or in honour of the memory of a departed relative, on the seventh,
fortieth, one hundredth, or thousandth day after his decease: they
are distinguished from the feasts of _grébeg_ and _nealamáti_ by the
absence of music. Those who intend to observe them, assemble on the
preceding evening in order to read some portion of the _Koran_. Before
the guests partake of the meal, the principal person present generally
addresses the Almighty in a prayer, which alludes to the occasion,
and expresses gratitude for the repast which his bounty has provided.
Thankfulness to the earthly donor of the entertainment often mingles
itself with gratitude to heaven, and the praises of both are celebrated
at the same time. This grace before meals is called _dúng'a_.
Reserving for a subsequent chapter a sketch of the music and poetry of
the Javans, I shall in this place endeavour to give some account of
their national drama and dances, as constituting, next to music and
poetry, the most conspicuous and refined of their amusements.
The dramatic entertainments are of two kinds; the _tópeng_, wherein
the characters are represented by men, who except when performing
before the Sovereign wear masks; and the _wáyang_, in which they are
represented by shadows.
The subject of the _tópeng_ is invariably taken from the adventures
of _Pánji_, the favourite hero of Javan story. In the performances
before the Sovereign, where masks are not used, the several characters
themselves rehearse their parts; but, in general, the _Dálang_,
or manager of the entertainment, recites the speeches, while the
performers have only to "suit the action to the word." The music
of the _gámelan_ accompanies the piece, and varies in expression,
according to the nature of the action or the kind of emotion to be
excited. The actors are splendidly dressed after the ancient costume,
and perform their parts with grace, elegance, and precision; but the
whole performance has more the character of a ballet than that of a
regular dramatic exhibition, either of the tragic or coming kind, in
which human passions, human follies or sufferings, are represented in
such appropriate language and just action, as to seem only a reflection
of nature. Love and war are the constant themes, and the combats of
contending chiefs generally close the scene. Those who perform before
the sovereign and repeat their parts, previously study their characters
from written compositions expressly prepared for the purpose; but in
other cases, the _Dálang_, well versed in the principal incidents,
descriptions, and speeches of the history, furnishes the dialogue
between the actors extempore. A party of _tôpeng_ generally consists of
ten persons, besides the _Dálang_, of whom four play the _gámelan_ and
six perform the characters. They are engaged to play by the night, for
about ten rupees (twenty-five shillings) and a supper.
Buffoonery is sometimes introduced, to increase the zest of these
entertainments with the multitude, but it does not interfere with the
regular course of the performance, the actors being only disturbed
occasionally by the actions of an extraneous character, who whether
representing a dog, a monkey, or an idiot, seldom fails to excite
considerable mirth, and not unfrequently in the most interesting part
of the performance.
There is also a kind of pantomime, or rather an assemblage of wild
beasts called _Barúng'an_; in this entertainment men dressed up to
represent various animals are made to appear in procession and combats.
This is generally performed for the amusement of children, and is only
accompanied by the beat of the _góng_ and drum.
In the _wáyangs_, or scenic shadows, the subject of the performances
is taken from the earliest period of history and fable, down to the
destruction of the Hindu empire of _Majapáhit_. These are distinguished
according to the periods of the history which they represent, by the
terms _wáyang púrwa_, _wáyang gédog_, and _wáyang klítik_.
The different characters in the history are in these _wáyangs_
represented by figures, about eighteen inches or two feet high, stamped
or cut out of pieces of thick leather, generally of buffalo's hide,
which are painted and gilt with great care and at considerable expense,
so as to form some supposed resemblance of the character to the
individual intended to be personified. The whole figure is, however,
strangely distorted and grotesque, the nose in particular being
unnaturally prominent. There is a tradition, that the figures were
first so distorted by the _Susúnan Mória_, one of the early Mahomedan
teachers, in order to render the preservation of the ancient amusements
of the country compatible with a due obedience to the Mahomedan
precept, which forbids any exhibition or dramatic representation of the
human form. "By these means," said the _Susúnan_ with much ingenuity,
"while the world in general will not imagine the figures to be human,
the Javans, from recollecting their history, will yet be able to
comprehend the characters they are intended to represent, and enjoy in
secret their national amusements. Or if, in time, they should forget
the originals, and confound them with the distorted resemblance, they
will be impressed with the idea, that it was only after conversion
to the faith of the Prophet that their ancestors assumed the present
shape of man." But the comparatively recent alteration in the figures
is rendered doubtful from the circumstance of similar figures being
found on many of the more ancient coins, thus affording ground for an
opinion, that they existed nearly in their present form before the
introduction of Mahomedanism. Their antiquity is further confirmed, by
the existence of similar figures in the Hindu island of _Báli_, where,
though not so much distorted, they are still far from natural. These
figures are fastened upon a horn spike, and have a piece of thin horn
hanging from each hand, by means of which the arms, which are jointed
at the elbow and shoulder, can be moved at the discretion of the
manager. A white cloth or curtain is then drawn tight over an oblong
frame of ten or twelve feet long and five feet high, and being placed
in front of the spectators, is rendered transparent by means of a
hanging lamp behind it. The several figures are made in turn to appear
and act their parts. Previous to the commencement of this performance,
the _Dálang_, who is seated behind the curtain, arranges the different
characters on each side of the curtain, by sticking them into a long
plantain stem which is laid along the bottom. The _gámelan_ then
commences, and as the several characters present themselves, extracts
of the history are repeated, and the dialogue is carried on, generally
at the discretion and by the invention of the _Dálang_. Without this
personage nothing can be done; for he not only puts the puppets in
motion, but repeats their parts, interspersing them with detached
verses from the romance illustrative of the story, and descriptive of
the qualities of the different heroes. He is the soul which directs and
animates the whole order and machinery of the piece, regulating the
time of the music with a small hammer which he holds in his hand, while
he recites the speeches suited to the occasion.
