133. As it is most essential that access_The History of Java, v. 1-2

rendered as easy and free as possible to the injured, the Residents are

ordered to receive at all times, and to pay the utmost attention, to

every petition that may be presented to them.

134. But as, in the ordinary course, the officers or servants of

government, or others, may, from interested, partial, or resentful

motives, find means to debar approach to the Resident in his house, he

shall cause a box to be placed at the door of the court, into which

petitions may be dropped; of this he shall himself keep the key, and,

on going into court, open it with his own hand, and have the contents

read to him. He shall, at the same time, in the open space before the

court, invite the giving in to him any complaints from persons who may

consider themselves as aggrieved.

135. It must be observed, that in all causes which come into the

courts, the respective parties in them shall plead in their own

behalf. It not having been heretofore usual to employ _Vakeels_, or

native lawyers, for this purpose; no persons of this description shall

be admitted. And it is trusted that litigation will be considerably

reduced and discouraged by this measure, as the trouble of it will then

fall heavily and entirely on the principals themselves; that class of

people not being allowed to exist, who, as deriving from litigation

their sole subsistence, may fairly, and without invidiousness, be

considered as having some interest in increasing the business of the

courts.

136. The Resident is particularly enjoined to pay the greatest

attention to the state of the persons in confinement by his orders.

137. There shall be one gaol only in each Residency, and that at the

place where the Resident himself resides. He shall visit it at least

once a fortnight, and redress all complaints that may be preferred to

him by the prisoners of ill treatment, punishing amply every instance

that shall come to his knowledge, of misconduct in the gaoler or other

officers in charge of the prison.

138. He shall take, too, the necessary measures for the preservation

of the health and cleanliness of the prisoners; requiring the Surgeon

of the Residency to visit them at least once a day, and to administer

to the sick. The Surgeon shall be further directed to deliver in a

monthly report to the Resident on this subject, stating the number of

sick, nature of disease, cause of it where assignable, and result of

his medical operations in the several cases. To this may be added any

suggestions that may be deemed beneficial.

139. The internal arrangements of the gaol ought to be so ordered,

that the prisoners shall not be confined together promiscuously, but

different apartments be allotted, not only for persons of different

sexes, but also for those in confinement for different gradations of

offence. For the following descriptions of prisoners, separate wards

ought to be formed. Prisoners under sentence of death. Prisoners

confined under sentence of the Court of Circuit or of the Resident.

Prisoners committed to take their trial before the Court of Circuit.

Prisoners committed to take their trial before the Resident. And one

spacious and airy apartment should be reserved for such persons as are

awaiting the preliminary examination in the court.

140. All prisoners or witnesses detained in criminal cases shall be

maintained at the expense of government. But the subsistence of persons

confined on civil accounts shall be furnished in the usual manner by

the complainants in those suits.

141. The rate of maintenance must depend on the general price of food

in the district where the confinement takes place. It ought to be

sufficiently ample to secure the necessaries of life, but by no means

any thing further; it ought not, in short, to be higher than the price

for which the lowest description of labour could be obtained. On this

principle the Residents will regulate the allowance for prisoners, and

when settled and approved of by government, it shall be considered as

fixed, and be publicly made known.

142. The Residents finally shall see that the prisoners receive all

the comforts compatible with their respective situations, and that

the allowance granted by government, or others, for their support, be

properly applied.

143. With respect to the authority of the Resident's Court over

Europeans, Chinese, or other foreigners, though it has not heretofore

been ordered that they be amenable to any but the courts of justice

in Batavia, _Semárang_, and _Surabáya_; yet as great inconvenience

may be, and has been experienced, from their being under a separate

jurisdiction from their fellow-inhabitants, and as it is the wish of

government that they be allowed to partake of every benefit afforded to

its other subjects, of which a prompt and easy access to justice must

be considered as the chief, the following orders are issued respecting

them.

144. No Europeans, Chinese, or other foreigners, at present settled, or

who, in future, may wish to settle in the interior, shall be allowed

to reside in any part of the country without the immediate limits of

the towns of Batavia, _Semárang_, and _Surabáya_, unless they present

themselves to the Resident, to be regularly enrolled in a register to

be kept for that purpose, and obtain from him a license for remaining.

This license shall not be granted, unless each individual enter into a

penalty-bond of five hundred rupees, that he will abide by the civil

decisions of the Resident's Court to that amount; but if this be agreed

to, the license shall on no account be withheld, unless the Resident

can, and does, give such reasons for withholding it as the government

shall approve of. No fee whatsoever shall be given for these licenses.

145. Should it, at any time, happen that a cause, in which more than

five hundred rupees is at issue, should come before the Resident,

wherein a foreigner living in the interior is concerned, the Resident

shall call on him to execute a further bond, which may cover the amount

of the suit; and in case of refusal to do so, he shall not be permitted

any longer to reside within his jurisdiction.

146. After taking out these licenses, foreigners shall, in every

respect, be considered in the same light as other inhabitants, and sue

and be sued precisely in the same manner as the natives.

147. Should any foreigner, after these precautions, refuse to abide

by the decision of the Resident, a report on his conduct shall be

forwarded to government, and he shall instantly be made to leave the

interior, and be prosecuted for the amount of the penalty he has

incurred, in the established manner, in the courts of justice at

Batavia, _Semárang_, and _Surabáya_.

148. In criminal cases, where a foreigner is charged with any offence,

the Resident shall execute the duties of a justice of the peace,

issuing a warrant for his apprehension, examining into the evidence

adduced, and, according to circumstances, releasing him forthwith, or

committing him to take his trial before the Court of Circuit.

149. It must be understood, that the term here of "foreigners" is

intended only to include Europeans, Chinese, Arabs, Mussulmen from

the various parts of India, or, in short, the natives of any country

that is without the limits of the Malayan Archipelago. But as there

will resort to the coasts of Java, in small trading vessels, very many

of the inhabitants of the neighbouring islands, to whom the entering

into bonds, or being subject to other such legal forms, would prove a

serious inconvenience, serving perhaps eventually to discourage them

considerably from engaging in such commercial adventures, which it is

rather the wish of this government in every way to promote; and as

by the religion, laws, and usages of this and the various islands in

the vicinity, being, both in form and substance, nearly identified

(differing only in some few instances in shades slight and of little

moment), it cannot be considered as repugnant to the principles of

justice, that they be at once held amenable to the jurisdiction

established for this island, during their continuance on it; and it is

therefore ordered, that they be looked on and proceeded with in manner

no way differing from that prescribed for the actual natives of Java.

150. In the event of the death of any British inhabitant or passenger

within his district, it is the duty of the Resident to place the seals

of office immediately on the effects of the deceased, after defraying

the expense of interment; and to report the same immediately for

the further orders of government; and, in the event of the death of

Burghers, Chinese, Mussulmen, or others, he will be guided by the laws

and regulations existing on that head. In all cases, he will be careful

that no injustice be practised in this important subject, and that

where arrears are due to government, no property be transferred or sold

until the same have been satisfied, or until the pleasure of government

is known.

151. The Court of Circuit has already been established by the fifth

clause of the Proclamation by government, dated the 21st January, 1812.

But as the taking away at once the president and one member from the

courts of justice rendered those courts, in their absence, incompetent

to carry on the current business of their districts, and as a more

particular definition of the duties attached to this department is

deemed necessary, the following sections must be considered as an

enlargement and modification of that clause.

152. In order to ensure the regular, certain, and impartial

administration of justice throughout the different districts of the

island, one member of the Supreme Court of justice at Batavia, and of

the courts of justice at _Semárang_ and _Surabáya_, shall four times in

the year, at stated periods, or oftener if necessary, make a circuit

through the districts, under the jurisdiction of their respective

courts, for the purpose of hearing and trying all such offences and

criminal cases within the same, as shall have been made over to them by

the magistrates appointed for that purpose.

153. Previously to entering upon the execution of the duties of his

office, each of these judges shall take and subscribe, before the

Honourable the Lieutenant-governor in Council, or any person appointed

by him to administer the same, an oath in the same form as already laid

down for the Residents in section 86 of this Regulation.

154. Upon the arrival of the judge of circuit, the Resident or

magistrate shall have in readiness to deliver to him a list of the

persons committed to prison, or held to bail, for trial, together with

the copies of the charges preferred against each, their confessions,

if any have been made (but these, it must be observed, must always be

received with circumspection and tenderness), or if they have pleaded

not guilty, the depositions of the witnesses, and all other proceedings

held by him in the respective cases, previously to their commitment to

prison, or being held to bail.

155. He shall likewise submit to the judge of circuit, on his arrival

at the station, a separate list of all such persons as he may, within

the last three months, have apprehended and discharged for want of

sufficient evidence against them; that is, of all such as would, had

presumption of guilt been sufficiently established, have been made over

to the court of circuit for trial.

156. The judge of circuit shall then proceed to hold his court. Such

officers shall belong to it as he may have brought with him for that

purpose, and he shall be attended by all such others belonging to the

Resident's establishment, as he may deem necessary.

157. The court shall be held in the _Paserban_, or usual chief room

of justice belonging to the station; and the Resident, in carrying on

any judicial or magisterial proceedings, during the continuance of the

judge of circuit at his station, shall use for that purpose some other

convenient place.

158. On opening the court the head _Jáksa_ shall present a list of

persons summoned to act as jurymen; out of which five shall be taken in

the usual manner, and be empanelled.

159. The persons composing this jury ought to be as near on an equality

as to rank in life with the prisoner as possible. But no one under the

rank of a head of a village shall be competent to act as a juryman, as

persons below that office, or in the very lower orders of life, cannot

be supposed to possess either independence or knowledge sufficient to

qualify them to execute justly the duties of the situation. The person

senior in dignity among them shall be appointed to act as foreman; and,

for this purpose, it may be as well that one of higher rank than the

other four should be always selected in the first nomination of the

jury.

160. A right of challenge shall belong, as in the English courts, to

both the prosecutor and the prisoner.

161. The head of the village in which the offence is alleged to have

been committed, shall not be permitted to act as juryman in the trial.

162. No other prescribed disqualification exists against persons of

that or higher rank; the right of challenge being deemed sufficient to

secure the forming of a competent, unbiassed, and independent jury.

163. The cause shall then be proceeded with; and sentence being passed,

it shall become the duty of the Resident to see that it be carried duly

into execution, a warrant for that purpose being given to him, under

the seal and signature of the judge of circuit.

164. The circuit judge, throughout the conduct of the cause, in his

mode of proceeding, of summing up the evidence, receiving the verdict

of the jury, and passing sentence on the prisoner, shall be guided

entirely by the established rules of his court, the regulations of

government, and the general instructions he will receive.

165. And with respect to the law which must guide him throughout, he

must, in the first instance, take down the native law in the case as

may be expounded by the _Panghúlu_ and _Jáksa_; and modify thereon his

decision, according to the provisions of the colonial law, and the

acknowledged principles of substantial justice.

166. He shall not only try such cases as may have been made over to his

court, previously to entering the district, but also any such as the

Resident may make over to him while there.

167. He shall, on closing his court at each station, forward to the

Honourable the Lieutenant-governor, a clear and full report of all

his proceedings, stating the names of the prisoners tried by him,

the nature of the evidence adduced on behalf of both prosecution and

defence, the verdict of the jury, and his consequent sentence thereon.

168. If, in any case, his opinion differ from that of the jury, he

shall detail the reasons which have influenced him in that difference;

and he shall always state any such circumstances as may warrant a

mitigation, or even total remission of the punishment.

169. The approval of these proceedings, and the instructions on them

from the Honourable the Lieutenant-governor, must be received prior to

his issuing his warrants to the Resident.

170. But as this communication, and the reply to it, may induce too

great a delay, the judge of circuit must, on shutting his court, remand

the prisoner to gaol, and move on himself to the next district he has

to visit; from whence he will be able to send back the warrants to the

Resident, when an answer to his report shall have been received.

