place where the bodies of the princes are
burned, there are also figures of the different deities, in places made
for their reception.
"Marriages (_mabandángan_) are sanctified by their being borne witness
to by the _Maperwíta Bramánas_, as well as all the deities who are
invoked on the occasion.
"On the new moon, and on the eighth and twenty-third of the month
all the deities are worshipped, every one joining in the ceremonies.
Should any of the Rajas attend on those days, he of the greatest rank,
and power orders the attendance of the _Maperwíta Bramánas_. Great
offerings being made to the deities, thousands of people are afterwards
fed with their consecrated fragments. On these occasions the _Maperwíta
Bramána_, called _Padénda_, administers to the people holy water, which
they both drink and perform ablutions with.
"On the day of the new year, the deities are worshipped, ablutions
performed, and offerings made. Cloths and money, &c. are offered twice
a year, _Bramána Padénda_ attending and invoking the deities.
"On the day _támpak klíwon_, the _Bramána Padénda_ performs prayers,
using holy water.
"When it is _támpak wáyang_, which means the new year _wáyangs_,
offerings are made and placed at all the outer doors, but no
worshipping takes place.
"At the annual festivals of _támpuk kándang_, there are offerings made
on account of all the different animals.
"There is also the fast of _Nyualátu_, which lasts a day and a night,
during which time food and sleep must be abstained from. This fast must
be held on the first or the fifteenth of the month."
FOOTNOTES:
[303] In the estimate is probably included the population of those
districts on the island of _Sasak_ or _Lombok_, which are subject to
the chiefs of Bali.
[304] Having repeatedly had occasion, in the course of this work, to
advert to the slave trade, and the sources whence the supplies of
slaves were obtained, it may not be uninteresting to introduce to
the reader a native of _Papua_, or New Guinea[306], stolen from his
country in the course of this traffic. The lad represented in the plate
came into my service at _Bali_ under very peculiar circumstances,
and has accompanied me to England. Since his arrival he has excited
some curiosity, as being the first individual of the woolly haired
race of Eastern Asia who has been brought to this country. It is
known, that on the Malayan Peninsula, in Luconia, Borneo, and most
of the larger islands of the Eastern Seas, there are occasionally
found in the mountainous tracts a scattered race of blacks entirely
distinct from the rest of the population. Some have conceived them
to be the aborigines of these countries; others considering them as
of the African race, adduce them in proof of an early and extensive
intercourse between Africa and these islands. I shall content myself
with observing, that they appear at the present day to form the bulk of
the population of Papua or New Guinea. The following remarks upon the
individual now in England, whom we sometimes call Papua, and sometimes
(more to his satisfaction) Dick, were obligingly communicated to me by
Sir Everard Home, Bart.
"The Papuan differs from the African negro in the following
particulars. His skin is of a lighter colour, the woolly hair grows
in small tufts, and each hair has a spiral twist. The forehead rises
higher, and the hind head is not so much cut off. The nose projects
more from the face. The upper lip is longer and more prominent. The
lower lip projects forward from the lower jaw to such an extent that
the chin forms no part of the face, the lower part of which is formed
by the mouth. The buttocks are so much lower than in the negro as to
form a striking mark of distinction, but the calf of the leg is as high
as in the negro."
[305] This description is taken from _Bliling_, one of the independent
states, and with slight variations may be considered as applicable to
all.
[306] Couto, on the 3d chapter of the 3d book of the 4th Decada, gives
an account of the discovery of Papua by Don Jorge de Meneges (about the
year 1528 or 1533) who, in a calm was hurried by a strong current with
extraordinary rapidity to the eastward, until he arrived at a country
inhabited by a race as black as negroes, or the natives of the southern
coast of Africa, from the Cape of Good Hope to Mosambique; they visited
the king on shore, who was as black as the others.
The monsoon detained Meneges here some months, during which time he
had a friendly intercourse with the natives, who became very familiar,
supplying him in barter with what he wanted; but they informed him that
in the interior there were men who eat human flesh.
"Here," says he, "our people saw both men and women as white and as
fair as Germans, and on asking how those people were called, they
answered 'Papuas,' and on account of the little knowledge which we had
at that time of the country, we concluded that they were islands. But
from what we afterwards understood, this must be the country which
Marco Polo, the Venetian, calls Lechac, and which he says is very rich
in gold."