In the _wáyang purwa_, or _wáyang_ of the most ancient times, the
subject is taken from the earliest periods of fabulous history, down
to the reign of _Parikésit_ inclusive. This is the age of interesting
story and marvellous fiction, the reign of the gods, demigods, and
heroes of the Hindu and Javan mythology, who in these representations
are exhibited with the attributes, and in the situations with which
their names are connected in the most popular poems and romances. The
fables thus turned to account, are generally taken from the poem of
_Ráma_, the poem of _Mintarága_ containing the penance of _Arjúna_ on
the mountain _Indra_, and the celebrated epic of the _Bráta Yúdha_,
or the war of the _Pandáwa_. These poems are all written in what are
termed the high measures, and are accompanied in their recital by the
_gámelan saléndro_. In the performance of this _wáyang_, the _Dálang_
first recites a few verses in the _Káwi_ language, chaunting afterwards
an interpretation of the passage in Javan, for the use of the
unlearned. As the several characters are brought forward, he himself
supplies the minor dialogue between the dramatis personæ, keeping in
general close to the original story, when there is any person present
who could detect his deviations: if he is performing before the
ignorant, however, he frequently digresses from the main story, in
any way which he thinks may most readily amuse his audience; and on
this account, the practice of rendering the _Káwi_ into Javan, which
furnishes an opportunity for such deviations, is termed _charángan_,
literally a branch from a tree. In the course of the entertainment,
all the varieties of ancient weapons named in these poems are
represented behind the transparent curtain. The interest excited by
such spectacles, connected with national recollections, is almost
inconceivable. The eager multitude will sit listening with rapturous
delight and profound attention for whole nights to these rude dramas.
By means of them, the lower class have an opportunity of picking up a
few _Káwi_ terms, and of becoming acquainted with the ancient legends
of the country.
The subject of the _wáyang gédog_ is taken from the period of history
subsequent to _Parikésit_, commencing with the reign of _Gandra-yána_
and including the adventures and reign of the celebrated _Pánji_,
and that of his successor _Laléan_, until he established himself at
_Pajajáran_. These poems being composed in a different measure, the
_gámelan pélog_ is employed as the accompaniment; and although the
history of the early part of this period is written in the _Káwi_,
the _Dálang_ always employs the Javan translation. The adventures of
_Pánji_ compose the most popular portion of it. The characters are
numerous, and the figures in general more highly coloured and better
finished than those of the _wáyang púrwa_. In bringing any hero on the
stage, the _Dálang_ recites those verses of the history which relate to
him, and introduces such dialogue as may give a dramatic effect to the
exhibition, together with such explanations as may make it intelligible
to common capacities.
In the _wáyang klítik_ the figures exhibited are more properly puppets
than shadows: they are of wood, about ten inches high, and made to
perform their parts without the intervention of a curtain. In these
are represented that portion of the history commencing with the
establishment of the western empire of _Pajajáran_ and ending with
the destruction of the eastern empire of _Majapáhit_. Of this, by
far the most favourite scenes are found in the popular story of the
adventures between the _Ménak Jíng'ga_, a chief of _Balambáng'an_, and
_Dámar Wúlan_ (the light of the moon), on account of the Princess of
_Majapáhit_.
The compositions which thus serve as the basis of these popular and
interesting entertainments, comprise the legends from which the account
of the earlier periods of Javan story, detailed in another part of this
work, is principally derived. The most popular and interesting events
and adventures are preserved and related in various compositions,
whilst more recent actions and events, which possessed less interest,
have fallen into oblivion. The constant exhibition of these plays
in every part of the country, but more particularly in the eastern
districts, has served to keep alive the recollections of "days long
since gone by," and to disseminate a general knowledge of native
legendary history among many, with whom, from the ignorance of letters,
the stories might otherwise have been irretrievably lost or more
grossly distorted.
The _Dálangs_, who manage and conduct these amusements, are treated
with considerable respect. In many points, their office strongly
resembles that of the ancient bards. The ceremony of giving his
blessing to the first born infant, in the repetition of some particular
passages of the ancient legends, gives this part of his office a very
peculiar interest. The usual payment to the _Dálang_ who owns a set of
_wáyangs_, and brings his own _gámelan_ players, is from two to three
dollars for the night; but the nobles and chiefs generally have several
sets of _wáyangs_ of their own, and keep a _Dálang_ in their service.
Another representation of this nature is that of the adventures of
_Ménak Jing'ga_ and _Dámar Wúlan_, which are exhibited, but not very
commonly, by means of drawings on folded leaves of strong paper,
while the _Dálang_ repeats the story and furnishes dialogue to the
characters. This is termed _wáyang béber_. An entertainment of a
similar description, though not accompanied by the exhibition of
figures, is termed _trébang_: it was invented in the time of the
kingdom of _Démak_. The story is taken from the Arabic account of
_Begínda Ambia_, which being rendered into Javan, is repeated by the
_Dálang_, who with a small drum before him, and accompanied by the
music of the _gámelun_, gives spirit to the different parts, by beating
time with his hand, and varying the strength of the sound or quickness
of time according to the subject. These two latter are of comparatively
modern invention, and not much esteemed.
The dance with the Javans, as with Asiatics in general, consists in
graceful attitudes of the body, and in the slow movement of the arms
and legs, particularly of the former, even to the distinct motion of
the hand and fingers.
Of the dancing girls who exhibit at public entertainments, the first
in rank and the most skilful in their profession are the concubines of
the sovereign and of the hereditary prince. They alone are allowed to
perform the _s'rímpi_, a figure dance by four persons, distinguished by
an unusual degree of grace and decorum.
The dancers are decorated according to the ancient costume of the
country, and nearly in the same manner as a modern bride. The _tápih_,
or petticoat, is of silk of different colours, often green stamped
with golden flowers, and hanging in the most graceful manner, a part
of it falling between the feet and serving as a short train, which
in the course of the dance is frequently thrown aside by a quicker
motion of the foot than ordinary. The _údat_, or waistband, is of the
_chíndi_ pattern; and on these occasions is worn the _mer_, or cestus,
composed of plates of gold highly ornamented with diamonds at the
clasp in front. The body is enclosed in a kind of corset (_pemákak_)
passing above the bosom and under the arms, and confining the waist
in the narrowest possible limits. The ends of the _sémbong_, or sash,
fall gracefully on each side on the back of the hip and reach the
ground. Sometimes, indeed, this graceful appendage to the dress is
brought from the back to a point between the breasts, whence being
fastened in a rosette, the ends flow towards the ground in front of
the person, the usual bending attitude during the dance causing them
to hang distinct from the rest of the apparel. The triple necklace,
richly chased armlets, bracelets, and tiara, are of gold, studded
with precious stones; and the hair is gracefully ornamented with buds
of white and sweet-scented flowers. On their fingers they generally
display brilliant rings, and the face, neck, shoulders, and arms,
which remain uncovered, are tinged by a delicate shade of yellow
powder. The music is slow and solemn, and the performance is on the
_gámelan saléndro_; verses from the romances of _Pánji_, descriptive
of the attire and beauty of the wives and concubines of that hero,
being chaunted as a prelude to the entertainment and during its
continuance. On occasions when the _s'rímpi_ are exhibited before
Europeans at the Residency house, they are brought with great care, and
under a guard, from the _kráton_, in a large enclosed palanquin, or
rather box, borne on men's shoulders. When they reach the door of the
residency, they glide behind the prince into the chamber appropriated
for his accommodation, and when they come forth for the dance, seat
themselves on the ground in front of him. On his intimating that they
should commence, they slowly, and to the sound of music, close their
hands, and raising them to the forehead, bend in reverential awe, and
gradually extending their arms and swaying in unison with each other
from side to side, assume an erect posture. The dancers seldom exceed
the age of fourteen or fifteen. The birth of a child generally puts
an end to their performances, and removes them from the profession.