171. Accompanying this report, the judge of circuit shall forward

to government a detailed opinion on the state of the Residency,

with respect to its police, its general administration, and other

circumstances connected with its actual condition; suggesting, at the

same time, any such improvement as, in his opinion, would be conducive

to its general prosperity.

172. It remains, finally, to be observed to the Residents, that as

the police of different districts must be, in some measure, adapted

to various circumstances and localities, they are authorized to

enlarge upon these general regulations for the administration of that

department within their respective jurisdictions, reporting their

suggestions of improvement to government. But it is recommended to

those officers to become well acquainted with the ancient usages

and institutions of the people placed under their authority; and in

submitting their observations, they will be solicitous rather to

improve upon the solid foundations of ancient regulations and customs,

both acknowledged and understood by the people, than to invent new

systems of administration, which for some time must, of necessity,

be quite unintelligible to the inhabitants, and which, after the

experience of a few years, may probably be found to be by no means

congenial to their genius or habits.

173. Copies of this Regulation shall be forwarded to the various

officers of government concerned in the carrying it into execution;

and translations of it, in the Javan and Malayan languages, shall be

furnished to the _Bopátis_ and other native officers. It shall be

the duty of these to explain and cause to be made known its purport

throughout the country; and for the doing this the more effectually,

copies shall always lie on the tables of the several courts, to be open

for public reference and inspection.

APPENDIX E.--No. I.

A COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY OF THE MALAYU, JAVAN, MADURESE, BALI, AND

LAMPUNG LANGUAGES.

+-----------+----------------+

|ENGLISH. | MALÁYU. |

| | +

| | |

+-----------+----------------+

| | |

|God |túhan; álah' |

| | |

|Creation |ka-jádian |

|Eternity |kakálan |

| | |

|Angel |maláikat |

|Soul |jíwa; niáwa |

|Life |idup; hidop |

|Demon | |

| or ghost |hantu |

|World |dúnia |

|Heaven |súrga |

|Sky |láng'it |

|Light |cháhia |

|Star |bintang |

|Halo of | |

| the moon |pagar-búlan |

|Planet |bintang-berjálan|

|Saturn |bintang zahil |

|Jupiter |bintang mastri |

|Mars |bintang marikh |

|Venus |bintang zahára |

|Mercury |bintang átarad |

|Sun |mata-hári |

|Moon |búlan |

|A comet |bintang ber-ikur|

|The milky | |

| way |bima-sákti |

|Sunrise |terbet-máta-hári|

|North pole |bintang-utára |

|South pole |bintang-selátan |

|Equator |{gáris-sa- } |

| |{teng'ah-dúnia} |

|Ecliptic |âlan-máta-hári |

|Aries |bintáng-hamel |

|Taurus |bintáng-thur |

|Gemini |bintáng-júza |

|Cancer |bintáng-sertan |

|Leo |bintáng-ásad |

|Virgo |bintáng-sánbla |

|Libra |bintáng-mírzan |

|Scorpio |bintáng-kála |

|Sagittarius|bintáng-kos |

|Capricorn |bintáng-jádi |

|Aquarius |bintáng-dálu |

|Pisces |bintáng-hot |

|Rainbow |úlar-dánu |

|East |timur |

|South |slátan |

|West | bárat |

|North |útára |

|Earth |búmi |

|Island |púlau |

|Mountain |gúnung |

|Stone |bátu |

|Rain |újan |

|River |súngái; káli |

+-----------+----------------+

+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------+

|ENGLISH. | JAVAN. |

| +------------------+---------------+------------------+

+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------+

| |{yéwang wídi;} | |{hongyéwang; |

|God |{pang'éran; } |-- |{sang-yéwang; |

| |{gusti; alah } | | |

|Eternity |kaleng'gang'an |-- |{kakálan |

| | | |{láng-geng'an |

|The milky | | |

| way |bima-sákti |-- |bima-sákti |

|Equator |{gára-s -} |-- |{gáres-} |

| |{teng'ah-jágat} |-- |{siteng'ah-jágat} |

|Leo |lintáng-ásad |-- |bentéung-ásad |

+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------+

+-----------+----------------------------------------+

|ENGLISH. | MADURESE. |

| +-----------------+----------------------+

| | Madúra. | Sumenáp. |

+-----------+----------------------------------------+

| | | |

|God |pangéran |álah |

| | | |

|Creation |ka-dádian |ka-dádian |

|Eternity |kaláng-gang'an |láng-gang |

| | | |

|Angel |malaékat |mala-ékat |

|Soul |niába |niáwa |

|Life |ódi |údi |

|Demon | | |

| or ghost |anto |antu |

|World |dúnia |dúnia |

|Heaven |seárga |súar-ga |

|Sky |láng'it |láng'é |

|Light |sadja; cháhia |cháhia |

|Star |bintang |bintang |

|Halo of | | |

| the moon |-- |kalang'an-búlan |

|Planet |bintang-ájalan |bintang-ájalan |

|Saturn |bintang-jóhal |bintang súhal |

|Jupiter |bintang-mustári |bintang-mustári |

|Mars |bintang-maríh |bintang marih |

|Venus |bintang-johro |bintang-súhara |

|Mercury |bintang-ng'alárid|bintang álarad |

|Sun |ng'areh |áré |

|Moon |búlan |búlan |

|A comet |-- |bintang-abúntok |

|The milky | | |

| way |-- |preng-sadápur |

|Sunrise |kalúar-áreh |kalúar-ári; medal ári |

|North pole |bintang-útára |bintang-kelod |

|South pole |bintang-salátan |bintang-salátan |

|Equator |{gáris-sátan-} |{gáris-sátan-} |

| |{g'ah-dúnia } |{g'ah-dúnia } |

|Ecliptic |jálan-áreb |jálan-ári |

|Aries |bintang-kámel |-- |

|Taurus |bintang-tor |-- |

|Gemini |bintang-jus |-- |

|Cancer |bintang-sertan |-- |

|Leo |bintang-ásad |-- |

|Virgo |bintang-sanbla |-- |

|Libra |bintang-mérgan |-- |

|Scorpio |bintang-kála |-- |

|Sagittarius|bintang-kos |-- |

|Capricorn |bintang-júdi |-- |

|Aquarius |bintang-dálui |-- |

|Pisces |bintang-khot |-- |

|Rainbow |kóbong |andang |

|East |timur |témor |

|South |slátan |slátan |

|West |bárat |bárat |

|North |témor-dáya |utára |

|Earth |tánah; búmi |búmi; tána |

|Island |póloh |púlau; gili |

|Mountain |gúnung |gúnung |

|Stone |báto |bátu |

|Rain |újan |újan |

|River |song'ai |song'ai |

+-----------+----------------------------------------+

+-----------+----------------+-----------------+

|ENGLISH. | BÁLI. | LAMPUNG. |

| + | |

| | | |

+-----------+----------------+-----------------+

| | | |

|God |batára |alah; gusti |

| | | |

|Creation |ka-dádian |ka-jádian |

|Eternity |{kúkuán; } |ka-kálan |

| |{láng-gang} | |

|Angel |dewáta |mali-kat |

|Soul |jiwa; átma |nia-wa |

|Life |úrep |húghé |

|Demon | | |

| or ghost |mamídi; antu |hántu |

|World |marcha-páda |dún-nia |

|Heaven |úarga |sáwa-ghága |

|Sky |angkása; lang-it|lang'it |

|Light |depta; cháhia |chaháya |

|Star |bintang |bintang |

|Halo of | | |

| the moon |káng'an-búlan |kandok-búlan |

|Planet |pelálintáng'an |-- |

|Saturn |-- |-- |

|Jupiter |-- |-- |

|Mars |-- |-- |

|Venus |-- |-- |

|Mercury |-- |-- |

|Sun |mata-nai; súria |mata-gháni |

|Moon |búlan; sásih |búlan |

|A comet |bintang-kúkus |bintang-bugúndang|

|The milky | | |

| way |láwat yih-patánu|-- |

|Sunrise |handag-matánai |máta-ghánichá ka |

|North pole |-- |-- |

|South pole |bintang-kája |-- |

|Equator |{gui-tang'ah} |-- |

| |{-marcha-páda} |-- |

|Ecliptic |margan-matánai |-- |

|Aries |-- |-- |

|Taurus |-- |-- |

|Gemini |-- |-- |

|Cancer |-- |-- |

|Leo |-- |-- |

|Virgo |-- |-- |

|Libra |-- |-- |

|Scorpio |-- |-- |

|Sagittarius|-- |-- |

|Capricorn |-- |-- |

|Aquarius |-- |-- |

|Pisces |-- |-- |

|Rainbow |yang-lálah |ghóneh |

|East |témur |ka-ng'in |

|South |kája |-- |

|West |kao |-- |

|North |klod |-- |

|Earth |gúmi |búmi |

|Island |púlo |púlau |

|Mountain |gúnung |ghú-gok |

|Stone |bátu |bátu |

|Rain |hujan; sábéuh |lábong |

|River |túkad |bátang-ághi |

+-----------+----------------+-----------------+

_Memorandum._--The above Comparative Vocabulary was formed in the

following manner.--Copies of the Vocabulary, in the Malayan character,

arranged by the late Dr. Leyden, were circulated in different parts

of Java, and completed in the different languages and dialects by the

natives. After collections of these were made, several intelligent

natives were, from time to time, assembled from different parts of the

island, and also from _Báli_, _Lampung_, _Madura_, and _Sumenap_, and

the Vocabulary in each language was carefully revised in concert with

them, at the same time that it was re-copied in the native and roman

characters.

EXTRACT FROM THE DASA NAMA.[298]

1. Madia ning mangsa from ordinary thought comes knowledge of

time or season.

_j.b._ Mángsa season, time.

_j.b._ Kála time.

_k._ Dók the same.

_b._ Tak-kála the same.

_b._ Panjenáng'an the time, as applied to the reign of a

sovereign or governor, a dynasty, a rule.

_j.b._ Jáman the same.

_k._ Titika, or kútika the same.

_b._ Dáweg or dáwak present time.

_j.b._ Láji future time.

_j.b._ Waktu time.

_j.b._ Usum the season of any thing, as the paddy

season or fruit seasons, season for breed

of cattle.

_j.b._ Mangsa ren-dang season or time of rain.

_j.b._ Ka-telu (3) commencement of the rain.

_j.b._ Ka-pat (4) rains.

_j.b._ Ka-lima (5) ditto.

_j.b._ Ka-nam (6) ditto, rivers full.

_j.b._ Ka-pitu (7) heavy rains.

_j.b._ Ka-wólu (8) rains commence falling off.

_j.b._ Ka-sáng'a (9) rains nearly over.

Mangsa trang dry or clear seasons.

_b._ Kása-dása (10) commencement of dry season.

_j.b._ Dasta autumnal, or season of the falling of the

leaves.

_j.b._ Sadá season of heavy dews.

_j.b._ Kása clear, dry, and cloudless season.

_j.b._ Káro the season in which trees commence to

throw out their leaves and flowers.

2. Mangsa ren-dang the rainy season comes from the hills or

ing ardi mountains.

_k._ Parwáka mountains from which wind comes.

_k._ Gíri stupendous, abrupt mountains, which create

awe on looking on them.

_k._ Purwáta original mountains, the first or primitive

mountains.

_k._ Chála mountain.

_k._ Mandála the base or foot of a mountain.

_k._ Liwáwan, or distant mountains.

himáwan.

_b._ Ardi stupendous mountains.

_j.b._ Gúnung. mountains or hills.

_j.b._ Kendeng low ranges of hills.

_j.b._ Sengkan the acclivity of a hill.

_j.b._ Mádik the same.

_j.b._ Jujúrang the space between two hills above the

valleys.

_k._ Sárung the valley or bottom of the space between

two hills.

_j.b._ Papéreng the steep part of a hill which cannot be

ascended.

_j.b._ Héring or iring the same.

3. Ardi akátah séla the hills have many stones.

_b._ Séla stones, large stones.

_j.b._ Ka-rikil small stones, pebbles.