APPENDIX L.
_PROCLAMATION, declaring the PRINCIPLES of the INTENDED CHANGE of
SYSTEM._
The Right Honourable Lord Minto, previous to his departure from Java,
having adverted to the general system of the administration, and of
the internal management established under the former government of
this island, was pleased to suggest and recommend such improvements,
as upon correct information, and an adequate knowledge of the state of
society amongst the native inhabitants, might be deemed conducive to
the advancement of individual happiness and of public prosperity.
With a view to promote so desirable an event, the Honourable the
Lieutenant-Governor in Council nominated a Committee, of which
Lieutenant-Colonel Colin Mackenzie was president, who, with the zeal,
talent, and industrious research which characterize that officer,
obtained, with the aid of the members of the Committee, authentic
statistical accounts of this island; while the fund of valuable
information, thus acquired, has been increased from other respectable
channels of communication.
The Honourable the Lieutenant-Governor in Council has, therefore,
after the most mature consideration, deemed it advisable to establish
an improved system of political economy throughout this island, with
the intention of ameliorating the condition of all its inhabitants, by
affording that protection to individual industry, which will insure to
every class of society the equitable and undisturbed enjoyment of the
fruits of labour; and while it is confidently expected that private
happiness and public prosperity will be advanced under this change of
system, such alterations and amendments will be hereafter adopted, as
experience may suggest, or the improving habits and manners of the body
of the people may seem to require.
The following principles form the basis of the new arrangements, and
are made public for general information.
1. The undue influence and authority of the native chiefs have been
restricted: but government will avail themselves of their services in
the important department of the native police, which will be arranged
upon fixed principles, adapted to the habits and original institutions
of the people. A competent provision in lands and in money has been
allotted to such chiefs, and it therefore naturally becomes both their
duty and their interest, to encourage industry and to protect the
inhabitants.
2. The government lands will be let generally to the heads of villages,
who will be held responsible for the proper management of such
portions of the country as may be placed under their superintendence
and authority. They will re-let these lands to the cultivators, under
certain restrictions, at such a rate as shall not be found oppressive;
and all tenants under government will be protected in their just
rights, so long as they shall continue to perform their correspondent
engagements faithfully; for it is intended to promote extensive
industry and consequent improvement, by giving the people an interest
in the soil, and by instituting amongst them an acknowledged claim to
the possession of the lands, that they may be thus induced to labour
for their own profit and advantage.
3. The system of vassalage and forced deliveries has been abolished
generally throughout the island: but in the Batavian and Preangen
Regencies such a modification of the former arrangements has been
carried into execution, as it was found practicable, under existing
circumstances, to introduce; and provisionally the Blandong system will
be continued to a certain extent in the central Forest Districts.
4. To encourage the cultivation of so important an article of export
as coffee may become, when the trade of Europe and America may be
thrown open to free competition, government have stipulated to
receive any surplus quantity of that commodity from the cultivators,
at a reasonable and fixed rate, when a higher price for it cannot be
obtained in the market.
5. To extend free trade and commerce, and to promote a spirit of
enterprise and speculation amongst the inhabitants, the Bhoom farms
have been abolished, the duties upon the principal articles of export
have been taken off, and it is intended to modify and amend the
custom-house regulations before the 1st January next. The toll-gates
and transport duties of the interior have been diminished as much as
possible, and in the gradual progression of improvement they will be
finally abolished.
6. Every facility will be afforded towards obtaining teak timber for
the construction of small craft, and of such additional tonnage as,
upon the improved system, will be undoubtedly required.
7. Government have taken upon themselves the exclusive management of
the salt department. It appears, that the inhabitants in most parts
of the island paid a very irregular and exorbitant price for this
necessary article of consumption; while the system adopted by the
farmers was radically vicious, and equally oppressive and vexatious
to the people, as it was detrimental to the immediate interests of
government.
Such an improved system for the supply of salt will be immediately
adopted, as may appear advisable; and in this and every other
arrangement, the government propose the advancement of the interests
and the happiness of the people at large, and the promotion of the
public prosperity of this colony.
Given at Batavia, this 15th day of October, 1813.
By me, the Lieutenant-Governor of the Island
of Java and its Dependencies,
T. S. RAFFLES.
By order of the Honourable the
Lieutenant-Governor in Council,
C. ASSEY,
_Secretary to Government_.