They are the choicest beauties of the country, selected for the royal
bed. Throughout the whole performance their eyes are directed modestly
to the ground, and their body and limbs are by slow movements thrown
into every graceful attitude that the most flexible form is capable
of exhibiting. In the figure of the dance they occasionally approach
and recede from each other, and sometimes cross to the opposite side.
It frequently happens, that the delicate corset by falling too low,
exposes more of the body than is considered correct. On such occasions,
one of the trusty matrons always in attendance raises it again, without
interrupting the dance or embarrassing the movements of the dancer.
At the conclusion of the dance they gradually place themselves on
the ground, in the same manner as before its commencement, and after
closing their hands, and raising them to the forehead in token of
respect, remain seated with a downcast look and captivating modesty,
until the signal is given to the matrons to relieve them by others,
when they again glide into the same apartment.
The _bedáya_, who perform a figure dance of eight persons, are in some
respect to the nobles what the _s'rímpi_ are to the sovereign: but,
at present, few of the nobles can afford to maintain a sufficient
number of youthful concubines to compose this dance; it is frequently
therefore performed by boys trained for the purpose. They are dressed
nearly in the same manner as the _s'rímpi_, though not so expensively.
The action moves to the same music and song.
But the common dancing girls of the country, who appear to approach
more nearly to the usual dancing girls of Western India, are called
_róng'geng_, and are generally of easy virtue. They make a profession
of their art, and hire themselves to perform on particular occasions,
for the amusement of the chiefs and of the public. Though to be found
in every principal town, their performance is most highly esteemed
in the western, and particularly among the rude mountaineers of
the _Súnda_ districts, where the superior graces of the _bedáya_
are unknown. Here they are constantly engaged on every occasion of
festivity, and the regents frequently keep the most accomplished in
their service for years. Their conduct is generally so incorrect, as
to render the title of _róng'geng_ and prostitute synonymous; but it
not unfrequently happens, that after amassing considerable wealth in
the profession, they obtain, on account of their fortune, the hand
of some petty chief. In this case, they generally, after a few years
retirement and domestic quiet, avail themselves of the facility of
a divorce, and repudiating their husbands, return to their former
habits. The _róng'gengs_ accompany the dance with singing, the words
being generally extempore to the music of the _gámelan saléndro_ and
_pélog_. Their dress is coarse, but in other respects resembles that of
the more select dancers. They do not, however, wear any tiara on the
head, nor armlets; bracelets are only worn occasionally. Their hair
is dressed after a peculiar fashion, abundantly oiled, and ornamented
with flowers of various kinds. They sometimes exhibit singly and
sometimes in groups, following and approaching each other, or receding
at pleasure. They perform at any time of the day, but chiefly in the
evening, and endeavour to exhibit their best attitudes round a lamp
which hangs suspended. Generally speaking, both their action and their
song are rude and awkward, and on that account often disgusting to
Europeans, although there are some among them whose performance does
not deserve to be so considered. Their action is usually distorted,
their greatest excellence seeming to consist in bending the arms and
hands back in an unnatural manner, and giving one or two of the fingers
a tremulous motion. The voice, though sometimes harmonious, is often
loud, dissonant, and harsh to an European ear. They generally have a
handkerchief thrown over the shoulder, and usually a fan in their hand,
which occasionally serves to conceal one half of the face, not so much
out of any affectation of bashfulness, as, in the manner of a huntsman,
to assist the louder tones of the voice. At other times it is employed
to strike against the back of the arm, so as to give a greater effect
to different parts of the action and music. Generally speaking, the
_róng'gengs_ do not descend to the performance of those disgusting and
disgraceful postures and motions, which are stated to be so frequent
on the continent of India, but they are not free from the charge
of impropriety in this respect. Their song, though little esteemed
and less understood by Europeans, sometimes possesses much humour
and drollery; and in adapting their motions to the language, they
frequently excite loud bursts of laughter, and obtain great applause
from the native audience.
The nobles of the highest rank are accustomed, on particular occasions
of festivity, to join in the dance with a _róng'geng_. To dance
gracefully, is an accomplishment expected in every Javan of rank;
and in the western districts, particularly, all the chiefs are, on
days of festivity, accustomed to join in the exercise, one after the
other, commencing with the youngest. On these occasions, the nobles
of the highest class vie with each other in pointing the toe with
grace, in exhibiting elegance of movement, in displaying adroitness by
intricate evolutions, or beauty of person by an ingenious management
of attitude. So devoted are they to this exercise, that although their
wives and daughters never dance, the happiness of a festive occasion
is considered incomplete, where an opportunity is not afforded to the
chiefs themselves of introducing their favourite amusement. In the
_Súnda_ districts, there are some individuals distinguished as regular
posture or dancing-masters.
It is not unusual for the performances of the _róng'gengs_ to be varied
by the action of a fool or buffoon. Mimicry is a favourite amusement,
and beside imitating, in a ludicrous manner, the actions of the
_róng'gengs_, there are not wanting performers of this description,
who occasionally direct their wit against all classes of society, and
evince a considerable degree of low humour.
These are the only public exhibitions of the female sex; but the
posture dances by the men are numerous, and contribute to the state of
the sovereigns and chiefs. Among these, the _Gámbuh_, with a shield
on one arm, gracefully raises the _dódot_ (or petticoat) with the
other hand; the _Niutra_, having a bow and arrow in the hand, goes
through the motion of its exercise, stringing and unstringing it to
the sound of the _gámelan_. Both throw their limbs and body into the
most graceful postures, as they slowly move in procession before the
chiefs, or are arranged on the side of the passage through which he
is to pass. Both the _Gámbuh_ and _Niutra_ are naked from the waist
upwards, while the _dódot_ hangs to the ground on one side in the
manner of full dress, shewing the knee on the other. Their bodies are
generally covered with yellow powder, and from round their ears hang
suspended in front, strings of the young _meláti_ flowers.
