_Language--Little known to Europeans--Different Languages or
Dialects--Those of Súnda, Madúra and Báli compared with that of
Java Proper--The polite Language, or Language of Honour--The
Káwi, or Sacred and Classic Language--Numerals--Chándra
Sangkála--Literature--Compositions in the Káwi Language, and in
the modern Javan--Influence of Hindu Literature--Introduction
of Arabic Literature--Poetry--The Bráta Yúdha, a
Poem--Music--Painting--Sculpture--Architecture--Arithmetic--Astronomy._
The extensive prevalence of the Javan language, and its connexion
with the languages of continental India, were not overlooked by those
intelligent Europeans who visited these islands at an early period;
for we find Valentyn[122] quoting the authority of Flaccourt, who
published in 1661, and the Portuguese Jan de Barros, for conclusions
with regard to the extent of Javan commerce in remote ages, drawn from
the resemblance then traced between the languages of Java and those of
Madagascar and Ambon (Amboina.) "The Javans," observes this author,
"must doubtless have visited Coromandel and Malabar, for the high
or court language is, in three parts out of four, derived from the
Sanscrit or Brahminical language. Many Malabar words also enter into
the composition, and it is besides composed in a great measure from the
_Dekan_, which is the ancient language of India, in the same manner as
the Sanscrit is the sacred language."
The alphabet has been exhibited, though imperfectly, by Valentyn,
Le Brun, and Reland, and an _Alphabetum Bantemense_ is said to have
been found amongst the posthumous papers of the learned Hyde; but
the language does not appear to have been regularly cultivated by
Europeans until within the last very few years. Some of the outlines
of the Javan mythological stories had previously appeared in a Dutch
dress, in the transactions of the Batavian Society; and these, with
the translation of the Lord's Prayer in the high and low languages,
published by Valentyn, some short vocabularies, and a short comparative
view of the Javan and Malayan languages, which appeared in a Dutch work
entitled "_Begin en vortgang den Oost Ind Compen_," or the Rise and
Progress of the East-India Company, are the only contributions to our
knowledge of Javan literature with which I am acquainted.
The native population of Java, _Madúra_, and _Báli_, islands most
intimately connected with each other in every respect, use exactly
the same written character, and it appears that one generic language
prevails throughout these islands. Of this generic language, however,
there are four dialects, differing so materially from each other as to
be generally considered separate languages. It is, however, rather by
admixture of other languages than by mere difference of dialect that
they are distinguished. These dialects or languages are the _Súnda_,
spoken by the inhabitants of the mountainous districts of Java west of
_Tégal_; the _Jáwa_ or Javan, which is the general language of Java
east of Chéribon, and throughout the districts lying on the northern
coast of the island; the _Madúra_ and the _Báli_, being the dialects or
languages belonging to those islands respectively.
How far these dialects or languages radically assimilate with each
other, and justify the opinion that one generic language prevails
throughout, may be determined by an inspection of the annexed
vocabulary[123]. The _Lampung_ is added on account of the vicinity of
that part of Sumatra to Java, and the intimate political connection
which at all times subsisted between the people; and in order to
enable the reader to compare them all with the prevailing language of
the Archipelago the _Maláyu_ is prefixed. Under the Javan is included
the _Bása kráma_, or polite language, which will be more particularly
noticed hereafter.
In this vocabulary such words only have been introduced as are used
in conversation, and in ordinary epistolary composition; but the
inhabitants of these islands possess further a classic language,
altogether distinct from the ordinary languages of the country, and
which is to them what the _Sanscrit_ is to the _Pracrit_ language of
Hindustan, and what the Pali is to the _Birman_ and _Siamese_. This
language is termed _Káwi_[124]. The annexed vocabulary, No. 2[125],
which affords a comparison between the _Sanscrit_, the _Pali_, and the
_Káwi_, will shew how nearly these languages are allied.
These two vocabularies may serve to convey a notion of the extent,
peculiarities, and antiquity of the Javan language, which will be found
as intimately connected with the _Maláyu_, or general language of the
Archipelago, on the one hand, as it is with the _Sanscrit_ and _Pali_
on the other.
The _Súnda_ language, though now confined to the mountainous districts,
seems to have been formerly, and probably down to the period
immediately preceding the revolution occasioned by the Mahomedan
conversion, the general language of the western districts, and is
perhaps the most ancient vernacular language of the country. It is a
simple uncultivated dialect, adapted however to all the purposes of
the simple and uneducated mountaineers who speak it, and has perhaps
escaped the influence of foreign innovation, from the peculiar nature
of the country and the independent character of that race. It possesses
a considerable portion of _Maláyu_ words, and some of Sanscrit origin;
the latter being, generally speaking, proper names or terms of art
and science or polity, have probably been borrowed from the eastern
or proper Javans, in common with whom the _Súnda_ people have adopted
a _B'hasa dálam_, or _Bása kráma_, which, however, is by no means
extensive. The _Súnda_, with reference to the Javan, may be viewed in
much the same light as the Welch is to the English. The proportion of
the people who now speak it does not exceed one-tenth of the population
of the whole island; the remaining nine-tenths speak Javan.
The language of _Madúra_, which is again divided into the dialects
of _Madúra_ proper and _Sumenáp_, will be found to contain many words
in common with that of _Súnda_, but a much more extensive portion of
_Maláyu_, varied in the termination by a peculiarity of dialect.