COUNCIL CHAMBER,
Oct. 15, 1813.
APPENDIX L. No. II.
REVENUE INSTRUCTIONS.
The Honourable the Lieutenant-Governor in Council having taken into
mature consideration the state of the Land Revenue of this Island,
and being impressed with the necessity of establishing one uniform,
equitable, and adequate system for its assessment and realization, has
been pleased to direct that the following instructions be sent to the
Residents, Collectors, and other officers, to whom are consigned the
charge of the several provinces under his authority.
1. It is the object of government to separate, in a great measure, the
revenue from the judicial branches of the internal administration, it
being deemed that a more lucid and simple arrangement of the public
business will be formed thereby; and that the relieving the residents
from a part of their at present too extensive and complicated duties,
will ensure so much easier and better execution of the remainder, as
fully to counterbalance any additional expense that may be incurred by
the adoption of the measure.
2. For this purpose it has been resolved, that collectors shall be
appointed immediately to the various districts, whose office shall
consist in the sole and entire superintendance of the land revenue,
and to whom therefore shall be made over by the Residents the complete
charge of that department, with all such papers, documents, &c. as are
in any way connected with it.
3. In some instances, however, from strong local, political, or other
reasons, it is considered advisable, that several branches of the
public duty remain still vested for a time in the Resident alone. As
this necessity shall cease, care will be taken, by the introduction of
separate collectors, to attain uniformity. But, in the mean time, it is
particularly enjoined to such Residents as are continued in this double
capacity of revenue and judicial superintendants, to take due care that
these several branches be not blended in the execution, but that each
part of their duty be discharged according to the department to which
it belongs, and that their several proceedings be recorded in their
proper departments only, distinct from all others.
4. A similar line of conduct will be observed in the maintenance of the
establishments necessary for carrying on the business of these several
departments; these establishments being kept as much apart, and as much
confined to their distinct details, when the duties of collector and
judge and magistrate are exercised by the same person, as when there
are different officers appointed for the superintendance of each.
5. Those Residents, therefore, to whom will still be entrusted
the collection of the land revenue, will consider the following
instructions to collectors as addressed to themselves in that capacity.
Each collector shall forward to government a list of such establishment
(with the salaries to each individual that he would recommend) as he
deems adequate to carrying on the business in his head office, where
the general papers, accounts, &c. will be prepared, and which will be
conducted under his own immediate inspection.
6. This establishment may consist of one native assistant and such
number of writers (Javans and English) opasses, and other servants,
as may be necessary. This native assistant ought to be a man of rank,
respectability, and information, that he may be at once competent, by
his knowledge of the manners, characters, and habits of the native
inhabitants, to assist the collector in advising measures best suited
to each occasion, and by the estimation in which he is held by the
people, to lend a considerable aid in carrying those measures duly into
execution.
7. His salary may amount to from one to two hundred rupees per month,
or a quantity of land equal to such sum may be allowed him rent free.
8. It may be advisable to employ for this situation some of the
Bopatis, Patehs, or Tumunggungs, who have been, but are not now, in the
actual service of government. This, as salaries or pensions are, in
many instances, already allowed in the manner of sinecures, may prove
a considerable saving to government; and, at the same time, the having
a duty annexed to their present receipts, which will carry with it a
considerable degree of authority and consequence, may be more pleasing
to many, than the idle enjoyment of a sum of money, for which they must
feel that they are at present making no adequate return.
9. For the outer establishments, those necessary for carrying on the
details in each village or division, it is not intended to create any
new officers; those at present entertained, and who have as yet very
well executed the double duties of police and revenue, being deemed the
most competent and best fitted for continuing to manage the business of
these several departments.
10. It is not the additional expense which would arise from the
appointing a new description of revenue officers, that is alone
considered in this arrangement. The formation of a distinct revenue
establishment throughout the interior is, on many other accounts,
deemed an innovation that would be attended with considerable trouble,
that would prove less pleasing to the inhabitants themselves, and that
would not be nearly so adequate to the management of the collections,
as the collection of the combined establishment at present existing.
11. The head inhabitant of a Javan village has, from immemorial usage,
been considered to have vested in him the general superintendance of
the affairs relating to that village, whether in attending to the
police, settling the minor disputes that occur within its limits, or of
collecting its revenues, or more often its services. For this purpose,
his office has been elective, and the powers he exercises entrusted to
him by his fellow inhabitants.