_j.b._ Kamlása small fine stones, gravel.

_j.b._ Wátu stones.

_k._ Mánik. a kind of hard black stone.

_j.b._ Párang a sort of stone neither hard or soft.

_k._ Redjeng the same.

_j.b._ Gamping lime stone.

_j.b._ Wádas a kind of stone.

_j.b._ Chúri a particular kind of stone, rather harder

than redjeng.

_k._ Cháni a sort of stone which when taken from

the quarry is soft and easily cut, but

afterwards becomes hard on exposure to air.

APPENDIX E.--No. II.

COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY OF THE SANSCRIT, KAWI, AND PALI.

----------+---------------------+---------------------+-------------

ENGLISH. | SÁNSCRIT. | KÁWI. | PÁLI.

----------+---------------------+---------------------+-------------

One |eka |eka |ek-ka.

Two |dui |dui |do.

Three |tri |tri |tri.

Four |chátur |chátor |chatwa.

Five |pancha |pancha |pancha.

Six |shash or shat |sat |cho.

Seven |sapta |sapta |sap.

Eight |ashta |asta |at-tha.

Nine |náva |náwa |no-wa.

Ten |dása |dása |thotsa.

Man (homo)|manúshya or manúsha |manúsa |manut.

Man (vir) |jána, purúsha |jána, purúsia |burútsa.

Woman |strí, varángána |istri, waranggána | ----

Father |pita or pitri |pita |bida.

Mother |máta or mátri |máta |manda.

Head |mastáka |mastáka |két.

Eye |nétra, akshi, cháksu |sótia |nét.

Nose |nása, ghrána |grána | ----

Hair |késa |késa |késa.

Teeth |danta |dánti |thanta.

Belly |garbha, udára |gerba |úthon.

Hand |hasta |asta |hat-tha.

Foot |páda |páda |bát.

Blood |lohita, sonita, | |

| rudhira, &c. |rah, ludira |lóhit.

Day |dina, divása, &c. |dina, méra | ----

Night |rátri |rátri, kúlam |rátri.

Sleep |nidra |nindra |nitsa.

Dead |préta, párata, mrita |parátra |muai.

White |sita |séta | ----

Black |kála |kála, krísna | ----

Bad |dushkrita |dústa | ----

Fire |agni |agni, bráma, geni |ak-khi.

Water |jála, ápa, &c. |jalánidi |khongkha.

Stone |sila |séla |sinla.

Hog |varáha, sukára |wráhas, sukára |súkon.

Bird |paksha |paksi |paksa, paksi.

Egg |anda |endog | ----

Fish |mín, massya |mína, matsia |min.

Sun |súrya, prabáhkara, |súria, prabang-kára, |súria, áthit.

| áditya | raditia |

Moon |chandra, sitángsu |chandra; sitángsu |pera-chan.

Stars |tára |tára |dara.

God |iswára (Lord), |déwa (a god) |pra, pra-chao.

| déva (a god) | |

Eating |bhojanam |bója |swoi, chhan.

----------+---------------------+---------------------+--------------

APPENDIX E.--No. III.

VOCABULARY OF KAWI WORDS, WITH THE MEANING ATTACHED TO

THEM BY THE PANAMBAHAN OF SUMENAP.

ENGLISH. KAWI.

God sang yang-jágat-ke-rána, sang-yang-suksma,

yang-wídi, murbeng buána, yang-táya,

sang-yang-wisésa, sang-yang-jágat, ráya,

sang-yang-mánon, yang'ing-jágat, mur-ba wi-sésa,

hong.

Make, do; or work ang'dé, andé, ayása, kirtia, panéron, amáng'un.

The work; what wináng'un, inámer, iniket.

is made or done

Pen tanáser.

Paper delánchang.

A vessel; pot; tapéla, pranji, gáta.

receiver

Heaven súra láya, indra-kila, súra-lóka suréndra,

kayáng'an.

Situation, sing'ng'angsána, pa-paláng-kan, patma-sána.

place, office

World rat, buána, marcha-páda, jamánda, yatri.

Place patmánda, kahánan, sána, láya, astána, lóka,

panápa.

Hell tambra-gomúka, ya-máni, tambra-múka, yáma,

pápasána.

Sky gagána, diu, baráka, antariksa, ambar-tála,

marútoam, marutpála, margawútma, nasúnia,

sam-bára, biuma, aksa, 'ngáh.

Atmosphere wiat, madia-gantang, táwang, láyang.

(between the sky

and the earth.)

Light prába, kúmut-deú-jiu, tesa, téja, máya.

Sun baskára, raditia, pra tangga-páti, arúna, hári,

karába, tála, súbandagni, angka, náku, kanúman,

asúman, diankára, dáta-páti, niwása, súria,

sasra-súman.

Moon chándra, sadára, sas-ángka, idupáti, sú-ma,

sasálan-chána, nisáka, sitángsu, si-tarasmi, sási,

ráti, basánta, indung.

The first day of

the month (moon) sukla-paksa.

The sixteenth

day of the moon krisna-paksa.

Names of the tití-mása, púspita-war-si, kusúma-wichitra,

months puspa-darsina, dar-ma kusúma, anta warsi,

rahúwandáni, warsan dáni, chakra kulána, sandáya

kráma, dirga moriang, renji sári, rasmin-dran déni.

Neither east nor sunia darsári.

west

Day mahira.

Sunday riti or dite.

Monday sóma.

Tuesday ang'gára.

Wednesday budha.

Thursday raspáti.

Friday sukra.

Saturday sanischára.

Star tranggána, úyut, turá-sa, tindra, úchu, tá-rang,

manggárang.

Wind marúta, sámi-rána, prábanchána, anila, báyu,

lisus, indria, pancha, waráyang, sabda-gáti,

aníla, ganda-wasta, nása-mira, sarsa, práli

wawálar, sindung.

Clouds widi-yúta, sadáli, da-wáta, ambúsun, am-báka,

samíta, gána, toyáda, páyuwáha, trangga,

ambu-mor-cha, ima-ima, jála-dára, jaláda, imang

kamúra, imaláya.

Rain warsa, jáwah, truh, trah, riris, wresti.

Dark anda, taméra, áwuk.

Cold mertia, sátis, átis.

Hot usna, tiksna, landap.

APPENDIX E.--No. IV.

_SPECIMEN of the MYSTICAL MEANING, attached to the Letters of the

Alphabet, &c. according to the Interpretation of the PANAMBAHAN of

SUMENAP._

+-------------+------------------------------------------------------+

| LETTERS | MEANING ATTACHED IN |

| of the +------------------+-----------------------------------+

|ALPHABET, &c.| JAVAN. | ENGLISH. |

+-------------+------------------+-----------------------------------+

|Ha |áh | |

|Na |anáne |it is or it was. |

|Cha |etcha-nána |the test of. |

|Ra |wádon |woman. |

|Ka |iku |that. |

|Da |tatkála |when. |

|Ta |sira |thou or thee. |

|Sa |káya |alike or as a. |

|Wa or va |wong |man. |

|La |lanji |remove. |

|Pa |pasti |certainly. |

|Dha |ásor |low. |

|Ja |kárep |wish (to). |

|Ya |panedáne |request. |

|Nia |---- | |

|Ma |tanárep |do not want, or do not wish. |

|Ga |asmára |love, or to love. |

|Ba |káduk |cannot help. |

|Ta |ála |bad or badness. |

|Nga |sira |thee or thou. |

|Ha-na |wonten |it was, there was, or were a. |

|Cha-ra |satria |a nobleman. |

|Ka-da-ta |aráne Aji sáka |named Aji sáka, or his name was |

| | |Aji sáka. |

|Sa-wa-la |wuskóchap jero |was mentioned in the writing, or |

| |túlis |among the letters. |

|Pa-da-ja |sáking núsa jáwa |on the Island of Jáwa, or in the |

| | |city of Jáwa (hi). |

|Ya-nia-ma. |dádi-bujángga |became a great writer. |

|Ga-ba |ing buána |in the world or of this world. |

|Ta-nga |kang kedep |who know, or whose eyes are open. |

|Hang |ápa |what. |

|Nang chang |tinálinan |to tie or make fast. |

|Rang kang |gódong'i Pandan |leaf of the Pandan. |

|Dang tang |kangginúba |which is made. |

|Wang |dening wong |by the people. |

|Lang |dadíne |it became. |

|Pang |ápang |branches. |

|Pang |muláne |because. |

|Sang |tudúhe |it is pointing. |

|Dang jang |kabángkit áne |his knowledge or art. |

|Yang |gusti |God or the Lord. |

|Yang |bágus |handsome or beautiful. |

|Niang |ing álap |taken up. |

|Mang |mangke |by and by, afterwards. |

|Mang |kaláyan |with or with the. |

|Gang |árum |sweet scent. |

|Bang |kambang |flowers. |

|Tang |sinéleh or sinálah|to lay upon. |

|Ngang |rambut |the hair. |

|Hi-ni |kaláwan |with or by. |

|Chi-ri |túlis pratánda |the mark or sign of writing. |

|Ki |iki |this. |

|Di-ti |áji-sáka | |

|Si |kang apásian |who have given. |

|Wi-li |wúruk |to teach or give instruction. |

|Pi-di-ji |máring rátu |to the rátu or king. |

|Yi-nyi |páda hestú-kena |every one might agree to it. |

|Mi-gi |niáta |clear, quite plain. |

|Bi-ti-ngi |úlih kagúng'an |to have property. |

|Hing |áng'ing |but. |

|Ning |ána |is, was, were. |

|Ching |ka-ting'al |appear. |

|Ring |lámun |if or if it. |

|King |lára-bránta |the pains of love. |

|Ding |dadálan |in the way. |

|Ting |sang'at |very much. |

|Sing |bárang |any thing. |

|Wing |kang wenang |suitable; proper. |

|Ling |pang'úchap |word or words. |

|Ping |ing'at |remember. |

|Ding |suára |sound or voice, noise. |

|Jing |jeng'er |see or look at. |

|Ying |bániu |water. |

|Nying |mánah |the mind or heart. |

|Ming |ewuh |don't know what to do. |

|Ging |bódo |foolish or stupid. |

|Bing |gáwok |astonished or surprised. |

|Ting |seng'it |hate or dislike. |

|Nging |sira |you or thou, thee. |

|Hu |ang'úndang |to call or bawl out. |

|Nu |ing teng'ah marga |on the way or at road. |

|Chu |pegel |quite tired. |

|Ru |ang'uláti |seeking for. |

|Ku |ingsun |me. |

|Du |kanching |buttons. |

|Tu |kalámbi |garment or jacket. |

|Su |lu-wih |more or much more. |

|Wu |ewuh |lost, confused. |

|Lu |sang'et |very much. |

|Pu |súsah |troublesome or tedious. |

|Du |srúne |crying, or the sound of crying. |

|Ju |iman or eman |pity. |

|Yu |áyu |beauty. |

|Niu |sira |thou or you. |

|Mu |tan-árep |do not wish. |

|Gu |meneng |be quiet or silent. |

|Bu |lemah |the earth or ground. |

|Tu |nguláti |behold or look at. |

|Ngu |ngupáya |seeking. |

|Hung |sembah |to make obeisance. |

|Nung |langgeng |eternal or for ever. |

|Chung |sánget |very. |

|Rung |mádep |to give up the mind to any thing. |

|Kung |asmára |thoughtful. |

|Dung |panebúti |the offering. |

|Tung |landep |sharp. |

|Sung |pápa-ring'e |his gift or present. |

|Wung |málih |more. |

|Lung |lukta |always. |

|Pung |karépi |desire, or his desire. |

|Dung |páda |the same as, or equal to. |

|Jung |prau |a boat or vessel. |

|Yung |páyung |an umbrella. |

|Niung |sira |thou or you. |

|Mung |ang'éprih |wishes. |

|Gung |águng |great or large. |

|Bung |gamlan |music. |

|Tung |úng'ele |sound or voice. |

|Ngung |sira |thou or you. |

+-------------+------------------+-----------------------------------+

FOOTNOTES:

[298] _j._ is intended to shew that the word is used in the common or

Javan dialect.