The _Gámbuh_ are occasionally employed to exhibit before the prince,
when with a _krís_ in their right hand and a shield on their left arm,
they go through all their evolutions to the sound of music.
But the chief description of male performers are the _Béksa kémbang_
or _Béksa rong'geng_, who have flowers, shields, or serpents in their
hands, and in dancing seem to resemble the South Sea Islanders, though
more elegant in their attire, and perhaps more graceful in their
motions. Neither have any covering above the waist; but the yellow, and
sometimes green powder which is upon the body, gives it an appearance
very like dress. The term _Béksa láwung_ is applied to the petty
chiefs, who on public days dismount from their horses, and go through
the exercise of the spear for the amusement of the prince. Another
description of performers are termed _Unchelang_; their art consists in
throwing the spear into the air, and catching it again as it falls with
great dexterity. Similar exhibitions of these persons combating with
sticks, called _újung_, were formerly common.
In the domestic circle, the women and elderly people are partial to a
peculiar amusement termed _sintren_, which paints very forcibly the
notions they possess of the power of music. A boy or girl, properly
attired and skilled in the dance, is placed under a reversed basket
which is carefully covered with cloth. Round it music and song are
struck up by all present; those who do not play on any instrument,
or who do not sing, joining in beating time by clapping their hands.
When the excitement has continued sufficiently long to be supposed to
have effected the charm, the basket is seen to move, and the boy or
girl rising from under it, apparently unconscious of what is doing,
moves and dances gracefully but wildly, in unison with the music. At
length tired out, the dancer falls and seems to sink into sleep, and
when awakened pretends not to recollect any thing that has passed. The
perfection of this amusement consists in the performer's giving himself
up so completely to the power of music as to be charmed by it, and
perfectly unconscious of every other sense.
For the amusement, principally however of children, a cocoa-nut shell
is carved with the features of a man, and affixed to the top of a
reversed basket, covered with cloth. This basket, after being for
some time exposed by the side of a river, or under a large tree, in
order, as is supposed, that some supernatural spirit may enter into
it, is brought again into the house, and rocked according to the
swaying motion of the Javan dance by two children, to the music of the
_gámelan_. An amusement of this kind is termed _bríndung_.
Tilts and tournaments (_wátang_) form a favourite and constant
diversion with the Javans: they are exhibited principally in the _álun
álun_, or great square in front of the _kráton_, or palace, and compose
an essential part of the ceremony of the _pásar senén_, or the day
in which the sovereign and regents appear in public. This, with the
sovereign, is Saturday; with the chiefs, Monday. On the afternoon of
this day, all the princes, nobles, and public officers assemble, and
arranging themselves in the places assigned to their respective ranks,
await the coming out of the sovereign, who, as soon as he descends from
the _setíngel_, mounts a horse richly caparisoned, and rides round
the _waríngen_ trees, the several chiefs joining in his suite as he
passes the circle. Several of the chiefs, and particularly their sons
and youthful relations, then join in pairs, tilting and striking their
long and blunted spears as they pass the sovereign. The same thing
is observed on the afternoon of every Monday, at the capitals of the
different provinces throughout the island, where the native government
and institutions are at all preserved. The assemblage of people on
these occasions is frequently very great. The trappings and housings of
the horses are extremely rich, and the riders perform their feats with
some dexterity, being seldom unhorsed[116]. At the conclusion of the
exhibition on horseback, it is not unusual for the youths and petty
chiefs who have contended in the saddle to dismount and practice the
attack and defence of the spear on foot: they are then termed _Béksa
láwung_. Tilts are likewise exhibited in the _álun álun_ on the days of
public festival, when the chiefs appear.
The Javans have long advanced beyond that state in which the chace was
considered as connected with their subsistence.
The stag is hunted chiefly in the eastern and western extremities
of the island, by the descendants of the _Báli_ and _Súnda_ races:
the Javans inhabiting the central districts are not practised in the
diversion, nor much acquainted with it. They uniformly pursue the
animal on horseback. In the eastern districts he is killed with a
spear: in the western he is cut down with a _kléwang_ or cutlass; here
the chace is conducted with more regularity and method, and many of the
inhabitants, particularly the chiefs, are passionately addicted to it,
employing the best and swiftest horses and dogs they can procure for
the purpose.
A favourite and national spectacle is the combat between the buffalo
and the tiger. A large cage of _bámbu_ or wood is erected, the ends of
which are fixed into the ground, in which the buffalo is first and the
tiger afterwards admitted, through openings reserved for the purpose.
It seldom fails that the buffalo is triumphant, and one buffalo has
been known to destroy several full grown tigers in succession. In
these combats the buffalo is stimulated by the constant application of
boiling water, which is poured over him from the upper part of the
cage, and of nettles, which are fastened to the end of a stick, and
applied by persons seated in the same quarter. The tiger sometimes
springs upon the buffalo at once; he very generally, however, avoids
the combat, until goaded by sticks and roused by the application of
burning straw, when he moves round the cage, and being gored by the
buffalo, seizes him by the neck, head, or leg. The buffalo is often
dreadfully torn, and seldom survives the combat many days. In these
entertainments the Javans are accustomed to compare the buffalo to the
Javan and the tiger to the European, and it may be readily imagined
with what eagerness they look to the success of the former. The combat
generally lasts from twenty minutes to half an hour, when, if neither
of them is destroyed, the animals are changed, and the tiger, if he
survives, is removed to be destroyed in the manner called _rámpog_,
which is as follows.
On receiving information of the retreat of a tiger the male inhabitants
are sometimes called out in a body, by the order of a chief, each
man being obliged to be provided with a spear, the common weapon of
the country. The place where the animal is concealed is surrounded:
a double or triple range being formed, according to the number of
hunters, and he is roused by shouts, by the beating of _gongs_, or by
fire. The place where he is expected to attempt his escape is carefully
guarded, and he is generally speared on the spot.
In many districts, where the population is not deficient, the
appearance of a single _tiger_ rouses the neighbourhood, and he is
infallibly destroyed by the method described[117].
When the _rámpog_ is resorted to by way of amusement at the capital of
the sovereign, a hollow square of spearmen, four deep, is formed on
the _álun álun_, in the centre of which are placed the tigers in small
separate cages, or rather traps, with a sliding door, in the manner
of a rat-trap. Two or three men, accustomed to the practice, at the
command of the sovereign, proceed into the centre of the square, and
placing plaited leaves in front of the cage, to supply the place of the
wooden door, set it on fire, and drawing the wooden door up, throwing
it on one side, themselves retreating from the spot at a slow pace,
to the sound of music. As soon as the tiger feels the fire he starts,
and in endeavouring to make his way through the spearmen is generally
received upon their weapons. Instances, however, have occurred, in
which the animal has made good his retreat, but he was soon afterwards
killed; sometimes the tiger, particularly if he has been opposed to the
buffalo, will not move from the centre of the square; in which case the
sovereign generally directs six or eight of his choice men (_gándek_)
to advance towards him with spears. This they do with surprizing
coolness and intrepidity, never failing to pierce the animal, by fixing
their spears into him at once. The smaller species of the tiger is
generally selected for this amusement.