12. A writer, priest, and other subordinate officers and servants,
completed its regular establishment. From harassing wars, long
oppression, feudal tyranny, and European innovation, it is true that,
in many parts of the country, scarcely a vestige remains of that
species of constitution; but it is universally acknowledged that such
was once its pure form throughout the island, and such is it still
existing in many places.
13. This simple mode of village administration Government cannot but
admire and entirely approve of; and deeming it at once the best suited
to the genius of the people, and as promising to be the most conducive
to the interest of the ruling power, they have resolved that such
system shall be acknowledged and encouraged, by every means in their
power, throughout the provinces under their authority.
14. The head inhabitant therefore (whether recognized under the name
of the Petingi, Bukul, Lura, Kuwu, Mandor, or otherwise), according to
the custom of the country, shall have entrusted to him the management
of the revenue concerns of his village; a duty which his personal
influence, and minutely intimate acquaintance with the situations and
concerns of the several inhabitants of it, will render him better than
any other qualified to discharge. He shall furnish such accounts and
statements as he may from time to time be required to do; and shall
obey such orders as he may receive directly from the collector or his
assistant, or from the officer of the division in which his village is
situated.
15. These officers of division shall likewise be continued in the
double capacity of superintending both the judicial and the revenue
proceedings within the limits of their official range. This practice,
indeed, is consonant with the immemorial customs of the country, and
deemed most calculated to render benefit in the conduct of either
department.
16. By the judicial regulation lately enacted, the officer of division
has been empowered to settle such minor disputes as may be considered
as belonging to the revenue branch, such as the determining contested
boundaries, trespass, irregularity in the dispositions for irrigation,
&c. and by extending this authority so as to empower him to take
regular cognizance of all transactions respecting revenue collections,
and to inspect whenever he pleases the several village accounts, it is
deemed that his office will become one of very great utility; serving,
in future, by its records, to refer to on every occasion, when it may
be wished to ascertain the precise nature of any permanent property or
local usage within the division.
17. To them, therefore, shall be considered in every way subordinate
the heads of villages; and it is trusted that they will prove a most
useful check on them.
18. The officers of division shall furnish to the collector all such
papers as may be required, and shall diligently execute any orders that
they may receive, either from him or from his native assistant.
19. Respecting the salaries for these inferior servants of government,
they have already been in most instances fixed; certain allotments of
land, rent free, or sums of money monthly, being given to them.
20. The money salaries of those servants who are connected with the
Resident, shall be continued to be paid by him as they are at present.
21. The allotments of land shall fall under the collector's
superintendance, and he shall set down among the charges of collection,
sums of money equal to what would be the monied rent of those lands
were they not free. For this purpose, they shall be assessed, and
regularly entered among the other lands in the general lease of the
village: but the collection of this assessed rent shall not be actually
made; it shall only appear in the accounts, as that it had been
realized, and paid to the several officers.
22. For the other officers attached to the collector, namely, those in
his head office, some it is concluded will be paid by portions of land
being made over to them, others by monthly sums of money. The accounts
of the former will be settled as already mentioned. The salaries of the
latter will be drawn for by bills on the Resident, who will continue to
be the sole treasurer of the district.
23. The collector will accordingly forward to him the several sums of
money he may receive in his collections, whenever they amount to five
hundred rupees.
24. It is trusted that the placing the heads of villages and officers
of divisions, in some measure, under two authorities, to whom they
must separately report, will not be attended with any eventual evil
or confusion. When these arrangements become well matured, and the
exact limits of their several duties clearly defined, the subordinate
officers will not find any difficulty in their execution. For the
attainment of this desirable end, however, much must depend upon
the conduct of the Resident and collector. They are placed in these
districts, not as persons who are to serve in any way as checks upon
each other, but who are required to act together for the general good;
mutually to assist each other to the extent of their power, and by
preserving between themselves a good understanding, to carry on better
their respective duties.
25. Should, in any case, a disagreement of opinion arise on any subject
between them, a reference will be immediately made to the Honourable
the Lieutenant-Governor, who will without delay pass on it his decision.