_b._ ---- that it is used in the _Basa_ or _Basa Krama_, the polite

language.

_k._ ---- that it belongs to the _Kawi_ language; where two initials

occur it is used in both.

APPENDIX F.

ACCOUNT OF CELEBES.

Celebes is an island of which hitherto the public has had but very

scanty accounts. The part of it best known to Europeans is _Makásar_,

situated nearly at the southernmost extremity of the western side: it

was here the first European settlement on the island was established.

On the south part of Celebes there are not any ascertained volcanos,

but some are said to exist in the northern division. Some of the

mountains are very high. The Bontain mountain, called by the natives

_Lámpo Bátan_ (big belly), is the highest on the south part of the

island, and being seen at the distance of one hundred and twenty miles,

must be about eight thousand five hundred feet above the level of the

sea.

The largest river on the southern limb is that called _Chinrána_, which

formerly constituted the boundary between the kingdoms of _Bóni_ and

_Lúwu_. It rises on the north side of the Bontain mountain, and runs

northward as far as _Mario_, whence, inclining towards the north-east,

it passes through part of _Sóping_, and then, turning to the east,

enters _Wáju_, after having received a navigable stream from the

_Laut-Sála_, or Fresh-water Lake. After passing through _Wáju_ it

follows a south-east course, and falls into the bay of _Bóni_, a few

miles below the town of _Chinrána_. This river is navigable for boats

as far as _Mário_, and admits of the passage of _práhus_ of five or six

_kóyans_ as far as the fresh-water lake. Along the whole of the coast,

at no great distance from each other, smaller streams fall into the

sea, some of them being so considerable as to admit of a navigation of

five or six miles, and many of them at their mouths affording shelter

to trading _práhus_. Among the most considerable are _Baróbo_, _Linjé_,

and _Kájang_, to the east; _Duniáng_, _Lémbang_, _Halikóngkong_,

_Pónre_, and _Jenepónto_, on the south; and _Chikoang_, _Tape Jára_,

_Sándra bóni_, _Gúa_, _Télu_, _Mā́ros_, _Benáng'a_, _Langkára_, and

_Pontiána_, on the west.

It has not been ascertained by whom, or at what particular time,

the name of Celebes was conferred on this island. It is generally

attributed to the Portuguese, and certainly is of foreign origin: none

of the natives, except those who have intercourse with Europeans,

recognize either the whole island or any part of it under this

appellation; even among those who make use of the word, it is applied

to _Sumbáwa_, an island about two hundred and fifty miles to the

south-west of it, as well as to what we call Celebes.

In the south-western limb of the island there are two principal

languages, called by Europeans the _Makásar_ and _Búgis_, and by the

natives _Mengkása_ or _Mengkasára_, and _Wági_ or _Ugi_. The former,

or some dialect of it, is spoken in all the districts extending from

_Bálu kúmba_ to _Segére_. The petty states included in this compass are

_Bálu kúmba_, _Bontain_, _Tarabáya_, _Gúa_, _Máros_, and _Segére_. The

_Búgis_ is much more general beyond and over the whole tract extending

from _Bóni_ to _Lúwu_, comprehending the four great states of _Lúwu_,

_Bóni_, _Wáju_, and _Sóping_, besides their numerous dependencies.

In _Mándhar_ and its vicinity is spoken the _Mándhar_ language. The

centre and body of the island to the northward is distinguished by

being inhabited by the _Turájas_ or _Harafúras_, who speak a more

simple dialect, and are considered the aborigines of the island; and on

the north-east corner of the island at _Manádu_ and _Gúnung télu_, the

inhabitants are distinguished by some peculiarities.

The following observations must be understood as principally referring

to the south-western limb, the part of the island which fell under the

influence of _Makásar_.

It is impossible to ascertain, with any degree of precision, either

the origin of the inhabitants or their present numbers. From the most

correct accounts that could be obtained, it would appear that the

southern limb contains a population of about half a million; but from

the quantity of land now lying waste, which bears the appearance of

having been once cultivated, from the number of decayed and half-choked

water-cuts, evidently once used for the purpose of irrigation, and

the multitude of spots where ranges of cocoa-nut trees mark out the

sites of villages and cottages no longer in existence, we may infer

that the number of inhabitants has greatly declined. At present there

seem to be no serious checks to population, except the wars and the

lawless violence of the people, and what often occasions, and always

aggravates them, slavery and the slave trade. The people seem to

procure a sufficient subsistence without much exertion. The climate is

salubrious, and there is abundance of water. Marriages are early. In

the history of the island the years of famine are particularly noticed.

The women are held in more esteem than could be expected from the state

of civilization in general, and undergo none of those severe hardships,

privations, or labours, that restrict fecundity in other parts of the

world. Polygamy prevails, the number of wives being limited only by the

means of the husband to purchase or support them. It is more difficult

to procure a wife than a husband; a female slave bears a higher price

in the market than a male; and the compensation fixed for the murder

of a man is only thirty dollars, while that required for the life of a

woman is forty.

It cannot be known with certainty, whence the aboriginal inhabitants

of Celebes emigrated to this island. The countenances of the natives,

particularly of the women, more nearly resemble the Tartar features

than any other. There are no early or generally received traditions

concerning the time when the island was first peopled, or the

adventures of the first race. Each state, however, has its traditionary

tales, most of which relate to remote antiquity, or to a condition

of society very different from that which at present exists. In the

_Búgis_ states, the earliest stories refer to a period subsequent to

the _Galígas_ of _Sawéra Gáding_, and in the _Makásar_ states to the

_Rupáma_ of _Ma Beséang_, which will be mentioned hereafter. The

_Galígas_ contain an account of the peopling of _Lúwu_ or _Láwat from

heaven_.

The first of the two following accounts was given by the _Búgis_

ambassador; the other is an extract.

"In the first place, there was a supernatural being of the female

sex, who, being married to _Taja Rasupa_, a person sprung from under

the earth, had issue a boy and a girl, who were named _Ladiwati_ and

_Chuli-puji_.

"_Chuli-puji_ married _Lasikati_, and by her had a son, called

_Léptau_, who had two or three other names besides, _viz. Matan-tika_,

_Malati-saprang_, and _Pulu Datu Pamusu_.

"_Pamusu's_ place of residence was in the country of _Teku_, afterwards

known by the name of _Boni_. At this time _Pamusu_ and all his children

dying, the country of the _Bugis_ was left without a raja, and

remained so for about seven generations; at the end of which period a

raja springing up among the _Bugis_ themselves, government was again

introduced into the country.

"On one occasion there came a storm of thunder and lightning, so

violent as to rend the earth and cause it to rock like a boat tossed

by the waves of the sea. On the thunder and lightning abating, and the

earth ceasing to be longer agitated, there was observed in the middle

of a plain, dressed in white, one of human shape, who was generally

supposed to be a supernatural being, and to whom many people went up in

a body, saying to it, 'remain then here and fly not about from place

to place.' To them the being replied, 'what you say is well; but you

cannot take me from your raja, as I am myself but a slave. If, however,

you are really desirous of having a raja, there is my master at your

service.' The _Boni_ people then observed to the being, 'how can we

make a raja of him, whom having never seen, we cannot tell what he is

like?' 'If,' answered the being, 'you do really desire it, he shall

be shewn to you.' They said, 'we do earnestly wish it, and request

thou wilt be so kind as to carry us where we may see him of whom thou

speakest.'

"When these people of _Boni_, together with the being who led them, had

reached the open plain called _Matajam_, there came on a violent storm,

accompanied with thunder and lightning, which rent and shook the earth.

There arose, at the same time, a thick fog, which totally obscured

every thing.

"As soon as the storm was over, and the earth no longer continued to

be rent and shaken by the thunder and lightning, the clearness which

immediately succeeded discovered to the view, seated on a stone, four

supernatural beings, of whom three were separately employed in holding

the umbrella, fan, and siri-box of the other, who was dressed in

yellow. The being dressed in yellow then said to him in white, 'What

would'st thou?' The being in white replied, 'I have conducted hither

those people of _Boni_ whom you now see before you;' and then said to

the _Boni_ people, 'Behold my master, of whom I spoke to you.' Those

people went up to the supernatural being in yellow, and thus addressed

him: 'We, the slaves of your mightiness, have come to present ourselves

before you, to solicit that you will favour and oblige us, by remaining

among us as our raja, and that you will not continue to wander about

from place to place.'

"The being complied with the wishes of the people of _Boni_ and

settling at _Matajam_ had issue five children, of whom the first was a

son and the four succeeding ones daughters. One of the daughters was

married to a man of _Palaka_. The son was married to a _Bóni_ woman.

"After being forty years in _Bóni_, the supernatural being disappeared,

and was succeeded by the son, who, in point of size and height, had

not his equal in _Bóni_, neither could any one be compared to him for

strength or valour, or for the adulation which was paid him. He was the

first who introduced the manufacture of krises, which he could model

out of pieces of iron, by means of his fingers alone."

* * * * *

"_Bitara Gúru_ was the eldest son of _Déwata Pitutu_ by _Déwi

Paléng'i_, and inhabited the seventh heaven. _Déwata Pitutu_ had a

brother, called _Gúru Réslang_, who held the rule of the region under

the earth. _Déwata Pitutu_ had nine children in all.

"When _Bitara Gúru_ was sent down upon earth by his father,

_Déwata Pitutu_, he was provided with the following articles,

viz. _Telatingpéba_, _Siri ataka_, _Telarasa_, _Wampung_, _Wanu_,

_Chachu-bana_.

"From these, which were scattered about, every thing living and dead,

in the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, which are to be found

in the country of _Lawat_, originated. Preparatory to this, _Déwata

Pitutu_ having compounded a medicine, of which the juice of chewed

betel was an ingredient, rubbed _Bitara Gúru_ all over with it, which

immediately occasioned him to swoon. _Déwata Pitutu_ then put his son

into a hollow bambu, and, having rolled this up in a piece of cloth,

and caused the gates of the sky to be opened, he hurling sent down his

son to earth, amidst a tremendous storm of thunder, lightning, wind,

and rain, which arose on that occasion. Having reached about half way

between the earth and sky, _Bitára Gúru_ (dreadfully alarmed at the

situation he was in) threw abroad all the articles which had been given

to him, agreeably to the instructions of his sire. After his arrival

on the earth, _Bitara Gúru_ remained for three days and three nights

shut up in the bambu, without food or drink. By his exertions, however,

the bambu at last burst, when, getting out, he wandered through the

woods till he came to the side of a river, where he met with a king of

the gods dressed in yellow. One night there arose a violent storm of

thunder, lightning, wind, and rain. On its clearing up there was seen a

fine country, with a superb palace and fort, and houses, &c. &c. of the

most beautiful structure. In this beautiful country _Bitara Gúru_ sat

himself down as sovereign, with a complete establishment, and gave it

the name of _Lawat_."

No account can be procured of any intercourse having subsisted between

this island and Western India or China, prior to the introduction

of Mahomedanism. No inscriptions or other monuments, indicating the

former prevalence of the Hindu worship over Celebes, have as yet been

found. There not having been found, however, is no proof that they

do not exist, for the wars that have lately prevailed have prevented

Europeans from exploring in search of such objects in that part of the

country where they are most likely to present themselves. The best

informed natives call themselves descendants of Hindus, and the names

of their divinities, _Batara Gúru_, _Baruna_, &c. seem to indicate

either a common origin or a former intercourse. It is also remarkable,

that some of the inhabitants of _Lúwu_ and the neighbouring state of

_Bontain_ are said to dress in the same manner as the Hindus of Western

India, and that Hindu temples are reported to exist in some parts of

this state. _Brahma_ and _Budha_ have, however, never been heard of;

and though _Déwas_ are often mentioned, their attributes are equally

unknown.