The exposure of criminals in combat with tigers was formerly practised,
and it is said to have been common on the first establishment of
the _Matárem_ empire; but of late years, such a method of deriving
amusement from the infliction of judicial punishment had almost become
obsolete, and is now, as well as mutilation and torture, altogether
abolished by treaty. Several instances are said to have occurred
during the reign of the sultan of _Yúgya-kérta_ who was deposed by the
British Government in 1812. In an exhibition of this kind, which took
place about ten years ago, two criminals were exposed for having set
fire to a dwelling. They were provided each with a _krís_, which was
long, but broken off or blunted at the point, and the tiger was let
in upon them separately in a large cage constructed for the purpose.
The first was soon destroyed, but the second, after a combat of nearly
two hours, succeeded in killing the tiger, by repeated cuts about the
head and under the ears and eyes. On this a smaller tiger, or rather
leopard, was let in upon him, and the criminal being equally successful
in this combat was released. His success, as in the judicial ordeals
of the dark ages, was taken for a manifestation by heaven of his
innocence, and not only secured his pardon, but procured for him the
rank of a _Mántri_, as a recompense for the danger to which he was
exposed in its vindication. Although this barbarous practice appears
so recently to have been resorted to, it is not to be inferred that, as
a spectacle, it is held in any estimation by the Javans in general. It
seems to have been of comparatively late introduction, and adopted only
in the policy of a known and avowed tyrant. The concourse of spectators
to witness the combat can no more stamp the general character of the
people with barbarity, than the crowds which are always present at
public executions in Europe. The bare relation of the fact excites
feelings of horror in the mind of the ordinary chief.
Bull-fighting is common on _Madúra_ and in the eastern parts of the
island; but it is perfectly different from any species of sport derived
from the courage or ferocity of that animal in Europe. Here, neither
dogs are employed as in England, nor men and horses as in Spain, but
the bulls themselves are directed against each other. The population
form an extensive ring round the _álun álun_, within which the animals
are first led up to a cow, until they are sufficiently excited, when
the cow being withdrawn they are set at liberty and contend with each
other, until one of them gives way, and is driven from within the
ring by the victor. The small well formed bulls of _Súmenáp_ afford
considerable amusement in this way, while considerable bets are laid on
the result of the combat.
The combat between the ram and wild hog, which generally terminates by
several dogs being let in to complete the destruction of the latter,
is an exhibition which furnishes frequent amusement; a small stand is
raised for the ram, to which he can retreat when in danger, and from
whence he can take advantage of a favourable moment of attack upon his
antagonist.
Quail-fighting _(áduh gemár)_ and cock-fighting _(áduh jágu)_ were
formerly very prevalent, the latter particularly, among the common
people, but by no means to the same extent as practised in the other
islands of the Archipelago, in many parts of which, particularly among
the _Maláyus_, it forms almost the whole source of diversion and
interest. On the establishment of the British power, cock-fighting and
gaming, which had formerly proved a productive source of revenue to
the European government, were prohibited, and are now in consequence
rarely resorted to. The Javans were not in the habit of fixing spurs to
their cocks: this practice, they say, belongs to the _Maláyus_[118].
The common people still amuse themselves with betting upon the issue of
a fight between two crickets (_ádhu jangkrik_), which are daily exposed
in the markets for that purpose. The little animals being confined in
small _bámbus_ partially opened, are said to afford an amusement of
considerable interest.
Among the games of skill may be reckoned those of chess, drafts,
and several minor games played with pieces or balls, on boards of a
somewhat similar construction.
In chess (_chátur_) the pieces are named, the _rátu_, or king; the
_pateh_, or minister, corresponding with the queen; two _práhu_, or
vessels, corresponding with castles; two _mántri_, corresponding with
bishops; two _járan_, or horses, corresponding with knights; the
_bídak_, or pawns; and are arranged as in the English game, except that
the kings are placed on the left hand of the queens, and opposite to
the adversary's queen. The moves are also the same; except that the
king, if he has not been checked, may move two squares the first time,
either as a knight or otherwise; and that the pawn may move two squares
the first move, even though it should pass the check of an adversary's
pawn. When a pawn reach the adversary's first line, it must retrograde
three moves diagonally before it can become a queen, except it has
reached the castle's square, in which case it is a queen at once. There
maybe any number of queens on the board at once.
The king cannot castle after having been checked. Castling is performed
by two moves; the castle must first be brought up to the king, after
which the king may pass over the castle at any future move, provided he
shall not have been checked, or that no piece has occupied the square
he would move into. A piece or pawn must remain on the board till the
last; if the king is left alone it is considered as _stale mate_, and
he wins.
This game was formerly more general than at present.
Besides chess, there are a variety of games played upon checkers; and
next to it in estimation may be considered the games of _chúki_ and
_dákon_. In _chúki_, the board has one hundred and twenty angular
points, formed by cross lines on a checkered board, and the same is
played with sixty white and sixty black pieces. The object here is to
clear the board of the adversary's pieces, and the victor is he who
does so first. The parties toss up who shall take off the first piece
or break the board. The moves are in all directions, and the person who
commences goes on as long as he can take one, three, or five of his
adversary's pieces. When he cannot do either, he stops, and the other
goes on in the same way. _Dákon_ is played with fourteen or eighteen
balls on an oblong board with holes, and is much practised by women.
_Dandáman_, or drafts, is not very unlike the Indian game, but has more
pieces.
_Machánan_, is a game in which two chief pieces represent tigers, one
conducted by each party, and twenty-three pieces representing cows:
the tiger who destroys the most wins the game. _Máling'an_ is played
on squares with eighteen pieces, and the object is to surround your
adversary's pieces.
Of games of chance there are many. That denominated _telága tári_ is
accounted the most ancient: it consists in guessing the number of beans
enclosed within the hand. Three or four people commonly join in it. One
of the party having dried beans in his lap, take a certain number in
his hand, requiring each of the others to fix by guess upon a number;
if there are three persons, upon a number from one to four, and the two
numbers left fall to the share of the person who holds the beans. If
the number in his hand exceeds four, every four beans are thrown aside,
and the residue, until they are reduced to that number or below it,
only counted.