26. It need hardly be observed, that the collectors will possess no
magisterial authority whatsoever: application will be regularly made
by him to the Resident, as judge and magistrate, whenever it becomes
necessary to call on that officer for aid in either capacity, whether
to punish the misconduct of servants, or to realize by civil suit
any part of the dues of government. The process to be observed, in
either case, will be precisely similar to what is prescribed where
the two parties in the suit are private individuals: government by no
means wishing to enjoy themselves any better security of right, than
that which they would ensure to the meanest of their subjects, nor
to possess a greater facility of redress than is provided by their
regulations to be offered to any individual who shall consider himself
as aggrieved.
27. As the first step towards the introduction of an adequate system
of internal administration, it becomes positively necessary that
government should be furnished with the fullest and completest view of
the actual resources of the country.
28. The minutest details must be collected, arranged, and considered,
before any system can be properly reduced to practice, or any
assessment can be justly made.
29. But when once this body of information is obtained, the business
of the revenue settlement will become comparatively light, and will
be able to be proceeded with on the clearest and most equitable
principles. It will serve too, on all future occasions, as a complete
collection of the most valuable data to which to refer back for any
purpose, or on which to ground any measures that may, in future, be
deemed advisable. The obtaining this, government are fully aware, must
be a work the most laborious: but placing the fullest reliance on the
zeal, industry, and talents of those officers through whom they expect
to derive such information, they look forward with confidence to its
accomplishment in a manner as complete, and in a period as short as
is possible, where inquiries are to be made at once so minute and so
extensive.
30. It must be considered too, that however heavy, at first, this
compilation may prove, it will ultimately most materially save both
the time and trouble of the collectors. Daily occurrences will
constantly require that information which it is now desired should be
at once obtained; and by possessing such a standard for conducting
the business, a simple reference to it will very often be sufficient,
when otherwise there would arise a necessity for instituting inquiries
of the same nature, numberless and troublesome, on every new, however
trivial, occasion. Every collector, in short, who is anxious to perform
well the duties entrusted to him, must wish to be in possession of such
a mass of information as is now proposed to be collected.
31. The best mode to be adopted will be as follows:
The collector, attended by his native assistant, and such servants
as are necessary, must himself proceed to the chief station in each
division, where he will cause to be assembled the head inhabitants of
the several villages contained in it. To these he must clearly explain
the nature of the information desired; and through their means it is
expected that it will be obtained without difficulty.
32. Whenever it may be necessary, the collector will visit the village
itself, and on the spot cause such inquiries to be made as are
requisite.
33. The officers of survey, lately attached to the Residents, will
accompany the collectors through this tour, and give such professional
aid as may be desired.
34. They will make one general survey of the whole collectorship,
forming therefrom a map, on an uniform scale of one English inch to an
English mile: in this the limits of each village and of each division
will be accurately defined, and the direction and situation of forests,
rivers, roads, mountains, &c. will also be correctly delineated.
35. By this general plan, the collector will know exactly the amount of
land to be accounted for by each village; and the several lesser sums,
as they will be thus brought together, will serve to prove the truth of
the aggregate statement.
36. These surveyors will further take any such lesser surveys or
measurements as they may be directed to do by the collectors.
37. The papers to be furnished by each village are three; forms for
which are the enclosures marked A, B, and C. Some observations are
necessary in explanation of these.
38. From the detailed papers of cultivators, and householders not
cultivators, will be framed the general account of the village. The
reason for separating the inhabitants into these two classes is
obvious. It is wished that the exact resources of the country may be
seen at one view, to know what part of the population are actually
employed in the cultivation of the soil, and to learn in what way
the remainder are disposed of. It is also considered but just, that
to equalize in some measure the payments from all ranks of people, a
tenement tax (or more properly a small rent for the ground on which
their houses stand) should be levied from those who contribute nothing
to the land rents.
39. But as the extension of this through all the petty villages
might be deemed vexatious, and as, in reality, in those very small
communities the payment by any party is virtually a payment by the
whole of the inhabitants, it is resolved that such tax shall not be
levied there. But there is no reason for including in this indulgence
the inhabitants of towns; these, as in some places already ordered,
should by means of such tax contribute their just share of the payments
to government.
40. The assessment and collection of this shall form part of the
collector's duty. The principle on which it must proceed will be to
divide the houses into three classes, according to their size and the
general circumstances of their owners.