The intercourse of these islanders with the natives of Java seems to

have been ancient and frequent. The earliest records of the _Búgis_

and _Mákasar_ states denote not only an early communication with Java,

but render it highly probable that a colony from Java settled in the

south-west limb of Celebes. In no other way can we account for the

transfer of the names of places from the former to the latter island,

such as those of _Majapáhit_, _Grésik_, _Japan_, and some others. In

the genealogy, too, of the sovereigns of _Lúwu_, one of the first of

their _Déwa_ princes is said to have been married to a princess of

_Majapáhit_ on Java.

Though some of the _Búgis_ states have a good deal of trade, they

principally depend upon themselves for subsistence. The mode of

husbandry is, of course, very rude, and feudal institutions stand in

the way of their improvement; but private property in the soil is

established, and lands are held in free tenure or by rent-hold. The

amount of the rent, in the latter case, is generally one-third of the

produce, paid in kind; the cultivator is entitled to one-third, and

the owner of the buffaloes or bullocks which assist is entitled to the

remaining third. Labourers employed to reap are paid a sixth of what

they collect. No class is excluded from a proprietary right in the

soil, and the proprietor can dispose of his land by sale whenever he

chooses.

The people of Celebes are active and enterprising traders; the

character of a merchant is held in esteem, and the sovereign princes

reckon it no disgrace to enter into commercial speculations.

Unfortunately, however, they are actuated by the narrow spirit of the

trader, to the prejudice of the liberal policy of the monarch, and make

their power subservient to their love of gain, by establishing in their

own favour monopolies against their subjects. Monopolies are common in

every state on the island, but most of them are only of a temporary

nature. The sovereign of _Lúwu_ monopolizes the trade in brass; the

Raja of _Sóping_ that of _siri_ (betel leaf), which yields him three

hundred dollars a month; and the Raja of _Sedendreng_ that of salt and

opium.

So strong is the spirit of commercial enterprise among the inhabitants

of this island, that they frequently borrow sums for the purchase of

commodities on which they expect profit, and stake their personal

liberty, and that of their families, on the success of an adventure.

In their trading voyages each person in the _práhu_ has his own share

of the cargo, and conducts business on his own account: each person

likewise carries his own provisions; the latter practice, especially,

is never departed from. The owner of the vessel agrees to undertake the

voyage with a number of people, great or small, in proportion to its

size, and apportions the vessel among them in the following manner.

The two _júru múdus_, or steersmen, receive one _pétah_ (or division)

before the _sanketan_, and the whole space abaft of it; the owner is

entitled to two _pétahs_ in the broadest part of the boat; and the

two _júru bátus_ to the whole space between the masts; the remaining

_pétahs_ are divided among the crew, from whom the owner, or _nakóda_,

receives a freight of one-tenth or one-twentieth of the price of all

the commodities they sell, according as they are bulky or small, in

proportion to their value. The _júru múdis_ and _júru bátus_ only pay

one-half of the proportion of freight paid by the rest of the crew.

Sometimes the owner supplies the crew with an advance of money for an

adventure, and receives at its termination not only re-payment of his

loan, but a third of the profits of the speculation.

The principal articles of trade are cotton, which is imported from the

surrounding islands, and re-exported after being manufactured into

cloths, known by the name of _Búgis_ cloths, which are in great demand

throughout the Archipelago, and, in general, of a more delicate texture

than those manufactured in Java; birds' nests, _trípang_ (sea slug),

shark's fins, tortoise-shell, _ágar ágar_, hides, and other articles

calculated for the Chinese market, are collected in considerable

quantities, and furnish return cargoes for the annual Chinese junks

which visit Celebes. Gold is obtained on Celebes, but in much smaller

quantities than on Borneo or Sumatra.

Although the _Búgis_, in general, are considered as great traders, the

foreign commerce seems to be almost exclusively confined to the people

of _Wáju_. These people are settled in considerable numbers in all the

trading ports, from Acheen to Manilla, and it is they who form the crew

of almost all the _Búgis práhus_ that navigate the eastern seas.

Several _Búgis práhus_ from _Mákasar_ annually visit the northern coast

of New Holland and the Gulf of Carpentaria in search of _trípang_, and

sometimes a small party is left to collect the _trípang_ in readiness

for the arrival of the _práhus_ in the following year.

The _Búgis_, indeed, is the great maritime and commercial state of the

Archipelago. The cargoes of their vessels, particularly in opium, gold,

and cloths, often amount to fifty or sixty thousand dollars each, and

the people who navigate and are concerned in them are acknowledged to

be fair and honourable traders.

The natives of the southern limb of Celebes are of a light active form

of body, generally well made, and rather below the middle stature.

They are said to be revengeful; but during the period of the British

government at _Makásar_, few, if any, examples occurred to support

such an assertion. Certain it is, that in no single instance, was the

death of those who fell in a recent war between the two parties of the

_Makásar_ nation, avenged by their relations, although the persons by

whose hands they had fallen were perfectly well known.

They attach themselves to their chiefs principally for their own

convenience, but, in some cases, they have evinced a devoted fidelity.

They often change their chief, but scarcely any thing can induce them

to betray the chief they have left. In no instance has the _práhu_ of

a Dutchman or Chinese been carried off when navigated by _Makásar_ or

_Búgis_ people. Agreements once entered into are invariably observed,

and a _Búgis_ is never known to swerve from his bargain. "That natural

politeness which characterises the various nations distinguished

by wearing what is termed the Malayan _kris_, is no where more

forcibly exhibited than among the inhabitants of Celebes. Their minor

associations are held together by all the attachment and warmth which

distinguished the clans of North Britain:--the same bold spirit of

independence and enterprize distinguishes the lower orders, whilst the

pride of ancestry and the romance of chivalry are the delight of the

higher classes. Attached to the chase as an amusement, rather than as

the means of subsistence, the harvest is no sooner reaped, than each

feudal lord, with his associates and followers, devotes himself to its

pursuits. The population being equally at the command of the feudal

lord, whether in time of peace or war, agricultural pursuits, beyond a

bare subsistence, are but little attended to." On the other hand, they

are throughout notorious thieves, and scarcely consider murder as a

crime. Instances of cold-blooded barbarous murders frequently occurred

within two miles of the European fort, previously to the arrival of the

British and the abolition of the slave trade. The unfortunate people

who had been kidnapped and brought down to _Makásar_ for sale, were

often murdered to prevent discovery where a ready sale was not found.

Many of their customs are also extremely savage. The head of an enemy

of rank is invariably severed from the dead body, and instances have

more than once occurred of the heart being cut out and eaten by the

conquerors. They are fond of the blood and raw flesh of animals. _Láwar

dára_, which is the liver and heart of a deer, cut into slices and

mixed raw with the warm blood, is esteemed their favourite dish.

The present form of government in all the states, except _Wáju_,

appears to be legal, fettered by a powerful aristocracy who elect the

monarch: in _Lúwu_, particularly, the sovereign possesses a title, with

more pomp and state attached to it than any other on the island, but

with scarcely a shadow of authority. In _Sedéndreng_ he is the most

despotic, which has enabled him to become the richest and best armed

prince in the island. A species of feudal system prevails throughout,

but it does not extend to property in the soil. Each individual of a

state considers himself the liege subject of some petty chieftain,

who is himself equally bound to a more powerful one, and so on, by a

regular chain, to the sovereigns of _Góa_, (Makásar), _Bóni_, _Láwu_,

_Sóping_, _Sedéndring_, or _Tanéte_, or to the aristocracy of _Wáju_.

In each sovereignty there are two classes of nobility, called

_Paseajáng'an_ and _Palélé_. _Paseajáng'an_ are the barons of the

state, and may be considered in every respect as subjects, being

obliged to obey all orders they receive from the sovereign, whereas

the _Palélé_ are independent petty chieftains (who have probably

again under them both _Paseajáng'an_ and _Palélé_), who have attached

themselves to a particular sovereign, but are only obliged to do fixed

feudal services, such as to assist with their followers in case of war,

to attend the public feasts given by the sovereign, and to assist in

building and repairing the palace of state. In _Sóping_ each _Palélé_

is obliged to furnish and keep up at all times one effective soldier,

called _jua_, for the immediate protection of the sovereign.

When the sovereign wishes to give orders to his _Palélé_, he summons

him to his presence by a messenger who bears a _bila-bila_; the

_bila-bila_ is a leaf of the _lóntar_ with a number of knots on it,

specifying the number of days at the expiration of which the vassal is

required to attend. The _Palélé_ receives it seated in the midst of

his head people, with his right hand on the handle of his _kris_, and

as soon as he has got it rises, draws his _kris_, and swears on it to

be faithful to his sovereign. To neglect this summons is a breach of

allegiance.

The provinces under European authority are purely feudal; the Dutch, as

sovereign, considering themselves as sole proprietor of the soil, and

the regents, or feudal lords, being at all times liable to immediate

removal and dispossession, should they neglect to perform the feudal

service required, of whatever nature it may be.

The sovereign is chosen from the royal stock by a certain number of

counsellors, who also possess the right of subsequently removing him;

and such is their influence, that the sovereign can neither go to war

or adopt any public measure, except in concert with them. They have the

charge of the public treasure, and also appoint the prime minister. The

prince cannot himself take the personal command of the army; but the

usage of the country admits of a temporary resignation of office for

this purpose, in which case a regent succeeds provisionally to the rank

of chief, and carries on the affairs of government in concert with the

majority of the council. Women and minors may be elected to any office

of the state; and when this takes place, an additional officer, having

a title which literally means a support or prop, is appointed to assist.

In _Bóni_ the prince is elected by the _Orang-pítu_, or seven

hereditary counsellors. In _Gúa_ (_Makásar_) the prince is chosen by

ten counsellors, of whom the first minister, termed _Bechára Búta_, is

one; this last officer is himself appointed by the council of nine,

termed the nine standards of the country, but in the exercise of his

office possesses very extraordinary powers: it is said he can remove

the sovereign himself, and call upon the electors to make another

choice. The inferior chiefs, or _Krains_, who administer the dependent

provinces, are appointed by the government, and not elected by a

council, although in the exercise of their office their power is in

like manner limited; the number of the council varying in different

states. When the prince in council has decided upon war, the assembled

chiefs, after sprinkling their banners with blood, proceed to take a

solemn oath, by dipping their _krises_ into a vessel of water, and

afterwards dancing around the blood-stained banner, with frantic

gesture, and a strange and savage contortion of the body and limbs,

so as to give the extended _kris_ a tremulous motion, each severally

imprecating the vengeance of the deity against his person, if he

violates his vow to exterminate the enemy, to conquer or die.

The proportion of the crop which falls to the share of the landlord

has already been stated. In some districts a sixth, and in others a

tenth, belongs to the sovereign; but in general the landlord, the

capitalist, and the cultivator, may be considered to share between them

the whole produce of the land. The monopolies which the chiefs assume

to themselves have also been noticed. Besides these there are a few

imposts in bazars, which, with some other pecuniary emoluments, accrue

to the chiefs, but they are, for the most part, rather to meet their

personal expenses than to defray those of the state, and consequently

hardly deserve the name of public revenue.

The arms formerly used for offence by the inhabitants of Celebes were

the _súmpit_, or tube through which the poisoned dart is blown, the

_kris_, spear, _kléwang_ (cutlass,) _bádi_, and _párany_: to them may

now be added muskets, musketoons, and small cannon. Those for defence

were chain armour (_baju ránti_) and two kinds of shields, the one long

the other round, made of very tough light wood, and bound together very

strongly by pieces of split rattan.

The Mahomedan religion is professed in all those parts of Celebes which

have any pretensions to civilization, and the _Koran_, of course, is

the standard of law and worship, as far as it is known. According

to the records of _Makásar_, the Mahomedan religion was introduced

there about the year 1603, by _Khateb Tungal Datu Bandang_, a native

of _Menángkabau_ on _Sumátra_. Nearly all the inhabitants of the

south-west limb are Mahomedans, but of the centre and the other limbs

of the island only a very small portion have been converted. There are

Mahomedan schools in all parts of the south-west limb, but the Arabic

language is only learnt by those designed for the priesthood. They do

not consider themselves as belonging either to the sect of Omar or Ali,

but as followers of the law of the prophet, without regard to either.