_Dadu_, or dice, as well as cards, are borrowed from the Chinese, and
not included among the national games. The most common species of
gaming, and that which is practised by the numerous and dissolute class
of _báturs_, or porters, in the central districts, is a kind of pitch
and toss, denominated _képlek_. Four farthings, whitened or marked on
one side, are tossed into the air; if the whole or three of them fall
on the side that is marked, or on the reverse, the party who tossed
them wins; if only two he loses the stake.
Bets are frequently laid on the hardness or otherwise of a particular
nut, known among the _Maláyus_ by the term _búa kras_ and called
_áduh gemíri_. Bets also frequently depend on the flying of kites
(_layáng'an_).
I shall conclude this chapter by referring to some peculiarities,
which, although partially explained elsewhere, and falling perhaps
more correctly under other heads, may not be improperly noticed in an
account of the national usages and customs.
The practice of filing and dying the teeth black, and that of
lengthening the lobe of the ear to an enormous size, both of which have
been already noticed, appear to have extended over the whole of the
eastern peninsula of India, as far as China, and throughout the islands
of the Archipelago, as far at least as Papua or New Guinea.
The practice of covering the face, body, and limbs with yellow powder
on state occasions, and the use of yellow silk or satin for the
envelope of letters between princes, evinces the same esteem for this
colour which prevails in the other islands, as well as in Ava, Siam,
and China.
The _kríses_ worn by the Javans are only varieties of that which is
found in the islands, and on what is termed the Malayan peninsula. The
Javans have a tradition that it was first introduced by one of their
early Hindu sovereigns, _Sakú-tram_ (others call him _Sa Pútram_), who
is said to have come into the world with the krís by his side. This
krís is supposed to have been of the kind called _pasopáti_, which is
consequently considered as the most honourable at the present day. In
the chapter on History will be found an account of the _krís_ deposited
in the tomb of the _Susúnan Gíri_, and of the virtues attributed to
it by the superstitions of the country. There is a tradition, that
the inhabitants of all those countries in which the _krís_ is now
worn, once acknowledged the authority of the Javans, and derived that
custom from them. Another tradition attributes the introduction of this
weapon among the islanders to the celebrated _Pánji_. The practice of
poisoning the blade of the _krís_ seems to have been attributed to the
Javans and their neighbours without any foundation. In order to bring
out the damasking, it is usual to immerse the blade in lime juice and
a solution of arsenic, which, by eating away and corroding the iron,
may probably render the wound more angry and inflamed, and consequently
more difficult to cure, but it has never been considered that death is
the consequence. After this application of the acid and arsenic, the
blade is carefully smeared with some fragrant oil, to prevent it from
rusting, and this is all that is ever done to it.
It has been usual to condemn these people as blood-thirsty, prone to
immediate revenge, because they invariably use the _deadly krís_; but
however frequent the appeals to this weapon may be in some of the more
wild and uncivilized of the Malayan states, experience has proved to
us, that on Java it may be universally worn without danger. I have
elsewhere remarked, that the custom of wearing the _krís_ among these
islanders has, in its effects upon the manners of the people, proved
in many respects an effectual substitute for duelling among Europeans.
In these countries, where there is very little justice to be obtained
from regularly established courts, and where an individual considers
himself justified in taking the law into his own hands accordingly, the
_Maláyu_ is always prepared to avenge with his _krís_ the slightest
insult on the spot; but the knowledge that such an immediate appeal
is always at hand, prevents the necessity of its often being resorted
to, an habitual politeness ensues, and it has often been said, that
if the _Maláyus_ are savages, they are by far the most polite savages
that we know of. If this effect is produced on the wilder and less
civilized _Maláyu_, and has equal force with the more adventurous and
warm-hearted _Búgis_, it may be easily conceived the Javans have not
escaped it. The _krís_, among them, has for a long period been more
exclusively a personal ornament, than a rapier was in Europe fifty
years ago, being among the higher classes even seldomer resorted to, as
a weapon of defence or offence, than the latter.
The condition of absolute slavery, as understood by Europeans, seems
to have been unknown to the ancient constitution of society in these
islands, and throughout all the fragments of their history, of their
laws, usages, and customs, no trace is to be found of its ever having
existed among the Javans[119].
Throughout the more ancient laws and institutions of the country, a
property of the subject in the land is clearly recognized, and it
is probable that it continued to subsist till the subversion of the
Hindu government. From various definitions and enactments respecting
property, some of which may be seen in the _Súria Alem_[120], it is
obvious, that money transactions took place formerly, to a greater
extent than they do at present. The change is probably attributable to
the European policy of the last two centuries. Four per cent. per month
when a valuable pledge is deposited, and double that amount otherwise,
is the common rate of interest in small transactions between the
natives and Chinese of the present day.
In the transaction of money concerns, the women are universally
considered superior to the men, and from the common labourer to the
chief of a province, it is usual for the husband to entrust his
pecuniary affairs entirely to his wife. The women alone attend the
markets, and conduct all the business of buying and selling. It is
proverbial to say the Javan men are fools in money concerns.
When speaking of their fondness for show and state, I noticed that the
Javans were at the same time distinguished by neatness and cleanliness,
qualities not often combined with the former. That they are in most
respects remarkable for their neatness cannot be denied: to their
personal cleanliness there are exceptions. This is however chiefly true
of the higher classes, and especially those who mix with Europeans;
but the common Javan, though more cleanly than the Chinese and even
the European, would suffer by a comparison in that particular with the
natives of Western India.
The common people generally bathe once a day, others once only in two
or three days. None of any rank anoint the body with grease, as is
the case with the natives of Western India; but they abundantly oil
their hair, which among the common people, on account of its length,
is too often filthy in the extreme. They are accustomed to arrange
the hair with a coarse comb, but the use of the small-toothed comb is
unknown, its office being invariably performed by the hands of women.
Near Batavia, and some of the low capitals on the coast, it is not
unusual to see on the road side women thus employed for the benefit of
passengers, at a certain rate per head, who submit to it as naturally
as an English labourer goes into a barber's shop to be shaved for a
penny. The _Maláyus_ accuse the Javans of eating what they find on
these occasions: "_ítu órang Jáwa_," say they, "_mákan kútut_." This,
however, appears to be a calumny: the Javans confess to biting, but
deny the swallowing. The practice of the women cleaning the men's hair
is referred to by the Javans as of very ancient date. It was from this
practice that the mother of _Wátu Gúnung_, in the very earliest period
of Javan traditionary story, discovered her lost son[121].