Circumcision is performed on both sexes; on the males at ten or twelve

years of age, on the females at six or seven.

It has been related, that the change of religion on Celebes happened

just after the arrival of the Portuguese, who are said to have offered

Christianity at the same time that the Maláyus offered Mahomedanism.

The king of _Makásar_ is said to have been doubtful which of these

systems he should adopt, till he consulted the wisest men in his

dominions, who advised him to embrace the religion of the _Koran_ in

preference to that of the gospel, stating as an argument in its favour,

that it had arrived first, and that God would never permit error

to arrive before truth. But this does not appear on the records of

_Makásar_.

The public feasts formerly held, sometimes for weeks together, appear

to have been for political rather than religious purposes: at present

the Mahomedan fasts and feasts are observed. Formerly the dead were

generally buried, but in some instances burnt. There is still to

be seen in _Lamúru_ a burial-place belonging to the royal family,

containing jars or urns with the ashes of their ancestors, which are

held sacred, indeed almost worshipped, at the present day. The _Búgis_

name for the places of burial used before they were converted to

Islamism is _Patúnan_, or the place of burning. It is not known that

any tribes of the _Turájas_ burn their dead at present: they are said

to deposit them in excavated rocks on the sides of hills, and to be so

anxious to be buried among their relations, that if a man of rank dies

in a distant part of the country, the body is salted to preserve it,

and, in that state, carried back to his own residence. Very little is

known of these people by the inhabitants of the south-western limb,

but they are universally considered as the first inhabitants of the

island. They are a very fine race of people: the women particularly so.

It is said they will not suffer strangers or Mahomedans to reside among

them, and that the custom of procuring a certain number of human heads

previous to marriage is as prevalent among them as with the _Dáyas_ of

Borneo, and the _Harafúras_ of the Eastern Archipelago in general.

Each state has its own system of laws, but they nearly concur in the

following principles. Each sovereign generally possesses the right of

putting to death any of his subjects, except the members of his own

family. Should any one of these commit a crime and escape into another

territory, he cannot be touched, but if taken in his own country he

must be brought before the _bechára_, who alone are capable of passing

sentence on him.

Each petty state has its _bechára_, composed of the principal people,

both _Paseajáng'an_ and _Palélé_. All disputes between its followers

are decided by it: it also judges and passes sentence in cases of

theft, murder, and adultery, and decides all causes respecting the

legal right to property; but an appeal may be made to the court or

_bechára_ of the principal state, the members of which are called the

_Kapála Bechára_. The decision of any _bechára_ is subject to the

approval of the sovereign, where he is not himself a party interested:

indeed he may, in general, supersede the authority of this court by

deciding promptly, but it behoves him to attend strictly to the _adat

biása_, or ancient customs of the state, in his decision, for the

_bechára_ has the power to remove the sovereign and elect a new one.

The same persons at all times decide on the fact and the law.

It is difficult to ascertain which of the dialects spoken on Celebes

has most claim to antiquity. I have already stated, that the _Makásar_

and _Búgis_ are considered as the two principal languages of that part

of the island known to Europeans. The _Makásar_, the _Búgis_, and

_Mandharese_, which may be considered as dialects of the same language,

use the same character with some trifling variations. The _Turájas_

or _Harafúras_ of Celebes have a fourth language, probably the most

original, but it is not known whether they are at all acquainted with

writing.

Each nation considers its own the most ancient character. The

_Makásar_ alphabet is less complete than the _Búgis_, which consists

of twenty-two letters, varied by six vocal sounds. The form of the

character is peculiar, and more nearly resembles that of the _Bátas_ on

Sumatra than any other we know of. It is difficult to decide whether

the _Búgis_ or _Makásar_ language is the most ancient. Many words have

the same meaning in both, and many others differ so little[299] as to

be evidently of the same origin; but the _Búgis_ has often six or seven

synonymes, whereas the _Makásar_ has never more than two, and seldom

more than one. Some of the _Búgis_ words bear strong evidence of Hindu

origin, as _sóda_ from _sóna_, gold; _paráma_ from _brahma_, fire;

which is not at all the case with the _Makásar_.

_La Galíga_, the reputed son of _Sawíra Gáding_, is considered the

author of the history of _Sawíra Gáding_, which is a kind of heroic

poem, and is read in a chaunting voice, with a pause at the end of

every fifth syllable. The measure consists of a dactyl followed by a

trochee, as Sāwĭră Gādĭng to Mălămpōă, (_Sawíra Gáding_ the great).

He is the only author whose name is commonly known; and all books,

even the most modern, which are written in the same manner, are called

after him _Galíga_, although, properly speaking, the term should only

be applied to the history of the heroes who are supposed to have lived

previous to the seven generations of anarchy which subsisted at _Bóni_.

_Sultána Zaenab Zakeyat Udiu_, the seventeenth sovereign of _Bóni_

subsequent to the anarchy, is said to have written an historical poem,

containing the exploits of all the sovereigns of _Bóni_, from the

reign of _Máta Se Sámpo_, the _menúron_ of _Matájam_, down to her own

time; but it is not to be procured on the western side of Celebes. It

appears, however, that every _Búgis_ family of high rank possesses a

very authentic history of that period, collected from the records of

the court of _Bóni_.

The author of the _Rupáma_ is not known, nor indeed is the name of any

_Makásar_ author known. The _Rupáma_ is considered by the _Búgis_,

as well as the _Makásars_, to be of equal antiquity with the _Sawíra

Gáding_. Copies of both these works have been obtained.

In the account given by Dr. Leyden, in his valuable paper on the

Hindi-Chinese nations,[300] upwards of fifty literary compositions in

the language of this country are enumerated, most of which serve either

to celebrate the deeds of their national heroes, or are of an amatory

character. Besides these they possess codes of laws, or rather customs,

said to be of considerable antiquity. The _Koran_ has been translated

into the _Búgis_ language. The use of rhyme is much less frequent than

among the _Maláyus_; and it has been observed by Dr. Leyden, that "the

melody of the verse depends on the rhythm, and the measure of some of

the historical poems has, in this respect, considerable similarity to

some of the specimens of Sanscrit verse." The _Búgis_ songs are very

numerous, and in high estimation throughout the Archipelago.

They have no books on science, philosophy, or astronomy. The only stars

they are acquainted with, are Jupiter (called _Pelás_), the Pleiades

(called _Wórong Pórong_), Sirius and Orion (_Jáng'an Jáng'an_, or the

Fowl), the Great Bear (_Jonga Jong'aya_), Navis (_Belikaipon_), and

Antares (_Lambáro_). They navigate their _práhus_ by these stars, some

of which must always be in sight, if the weather be clear.

The _Makásars_ use the Mahomedan names for the months. The _Búgis_

divide their year of three hundred and sixty-five days into twelve

months, beginning on our sixteenth of May. Whether this division of

the year has taken place since the arrival of Europeans or not, is

uncertain; but it is more than probable it has, as, with all this

correctness, it does not appear they have any era; at least since the

introduction of Mahomedanism, the Hegira seems to be used. The _Búgis_

names of the months, and the number of days they contain, are as

follow:--

_Sarowaná_ 30 days.

_Padronwáne_ 30

_Sujewi_ 30

_Pachekae_ 31

_Posáe_ 31

_Mangaseram_ 32

_Mangasutéwe_ 30 days.

_Mangalompae_ 31

_Nayae_ 30

_Palagunae_ 30

_Besakai_ 30

_Jetai_ 30

Some division of time into months and years must have taken place at

a much earlier date; as some of the earliest of the present line of

kings, and the length of their reigns, are particularly mentioned.

I have before stated that slavery is practised on the island, and that

the states not only supply slaves for domestic consumption (if I may

use that phrase), but for export and commercial traffic. There are

examples of whole villages becoming slaves, and there is scarcely a

state or family of rank on the island that has not its assortment of

these degraded beings, many of whom are reduced to this condition by

the most cruel and insidious means.

Of the thousands exported annually from _Makásar_, the greatest portion

consisted of persons who had been kidnapped by people acting under the

authority of the European Residents, or the princes of the country.

The sale of their subjects constituted one chief source of the revenue

of the Rajahs; and the factors at the different Dutch residencies

traded in slaves. It is reported of one factor that he exported nine

hundred in a year. The payment or contribution to be made to the

Dutch, was either measured in gold, silver, or slaves. In a treaty

made between the people of _Gúa_ and Admiral Speelman, we find that

they promised to pay so much of the precious metals, or one thousand

slaves. Those slaves that were obtained by law or descent, were called

_Díngen_; those kidnapped, _Páras_.

The respective prices for slaves at _Makásar_ were as follow:--

For a grown lad, legitimately obtained 20 dollars.

For a young woman, ditto 40

For a grown lad, kidnapped 10

For a young woman, ditto 20

It appears from the report of a commission appointed to inquire into

the abuses of the slave trade in Celebes, addressed to the council

of policy, and dated _Makásar_, the 21st September, 1799, that the

Dutch government of Batavia, from the year 1699 (the period of the

first Dutch settlement at _Makásar_), had sent repeated orders for the

prevention of abuses in the slave trade in Celebes; with what effect,

the following extract from the same report will shew.

"The abuses which have successively crept in, and the intrigues which

are now practiced to obtain slaves, are so manifold and perplexing,

that it would be very difficult for us to enumerate or to trace them.

In attempting such a detail with all the precision and attention

possible, we should still ignorantly omit some things, and depict

others in too faint and indulgent a light, the grounds of our

information being often superficial and precarious; for, it is to be

remembered, that the enormities which are committed in this trade

conceal themselves in the dark, and it is only by accident that some

traces of them can occasionally be discerned. For these reasons, the

undersigned request that they may be excused for confining themselves

to the most common and notorious abuses, which, being faithfully

recorded, may still afford sufficient evidence of the dreadful and

detestable crimes which spring from avarice, and of the frightful

shapes in which she perpetually displays herself, instigating and

exciting the vengeful and blood-thirsty passions of the natives, and

creating a fertile source of trouble and mischief.

"The making of a slave transport, if properly viewed, consists in

nothing more than this:--A person, calling himself an interpreter,

repairs, at the desire of one who says that he has bought a slave, to

the Secretary's office, and accompanied by any native, who, provided

with a note from the purchaser, gives himself out as seller. For three

rupees a certificate of sale, in the usual form, is immediately made

out; three rupees are also paid to the notary, two rupees put into

the hands of the interpreter, the whole transaction is concluded, and

the purchaser has thus become the lawful owner of a free-born man,

who very often is stolen with his (the purchaser's) concurrence and

co-operation. He does not, however, trouble himself about that, because

the stolen victim is already concealed where nobody can find him. The

transaction also very seldom becomes public, because never were found

more faithful receivers than the slave-traders. It is a maxim with

them, never, as they call it, to betray their prison; a phrase which

we shall presently have the honour more fully to explain. But what

will be thought of the value of those public instruments, to which the

name of Slave Transports is attached, when at times it is found that

both purchaser and seller are fictitious, and that they are united in

one league with the interpreter. By such means it is obvious, that

the right of property upon a stolen man may be acquired with as much

ease as if he were pinioned before the door or within the yard of the

pretended purchaser, and with no greater cost than the small sum of

one rupee, or something more, according to circumstances, which must

be put into the hands of him who gave himself out for the seller. To

find a person for this purpose does not require a long search, for

it is a very easy trade to pursue, and there are numbers of the most

profligate of the natives continually roving about who do nothing else,

and maintain themselves exclusively upon such small profits; even the

slaves of the inhabitants being bribed, suffer themselves, for a small

fee, to be thus employed. The victim himself, who is stolen and sold,

is never examined, nor do the Dutch or native interpreters at all

concern themselves about the matter; they are not much afraid of the

risk of their responsibility; so that, at any time, it were possible to

prepare beforehand as many transports as might be required.

"Let us further represent to ourselves this, our town of _Makásar_,

filled with prisons, the one more dismal than the other, which are

stuffed up with hundreds of wretches, the victims of avarice and

tyranny, who, chained in fetters, look forward with despair towards

their future destiny, and taken away from their wives, their children,

their parents, their friends and comforts, languish in slavery,

helpless and miserable! We may picture to ourselves the condition of

one (and how often do such instances occur) who perhaps saw his aged

father lose his life by his side, in attempting to rescue the pride

and comfort of his declining years, whilst the survivor, incapable

of further resistance, is torn from him, robbed irrecoverably of

what is most precious to every human being, and carried away, in a

condition more dreadful than death itself, a condition of despair and

uncertainty, in which that moment only shall produce a change, when

he is resigned for a trifle to the arbitrary will of a master, who

has paid the stipulated price, and acquired the right of placing him

amongst the number of his domestic animals, treating him at times no

better than he would do those creatures.

"If we would lift up another corner of the curtain, a scene no less

afflicting presents itself. Here we discover wives lamenting the loss

of their husbands, children missing their parents, parents missing

their children, who, with hearts filled with rage and revenge, run

frantic through the streets and before our doors, to do all that the

filial love of children for their parents, the tenderness of parents

for their offspring can inspire, in order, if possible, to discover

where their dearest pledges are concealed. Often, very often, is

all their labour and trouble in vain, being obliged to return back

hopeless and comfortless to their afflicted friends and relations.

Sometimes, indeed, the profoundest secrecy is not proof against their

indefatigable scrutiny, and if they do by any chance learn where a

father, mother, a son or daughter, a husband or a wife, is kept in

concealment, hope revives within their bosoms, and absorbed in the

prospect of becoming their deliverers and saviours, every sacrifice is

considered trifling, by means of which they can regain possession of

the objects of their anxious care. But, alas! these unhappy people have

not as yet reached the end of their sufferings; an obdurate purchaser,

deaf to all the pleadings of distress, will be prepared coolly to

make his advantage of it, and proportionally to enhance the ransom of

his victim, till, by extorting an exorbitant price, he may plunge the

unhappy relative from a moderate property into indigence, or, which is

still worse, burden him with debts, which, sooner or later, will reduce

himself, and perhaps his whole family, to slavery!

"It must not be thought, that when these wretched people have thus

carried their point, and when, to furnish the sum demanded, they have

sold their houses and goods, or even pawned themselves[301], that,

after the payment of the ransom agreed on, the matter is finished. No!

the trader will not deliver up the pretended slave until he departs

for Batavia: and if we ask, why? it is, that his prison may not be

betrayed; that is to say, that it may not become generally known

throughout the country, what numbers of stolen people he keeps shut up

within his prison, and that the cry of vengeance against many execrable

acts that are concealed in the dark, may not everywhere be heard, by

which many villains would become notorious. A son is therefore only

exhibited to the afflicted father: he sees him in a pitiful condition

linked with fetters, and it is frequently at such a moment that the

ransom is agreed on. The grief wherewith a father's heart is pierced

at such a sight, the rapid succession of his emotions from grief and

despair to hope and longing, when contrasted with the deliberate

calmness with which a covetous purchaser knows how to take advantage of

the poor man's distress; the indifference, the obstinacy, with which

he persists in his bloody demand of each rix-dollar, each stiver,

nay almost of each penny; in a word, every thing that can have any

relation to such a striking spectacle, can be more easily conceived

than described, and we have said enough to exhibit the abomination of

proceedings, which cannot fail to have a most pernicious influence upon

society.

"But it may be said, the laws and regulations speak in favour of

the oppressed. We have shown above, in what manner government have

endeavoured, from time to time, to provide against such abuses, and to

this we beg leave to refer; but where avarice is predominant, laws,

reason, rights, humanity, all that is sacred, are too often compelled

to yield. Besides, various obstacles conspire, which time and local

circumstances have engendered, so that in spite of the most salutary

statutes (which are indeed so far nominally in force) the evil cannot

be effectually checked; and experience has taught us, that the most

rigorous orders which government could devise, would be insufficient to

make a due provision against the increase of these abuses.

"Those, whose fate we have now hastily drawn, are not always stolen

by foreign nations at distant places. No: about and near the houses

of our own inhabitants, in our _kampongs_, within our own town, it

very often happens. A numerous gang of villains, known by the name of

bondsmen (_verpandeling_), with a number of whom every slave-trader

is careful to provide himself according to his means, are most useful

instruments in procuring slaves in the easiest and cheapest way; and

being instructed in all the arts of villainy, and eager for prey, they

rove about in gangs during the night and at unseasonable hours, and if

successful in overpowering some one, they carry the victim to their

employer, or to any purchaser, and it is very seldom that any thing

more is heard of it, than that such a one has lost his slave, or that

such a native is missing. The stolen man, woman, or child, is already

chained and shut up within the prison of some slave-trader, which is

never visited. The slaves for foreign markets are always carried on

board at night; and if a stolen person were either free-born, or the

slave of an inhabitant, he dares not make himself known as long as he

is in his ravisher's hands, for, in that case, they would kill him

immediately, even were it before the door of the person who wanted to

buy him, whilst the robbers would have no difficulty in getting out of

the way, and beyond the reach of justice.

"Those who are trained to this business, whether bondsmen or slaves

(for even amongst this latter class of people thieves of men are often

found), are very fertile in all kinds of intrigues to accomplish their

ends; for except casual victims, who sometimes fall by accident into

their clutches, a considerable time will often elapse before they

succeed in securing the object they have marked out for their prey,

because the devoted creature is frequently on his guard; and as it

cannot be done openly without great precaution, for he would certainly

sacrifice his own or their lives to preserve his liberty; they,

therefore, lie in wait for him a long time, endeavouring by indirect

means to make acquaintance with him, in order to gain his confidence,

and then, we will not say always, to conduct or allure him into the

house of the slave-trader, or otherwise, as is sometimes the case, to

lead him to a remote spot, or at least to some distance from his house,

when he immediately finds himself attacked by two or three of these

ruffians, who have long previously agreed with his pretended friends,

and before he has time to put himself into a posture of defence, or to

take hold of his _krís_, it is already wrested from him, and his hands

are tied behind his back. To cry for help would be immediately fatal to

him, he is therefore compelled to be quiet, and to suffer himself to be

sold as a slave by the ruffians who had previously arranged where to

carry him.

"Why such violations are so seldom made public, and thieves of men

are so rarely detected, many sufficient reasons may be assigned. For

instance: the profound secrecy of the prisons; the clandestine manner

in which slaves for traffic are carried on board in the dark of the

night; the sinister manner in which the purchase is transacted and

confirmed; the facility with which the villains are able to escape,

when after some time the theft becomes notorious; the difficulty of

making satisfactory inquiry about a crime, of which but a few of the

perpetrators and their accomplices are generally within the reach

of justice, whilst the stolen person is still more rarely present,

so that it generally happens, in such a case, that the most guilty

get off; the still greater uncommonness of offenders of this sort

being caught in the very act, so as to fall at once into the hands of

justice; and, finally, the secret protection which some native petty

princes, living upon plunder, afford to their subjects. All these,

and many other circumstances, combine to facilitate the practice of

kidnapping, which thus goes on almost undisturbed, and generally

unpunished!

"A rich citizen, who has a sufficient number of emissaries called

bondsmen, carries on his trade much more easily than a poor one does.

The latter is often obliged to go himself to the _Kámpong Búgis_ or

elsewhere, to take a view of the stolen victim and to carry him home;

whilst the former quietly smokes his pipe, being sure that his thieves

will, in every corner, find out for him sufficient game, without his

exerting himself otherwise than indirectly. The thief, the seller, the

interpreter, are all active in his service, because they are all paid

by him. In some cases the purchaser unites himself with the seller,

on purpose to deceive the interpreter; whilst, in other cases, the

interpreter agrees with the thief and pretended seller, to put the

stolen person into the hands of the purchaser! What precautions, what

scrutiny, can then avail, when we reflect, that the profound secrecy

of the prisons, and the strict precautions in carrying the slaves

on board, are equalled only by the licentiousness with which the

transports are fabricated?

"A distinction ought, however, to be made between such illegal and

criminal practices, and a more moderate trade in slaves, many of whom,

it is true, are stolen, but not in our vicinity, nor in the districts

of the Company. The remainder are generally such as, according to the

separate laws and customs of the native nations of Celebes, have in

some way or other forfeited their liberty, either in war, or for some

misdemeanour, or on account of debts. These are likewise higher in

price, so that the trader cannot have so much gain upon them; they may

also appear at broad daylight, an interpreter may with security answer

for them. Such slaves can be brought on board very quietly in the day

time; the frequency of murder, as in other cases, is not much to be

dreaded, and our town has considerably less danger to apprehend from

these than from the class before mentioned."

The report concludes by recommending specific measures, and expressing

an opinion, that "it would not be inexpedient, if, but for one year,

the exportation of slaves from hence were suspended."

In the following year, the residents received instructions from the

high regency, in which several of their predecessors were accused of

having "assumed a despotic sway over the natives, plundered those over

whom they had been placed to protect them, and of having even dared,

with the assistance of the native chiefs, _whom they have found means

to debauch_, to put the natives in irons, and to sell them as slaves."

Mr. Chassé, when governor of _Makásar_, much to his honour, attempted

to put a stop to manstealing in the neighbourhood of his residency. He

did not, however, succeed to any extent. When the British arrived, it

appeared that numbers of plunderers were roaming about for the supply

of the slave market, which was still open; so that the inhabitants of

the villages adjacent to _Makásar_, never dared to approach, except in

parties of at least five or six armed men. An equal caution prevailed

throughout the country.

To enforce the British abolition laws, there was formed at Batavia, in

the beginning of the year 1816, a society called the _Java Benevolent

Institution_, and in the course of the year this society published

an account of its proceedings, containing, among other interesting

matter, "Remarks upon _Makásar_, &c. compiled from the information

of Lieutenant Owen Phillips, assistant resident there." This paper

concludes as follows:

"The laws recognized between the Dutch Company and the states of _Bóni_

and _Gúa_ may be considered a fair criterion of their general spirit

and tendency. They were agreed to in an early period of the Dutch

establishment, when Admiral Speelman concluded a treaty with those

states, and they have not since undergone any material alterations.

The penalties therein prescribed were required to be paid in money

or property of any description, at the arbitrary rates fixed by the

same laws, and which appear on the whole to be extremely favourable to

the individual; debtors or convicted felons, in default of payment,

becoming bondsmen. But the temptation to corruption afforded by an

open market and an increased demand for slaves for traffic, introduced

a practice of condemning, first to bondage, and then fabricating for

three dollars a certificate of slavery; a practice which, although

not recognized in the laws subsisting between the European and native

powers, was yet generally known to prevail, and if not formally

sanctioned, was openly tolerated under the former system.

"Whilst these laws are administered in the native states by their

councils or _becháras_, the administration of justice in the Company's

territories was vested in the Regent, under the superintendance of

the _Drost_, but who has usurped the power of actually deciding,

particularly in cases where he is interested in the condemnations, from

the right which the judge enjoys, of a moiety of the property arising

from the sale of persons condemned to slavery, or in the appropriation

of a certain number of them to his own use! The abuses arising out of

these unlawful usurpations appear to have attained a great height in

1799, when the commission was appointed to inquire into them; but (as

in the case of restraints which had from time to time been imposed by

law) that inquiry did little more than recognize the right of control

over the actors and participators in such abuses; a right which could

readily and profitably be compromised by men who, from habit, were

actuated by little determined abhorrence of such crimes, and no steady

resolution to eradicate them. To this cause alone must be attributed

the difficulties stated by the commission to be opposed to the due

execution of the laws, and to the suppression of the enormities that

were generally practised; and although partial reforms were effected,

according to the disposition and principles of the persons who presided

successively in _Makásar_, the enormous gains to be derived from the

toleration of corruption was a powerful obstacle to its removal: and it

may be said of the abuses and enormities detailed by the commission in

1799, that although perpetuated with more or less aggravation, as the

controuling authority was more or less conscientious and vigilant, no

radical removal of them took place, nor were the suggestions of that

commission carried into effect, except partially within the town of

_Makásar_.