Passing from this disgusting particular, and referring the reader to
the details of the native history for the leading features of the
political character of the Javan, and to the other divisions of this
work, which may afford him information how to estimate their former and
present state of civilization, I cannot but regret, that I am compelled
to reserve, until a future occasion, a more detailed account of the
constitution, usages, and customs of the village societies. It is by
these that the private virtues and vices of the people are perhaps best
illustrated, and an account of the municipal regulations by which the
little property and happiness of each individual is protected, of the
internal precautions of police, and of the mode of adjusting disputes,
could not fail to be interesting, on account of their simplicity,
their equity, and efficacy. Independently of the degree of rational
independence and importance which the existence of these societies
insures to the common people, and of the protection which, under all
circumstances of greater political revolutions, they have afforded to
them, it is hoped that their influence in maintaining the police and
tranquillity of the country, will ever prevent the European authority
from interfering in their constitution or internal arrangements.
It has long been the opinion of the Dutch authorities, that a system
of European police, and the employment of European officers of police
are necessary; but under the British government the contrary has
been satisfactorily proved. Let the higher departments of justice be
scrupulously superintended and watched by Europeans of character; let
the administration of justice be pure, prompt, and steady; let what
is bad in the native practice of police be gradually removed, but let
the system, in its application to the common people, be supported. It
is one which has grown with them, one which they are accustomed to and
understand. Under the native system, the rice block of the village is
used as the alarm; and according to the manner in which it is beaten,
the inhabitants know whether it is to announce a single thief or a
banditti, a tiger or a fire, and arm themselves suitably. As it is
usual for a thief to have but little covering on his body, and to oil
himself all over, that he may slip from the hands of any one who may
seize him, the Javans make use of a long wooden pole, with branches of
brambles inverted within a fork at the end, and by means of this simple
contrivance they avoid the risk of being wounded, and effectually
secure the offender, who cannot escape without tearing his skin.
These, and other simple expedients, adopted from immemorial custom and
according to the circumstances of the country, are certainly preferable
to the watchmen's rattles and constables' staves which Europeans would
wish to introduce.
FOOTNOTES:
[97] The same is assumed by the European Governor, or his
representative.
[98] The titles at present assumed by the _Susúnan_ are _Susuhúnan Páku
Buána Sena-páti heng Alága Abdul Ráhmen Sáyedin Pánatagáma_.
[99] _Form of a Piágam, or Patent of Javan Nobility._
Let it be observed, this is the writing of me, the Sultan, &c. &c. &c.
Be it known to the _Nayáka_ (high officers of the palace), _Bopátis_
(the class of _Tumung'gungs_ or Regents), and _Mantris_ (the petty
noblesse) of _Yúgya-kérta_ and _Mánchanagára_, that I have invested ...
with this letter, to raise him from the earth, and permit him to bear
the title of ..., and wear the dress appointed for the ..., bestowing
upon him for his subsistence lands to the amount of eleven hundred
_cháchas_, the labour of eleven hundred men (families).
These are the names of the land bestowed. * * *
_Translation of a Nawála for the Mánchanagára, or distant Districts._
Let all persons observe this, the royal letter of us, the exalted
Sultan, &c., which we give in charge to....
Be it known to you, our servants, chiefs of _Yúgya-kerta Adiníngrat_,
whether _Bopátis_ or _Mántris_, and to you our _Bopátis_ and _Mántris_,
chiefs of _Mánchanagára_, that our royal letter is given in charge
to ..., in order to exalt him. Moreover we prefer our servant to the
rank of a _Bopáti_, to be chief of the _Bopátis_ of _Mánchanagára_,
bearing as heretofore the name of ... We also entitle him to wear
such dress as is appointed for the _Widána_ of _Mánchanagára_, and
we give for his estate (seat), our own royal lands ..., amounting to
two thousand _chachas_: ... thousand productive (living), of which
last ... thousand are assigned for a maintenance and ... thousand are
charged with rents, to the amount of ... dollars annually, payable
twice a year, _viz._ at the festival _Mulud_ ... and at the festival of
_Puasa_ ..., each dollar to consist of thirty _wangs_, and the whole
to be subject to an office fee of one _wang_ in each dollar. Moreover
we direct, that each year an account be rendered to us of the increase
or decrease of the _sáwah_ (rice lands). The date of giving the royal
order is the....
[100] "Thereupon _Klána Jáyang Sári_ (another name for _Pánji
Kérta Páti_), called his sister, and the Princesses of _Báli_ and
_Balem-báng'an_, and directed them to proceed to the Prince of Dahá,
and to present to him a handsome present, composed of the most
beautiful and rich ornaments and articles of dress for adorning a
princess, placing the same in a _kendága_ (or box), in order that if
the prince was pleased to allow it to be delivered to his daughter
_Déwi Chándra Kirána_, it might be a proof that he confirmed the
contract with _Klána Jáyang Sári_, and that his daughter, _Déwi Chándra
Kirána_, would be accepted by _Klána Jáyang Sári_, in which case he was
ready to attack the enemies of the prince."--See the Adventures of the
celebrated _Pánji_.
[101] Fortune was so much considered in the making of these matches
among the Romans, that the augurs were always called along with the
witnesses to a marriage contract, to pronounce upon the happy results
of the settlement which the latter attested:
"Veniet cum signatoribus Auspex."--_Juvenal._
[102] The Jews marry in nearly the same way, the husband delivering a
sum of money as a pledge. The Greeks were in the habit of presenting
gifts on similar occasions.
[103] A description of this instrument, on account of the importance
attached to it among the Javans, the constancy with which it is worn,
and the care with which it is preserved through different generations,
will be found in another place.
[104] "Non consulum sed maritorum numero annos suos computant."
_Seneca, de Benef._--But this is short of Juvenal's account: "Fiunt
octo mariti, quinque per autumnos."
[105] The Romans likewise were in the habit of washing the dead body
several times before interment with water, which in their case was warm.
"Pars calidos latices et ahena undantia flammis
Expediunt: corpusque lavant frigentis et ungunt."
_Virgil: Æneidos, lib._ vi. _lin._ 218.
By referring to the Old and New Testament, the same practice will be
found to have prevailed among the Jews: indeed, it seems to have been
very general.
[106] During the two latter quarters of the moon she is considered as
appearing in the form of a _Rasáksa_, and is then more properly called
_Dúrga_.
[107] A custom somewhat similar to this is said to be practiced in
South America.