"On the establishment of the British government, the practice and

mode of kidnapping within the town of _Makásar_ had, in some degree,

been restricted and ameliorated; but this did not extend to the

country. Some limitations had therefore been imposed on the connivance

and direct participation of the public functionaries; but bondsmen

were still generally employed as man-stealers, and the practice of

concealing in secret prisons, of assassinations to prevent detection,

and of midnight embarkations, were but little controlled or inquired

into, as may be sufficiently inferred from the laxity of the public

tribunals, and the rare instances of any infractions of these laws

being punished by them.

"The introduction of the prohibitory laws by the establishment of the

British government, naturally operated to cause a sudden and complete

suspension of the open traffic; and although individuals are still

clandestinely carried from _Makásar_, the number is so small, that the

utmost vigilance has hitherto been unable to convict the perpetrators,

especially as the numerous gang of bondsmen and man-stealers, though

compelled at present to resort to other avocations, are yet at the call

of corrupt employers, and live in the hope that occasion may again

offer of freely returning to their pursuits, without apprehension of

any consequences. This truth will be more generally appreciated, if

we explain the course through which these people are led to engage in

the desperate trade of kidnapping. The bondsmen, who are thus employed

by slave-traders, are generally dissolute adventurers from the native

states, who repair to _Makásar_, perhaps, with a little property which

they lose by gambling; their next resource is to borrow from some

one of the numerous Dutch or Chinese speculators (slave-traders) a

sum of money, and which is only to be had at the exorbitant interest

of fifty per cent, or, as expressed in the local terms, 'one _wang_

per month on the Spanish dollar.' A debt thus dissolutely contracted

is not likely to be retrieved by patient industry. But were such a

disposition to prevail, the opportunity is scarcely afforded, and

the obligation is generally allowed to accumulate until the debtor

is about to pay the price in his captivity. To retrieve himself from

this dire alternative, he has recourse to the trade of kidnapping, and

the ready employment he meets with, added to the sudden gains which

he hopes to acquire, stimulate him to repair his fortunes in this

irregular and desperate pursuit. Such are the bondsmen who are the

active agents of slave traders in _Makásar_; and while the abolition

has had the two-fold effect of diminishing their numbers and of

checking their depredations, it must be obvious that this salutary

reform can only endure whilst the spirit which produced it is fostered.

The commission in 1799 forcibly depicted the utter incompetency of the

most rigid prohibitions, in restricting the barbarities which then

prevailed: but there is yet a stronger fact, which bears equally upon

the traffic, on whatever footing it might be re-admitted; it is, that

the resources arising from what were considered legal condemnations

to slavery, would be totally inadequate to supply the market under

any probable limitations. As the demand increased, the more frequent

condemnations on frivolous pretences would naturally ensue, if indeed

such a practice in any degree could be considered legal: but the

temptations to open violence arising from the numerous accessaries, and

the direct or indirect participation of public functionaries, added to

the comparative cheapness of stolen men, are such strong inducements

to revive ancient abuses, under an actual demand, that no hope could

be entertained of controuling them. On the other hand, the maintenance

of the abolition laws, as they have hitherto tended to correct in a

remarkable degree the monstrous practices which obtained, must, in

their ultimate operation, effectually reform, not only the habits and

dispositions of the inhabitants of _Makásar_, but check those frequent

condemnations which, in the native states, may be chiefly imputed to

the advantages that were generally made of them. To illustrate, in a

familiar instance, the effect of this amelioration brought about by

the silent operation of the prohibitory laws; on the first arrival of

the English, the inhabitants of the adjacent villages did not dare to

come to _Makásar_ in parties of less than five or six men well armed.

This was equally the case throughout the country, as there was an open

sale for almost any number of people that could be stolen. The case,

however, is now entirely altered, at least within the influence of the

British authority. Men, women, and children, are now to be seen moving

singly about the country in all directions, without fear and without

arms. Formerly a man going on a hunting party, or a peasant to till

his ground, went armed as if going to war; at the present day numbers

of people may be seen in the paddy fields without a spear amongst

them. I may add, that these effects are not confined to the Company's

provinces, but are felt nearly throughout the states of _Gúa_, _Telu_,

and _Turáta_, where there can be no doubt that a few years would be

sufficient to realize, under the present system, a great increase

to population, and the more important introduction of commerce and

civilisation.

"The principal pirate settlements are _Káli_ and _Túli Túli_, situated

on the north-west coast. The depredations of these hordes are generally

carried on between Java and the Straits of Saleyer; their haunts are

the islands near Seleyer, also _Gúnuny Api_, and the isles at the

entrance of the Bay of _Sembáwa_, and in general the small isles

included between the coasts of Java to the west, Borneo to the north,

and Celebes to the east."

A COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY OF THE BUGIS, MAKASAR, MANDHAR, BÚTON, SÁSAK,

BÍMA, SEMBÁWA, TEMBÓRA, AND ENDÉ LANGUAGES.

+----------+---------------+---------------+-------------+

+----------+---------------+---------------+-------------+

|Two |dua |rua |dua |

|Six |nám |ánam |ánam |

|Man (homo)|táwu |tau |tau |

|Head |úlu |ulúna |úl |

|Teeth |ísi |gigi |ísi |

|Foot |áji |bánuge |áje |

|Day |só |poi |hári |

|Fire |ápi |pépe |ápi |

|Water |wai |jéne |wai |

+----------+---------------+---------------+-------------+

+----------+---------------+------------+--------------+

+----------+---------------+------------+--------------+

|Two |dua |dua |lua |

|Six |ánam |nám |íni |

|Man (homo)|tau |kelépe |dho |

|Father |bápa |áma |áma |

|Mother |ma |ína |ína |

|Teeth |ísi |gigi |woi |

|Foot |áje |nai |édi |

|Day |áso |kejélu; jélu|mrai |

|Fire |ápi |ápí |ápi |

|Water |áyer |ai |oí |

+----------+---------------+------------+--------------+

+----------+-----------+-----------+---------+

+----------+-----------+-----------+---------+

|One |sátu |seena |sa. |

|Two |dua |kálae |zua. |

|Man (homo)|tau |doh |dau. |

|Head |úlu |kokóre |úla. |

|Day |aso |kóngkong |giah. |

|Fire |ápi |maing'aing |ápi. |

|Eat |mang'an |mákan |ka-a. |

+----------+-----------+-----------+---------+

A COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY OF THE GUNUNG TALU, MENADU, TERNATI, SANG'IR,

SIRANG OR CERAM, AND SAPARÚA LANGUAGES.

+-----------+------------+-----------+---------------+

+-----------+------------+-----------+---------------+

|Two |bukáng'o |bua |rómo-didi |

|Bad |tra-baik |léwo |ási |

|Hog |boi |wáwi |sóho |

+-----------+------------+-----------+---------------+

+-----------+------------+--------------------+-----------+

+-----------+------------+--------------------+-----------+

|Two |darúa |dua |rua. |

|Four |épa |pát |ha-an. |

+-----------+------------+--------------------+-----------+

FOOTNOTES:

[299] See Comparative Vocabulary annexed, including the dialects of the

south-west limb of Celebes, and some of the islands in its vicinity, on

which _Bugis_ settlements have been formed.

[300] Asiatic Researches.

[301] Meaning their services for a stipulated period or for life.

APPENDIX G.

NUMERALS ACCORDING TO THE CHANDRA SANGKALA.

ONE.

Rúpa form, shape, appearance, face of any thing.

Chandra moon at the 15th day, moon.

Sási new moon, month of the year.

Nábi or nebe the navel, completion of the month.

Búmí the earth, or piece of land.

Búda ancient; original.

Rón or Gódong leaf of a tree.

Médi abstraction, devotion.

Eku tail of any thing.

Dára large stars, planets.

Jalma or Janma mankind.

Eka one.

Wák the body.

Súta child.

Siti black earth, earth.

Awáni courageous, hair of the body.

Wúlan the moon, at the 14th day, full moon.

Yáta then, forthwith, thereupon.

Tung'gal one.

TWO.

Nitra the eye lids, the eye.

Chaksu the inner corner of the eye.

Nayána sight.

Sikára the palm of the hand.

Búja the upper part of the arm near the shoulder.

Páksa the jaw-bone.

Drésti or desti the eye-brow.

Háma the outer corner of the eyes.

Lochána the lips.

Charána the side of the cheek-bone.

Kerna the ears.

Kerni the inner part of the ear.

Anámba the act of closing the hands in obeisance.

Talíng'an the lobe of the ear, the ear.

Máta the eye, the pupil of the eye.

Tang'an the hands, the arms.

Súku the feet, or soles of the feet.

Lár wings.

Dúi two.

Lóro two.

THREE.

Bahning fire (of a furnace).

Pawáka fire (from a volcano).

Siking fire (struck from a flint).

Guna fire (from friction of wood).

Dahána the fire which pervades every thing that has

life, extensive fire, fire that has never been

extinguished.

Tri-ningrána fire (of the work-room).

Uta a leech.

Buja-lána alligator or crocodile.

Húti worm of the earth.

Játa flame of fire.

Wéda fire or heat confined in a vessel, as in a cooking

vessel.

Anála the fire which giveth warmth to the heart, the fire

of passion, the fire which giveth warmth to passion.

Gni fire (to a match).

Utáwa fire.

Kéa great fire.

Léna fire or flame of a lamp.

Puyíka fire and ashes, mixed.

Tiga three.

Uning'a a torch.

FOUR.

Wédang hot water.

Segára the sea.

Kerti well water.

Súchi water after it is used.

Jaládri water from a lake, or where fresh water mixes with

the sea.

Hádi mountain water, rare or pure water.

Warna colour.

Wéh water which descends from a mountain.

Samúdra sea water.

Jaládi tank or pond water.

Ernáwa spring water.

Toyádi dew water.

Wahána flood or quantity of water.

Waudádi juice from trees, as toddy,&c.

Sindu milk.

Wári cocoa nut-water, water.

Dik glutinous sap taken from trees, as the Indian

rubber, &c.

Tásik sweat, applied to the sea on the coast.

Bányu water.

Chatur four.

Pápat four.

FIVE.

Búta a rasaksa or hobgoblin, also a lion.

Pandáwa the five sons of Pandu.

Táta breath issuing from the nostrils.

Gáti ditto mouth.

Wisáya air produced as in bellows, &c.

Indri air which refreshes or revives.

Astra the air created by the passing of a missile weapon,

or by the wielding of a sword.

Sára the same, created near the point or edge of the

weapon.

Marúta air which conveys scents of any kind.

Pawána strong wind.

Bána hurricane, violent wind.

Margána favourable wind in one's course.

Sámi-rána the wind that checks perspiration.

Waráyang the point or edge of the wind which strikes any

thing.

Pancha five.

Báyu wind that circulates in the human body.

Wisikan whispering wind.

Gúling'an air circulating in a room.

Lima five.

SIX.

Mangsa season, the seasons, prey of a wild beast.

Sadrása the six tastes, (sweet, sour, salt, bitter, pungent

or aromatic, hot, as pepper).

Wináyang to range, following in order, (which is done

according to the six notions of things).

Gána silk worm, bee.

Ret-tu the feeling or taste of any thing not pleasant, as

pain in the leg, mixed good and bad.

Ang'gas the trunk of a tree standing after its branches and

leaves are decayed and fallen.

Sáyag an inclining tree.

Karng'a the sense of hearing.

Sanda clear, light.

Sandi plan, project, scheme, completed.

Búdia disposition, inclination, ability.

Ka-nénam six.

Rása taste.

SEVEN.

133. As it is most essential that access to justice and redress be