"They lighted a great number of torches, and the midwife taking up the
child carried it through the yard of the house, and placed it upon a
heap of leaves of sword-grass, close by a basin of water, which was
prepared in the middle of the yard, and then undressing it said, 'my
child! the gods _Ometeuctti_ and _Omicihautl_, Lords of Heaven, have
sent thee to this dismal and calamitous world: receive this water,
which is to give thee life:' and after wetting its mouth, head, and
breast, with forms similar to the first bathing, she bathed its whole
body, and rubbing every one of its limbs said, 'where art thou, ill
fortune? in what limb art thou hid? go far from this child!'"--_History
of Mexico by Clavigero, translated by Cullen_, vol. i.
[108] It is curious to observe how exactly this corresponds with the
patriarchal history of Scripture, and the early accounts of the manners
of ancient nations. The daughter was always considered the property of
the parent, the wife as the purchase of the husband, and the marriage
contract as the deed of transfer.
[109] One of the names of Pángi.
[110] The prevalence of this practice must strike every one.
[111] See Astronomy
[112] See Historical Chapters.
[113] These prayers will be found at length in the Transactions of
the Batavian Society, vol. ix. The word _hong!_ used by the Javans at
the commencement of their invocations to the deity, is doubtless the
mystical _om!_ of the Hindus.
[114] The following are the only traditions respecting these people
which are current in the eastern provinces. "The people of the
_Teng'ger_ mountains say, that they received that name from a person
from _Matáram_, of an inquisitive and travelling turn (_wong malána_),
who having ascended the highest of them, and being struck with
astonishment at the view of all around, gave them the above-mentioned
name of _Teng'ger_, from the Javan word _angeng'ger_, which signifies
wonder or astonishment.
"Before _Gúnung Bràma_ had received that name, or had become a volcano,
there lived a man called _Kiai Géde Dádap Pútih_, who had no children.
He petitioned of his deity to grant that he might have children, to the
number of twenty-five, promising, in that event, that he would cast
away one of them into the sea. In the course of a short time children
began to be born unto him. As soon as he had the number he had prayed
for, the people of _Teng'ger_ were inflicted with a pestilence, so
dreadful in its effects, that those who were attacked by it in the
morning never failed to die before the evening. _Dádap Pùtih_ was so
distressed and afflicted at the lamentable situation of the _Teng'ger_
people, that he loathed his food and neglected his rest, till it was
communicated to him in a vision, that the pestilence had been sent in
consequence of his having omitted to perform his vow, of casting into
the sea one of the twenty-five children whom the deity had granted him.
_Dádap Pútih_ then assembled all his children, and inquired which of
them was willing to be sacrificed, in order to appease the angry deity.
All of them signified their unwillingness to become the victim except
the youngest child, who voluntarily came forward and agreed to suffer,
in which ever way its father thought proper. _Dádap Pútih_, however,
reflecting that the sea was at a very great distance, carried this
child only to that extensive sand plain at the foot of _Gúnung Bráma_,
which bears the name of _Sagára wédi_ or _Lout Pásir_, and there
abandoned it. No sooner had he done so, than _Gúnung Bráma_ began to
send forth hollow sounds, and immediately burst forth into a volcano.
_Sagára wédi_ is so called from the resemblance of its sandy surface,
to a sea when surveyed from _Bráma's_ heights: its original name is
_Dassar_.
"_Bima_ being asked by _Kresna_ if he was able, in the course of one
night, to make an inland sea below the _Teng'ger_ mountains, and having
answered in the affirmative, _Kresna_ challenged him to do it, telling
him at the same time, that it must be done before the cocks were heard
to crow, or the people of the villages began to weave or beat out rice.
By three o'clock in the morning his work was so far advanced, as to
convince _Kresna_ that it would be completed in the prescribed time.
To prevent this, therefore, _Kresna_ immediately went, and rousing
all the cocks and people of the villages, caused the former to crow
and the latter to begin to weave and beat out rice. By this manœuvre,
_Bima_ was obliged to leave off the work, which otherwise would have
been completed within the fixed time; and so incensed was he against
the people, who had so untimely began to weave and beat our their rice
(whereby he failed to perform the task which was given to him to prove
his power) that he cursed them, and swore that they should never again
perform either the one act or the other, and to this day the _Teng'ger_
people neither weave cotton nor beat out rice."
[115] See History.
[116] It has already been noticed that the island is plentifully
supplied with a fine breed of small horses. Almost every petty chief
and public officer is mounted, and those who possess the means pride
themselves upon a respectable establishment. They have an aversion to
some colours, and there are particular marks, the possession of which
renders a horse valuable to the natives; if a few hairs on the neck
curl, or have the appearance of a star, the horse is highly prized.
Previously to the cession of _Kedú_ to the European government in 1812,
the native princes maintained a very respectable stud in that province.
Horses are never shod on Java, nor are they secured in the stable,
as is usual in Europe and Western India. A separate enclosure is
appropriated for each horse, within which the animal is allowed to move
and turn at pleasure, being otherwise unconfined. These enclosures are
erected at a short distance from each other, and with separate roofs.
They are generally raised above the ground, and have a boarded floor.
The Javans use an extremely severe bit, and in consequence have the
horse always under command. The saddle, bridle, &c. are extremely
heavy, and disproportioned to the size of the animal.
[117] "The fruit of a species of _contorta_, called _kálak kámbing_,
has a deadly effect on tigers. It is prepared by the admixture of other
vegetables, and exposed on a piece of rag at the places frequented by
them. In some districts their number has been sensibly diminished by
this poison."--_Horsfield._
[118] The cocks reared for this purpose are of the large game breed.
The cock which we improperly call the Bantam, is not found on Java,
except as a curiosity: it comes from Japan.
[119] A peculiar feature in the state of society in the Eastern Islands
is the law between debtor and creditor. Throughout the Archipelago,
where the European government has not interfered, confinement for
debt is unknown. The creditor universally has a right to the effects
of the debtor, to the amount of the debt, on proving it before the
proper authority, and if the effects are not sufficient to satisfy
the demand, he has a right to the personal services of his debtor,
and of his debtor's wife and children if necessary. Hence arises that
extensive class of people commonly called slave debtors, or more
correctly bondsmen. In Java they are termed _bédol_. In the provinces
of Java subject to the European authority, this practice has for some
time been checked; and during the administration of Marshal Daendels,
in 1810, when it was usual for the common Javans to lend themselves
in pawn for a certain sum of money, it was declared illegal. As an
ancient institution of the country, it will perhaps be better explained
hereafter, in detailing the existing practice on _Báli_, which may be
considered to assimilate, in a great measure, with what the practice
once was on Java.
[120] See Appendix D.
[121] See Javan History.