The languages of _Báli_ are intimately connected with those of Java and
_Madúra_. In the historical part of this work it will be shewn that it
was in _Báli_ the ancient religion, and with it the literature of Java,
took refuge in the fifteenth century of our æra; and although, from the
difference which is at this day found to exist between the vernacular
languages of the two countries, as well as in their institutions, it is
evident that the language, literature, and institutions of Java were
there engrafted on a more rude and savage stock, still it is chiefly
to _Báli_ that we must look for illustrations of the ancient state of
the Javans. The relation of the political revolutions by which these
islands have been convulsed at different periods of their history,
will, in a great measure, account for the distinctions of language
which at present exist; while, at the same time, these distinctions and
peculiarities must serve to confirm many of the facts, for which we
should otherwise have only the authority of tradition to rely.
At Bantam the language is much mixed with _Maláyu_ and _Súnda_. The
language in ordinary use at Batavia and its immediate vicinity is a
jargon of Dutch, Portuguese, Chinese, Javan, and _Maláyu_, the latter
forming the principal component. In _Bógor_ and _Chai-ánjur_, the
_Súnda_ is pronounced in a more drawling manner than in _Chéribon_,
where it is probably most correctly spoken, as in the word _náh_,
what? which at Chéribon is pronounced short and sharp, _naù_. At
_Tégal_ the Javan words are in like manner lengthened in pronunciation,
while at _Semárang_ they are spoken short and full. At the courts of
_Sura-kérta_ and _Yugya-kérta_, the words are pronounced short, strong,
and full. In the provinces east of _Surabáya_, the language partakes
much of the _Madurese_, and in the extreme district of _Banyuwángí_,
the _Báli_ is discernible.
The alphabet of Java is peculiar: it consists of twenty consonants (_y_
and _w_ are of the number), termed _aksára_ or letters. In common with
all other characters properly Indian, these letters may be considered
as syllables, composed of a consonant and an inherent vowel sound,
which is invariably expressed, unless contradicted by a particular sign.
Besides the _aksára_, there are twenty auxiliary characters, termed
_pasáng'an_, which in this application means corresponding or similar.
They have the same power as the _aksára_ against which they stand,
except that they are only used in connexion with and immediately after
the _aksára_, for the purpose of suppressing their inherent vowel
sound. Three of them are always placed after the _aksára_, the others
below them.
When the inherent vowel sound in the _aksára_ is not contradicted,
the _aksára_ is termed _lagána_. The vowel sound in this case is that
of _a_ in "water," or of _o_ in "homo;" the _o_ being at present
invariably used at the native courts and their vicinity for the
inherent vowel of the consonant, instead of _a_. The latter, however,
is still preserved on _Madúra_, _Báli_, and in the districts of Java,
west of _Tégal_, and was doubtless the original inherent vowel. The
consonant sounds correspond with the sounds usually attributed to the
English consonants, with the exception of a second _d_ and _t_, which
correspond with similar sounds in the _Devanágari_ alphabet; _ch_,
which is used as _ch_ in "church;" _nia_, and _ng'_, which latter is
frequently used as an initial letter.
Besides these there are five vowel signs, which supplant the inherent
vowel. These signs are termed _sandáng'an_, the clothing or dress. The
_répa_ consist of certain contractions of consonants and other signs
used in composition. These, with a _pángkun_, or sign of elision,
corresponding with the _báris máti_ of the _Malayu_, which has no
sound of its own, but being placed at the end of a word or sentence
denotes its termination in a pure consonant, and some few other marks
corresponding with the _Devanágari_, complete the orthographical
arrangement, which though complex and intricate, is remarkable for its
precision.
Some of the letters occasionally occur under a capital, or rather
peculiar form, for they are of the same size; but these are seldom
used, and when they are, it is not as capitals are employed in European
languages. They are principally found in proper names, and titles of
office, and are placed alike in the beginning, middle, or end of a
word.
The annexed table is intended to exhibit the powers and application of
the different letters and orthographical signs. No. 1. exhibits the
characters now in general use. No. 2. contains the square characters
in which the _Káwi_ is usually written, and in which the different
inscriptions in that language, cut in stone and copper, are found.
No. 3. contains specimens of the varieties which the alphabetical
characters have at different times assumed, arranged, according to
the judgment of the native writers, in the order of their relative
antiquity.
AKSÁRA JÁWA, or LETTERS of the JAVAN
ALPHABET.
CONSONANTS.
[Illustration:
_ha na cha ra ka da ta sa wa la
pa da ja ya nia ma ga ba ta ng'a_]
AKSÁRA PASÁNG'AN,
(_Used in forming Compound Consonants_).
[Illustration:
_ha na cha ra ka da ta sa wa la
pa da ja ya nia ma ga ba ta ng'a_]
RÉPA,
(_Or Contractions of certain Consonants used in composition with
other Consonants_).
_signian_ or} [Illustration] is placed after the letter, and is
_wignian_ } used to supply the place of the
letter _h_, when not followed by a
vowel sound.
_chákra_ [Illustration] is placed round two letters,
and introduces _r_ between the
consonant and its inherent vowel.
_láyar_ [Illustration] is placed above the letter, and is
used to supply the place of the
letter _r_ when not followed by a
vowel sound.
_péngkal_ [Illustration] is placed partly below the letter
and partly after, to introduce a
medial _y_ in the same manner as
chákra introduces _r_.
_chechak_ [Illustration] is placed above the letter, and is
used to supply the place of the
letter _ng'_, when not followed by
a vowel sound.
_chákra-gántung_ [Illustration] is placed below the letter, and is
pronounced _re_.
_pángkun_ [Illustration] is placed after a letter, and
serves as a mark of elision,
destroying the final vowel sound.
VOWELS.
_Single or _Sandáng'an, or Corresponding Medial and
unconnected Final Vowels._
Vowels._
a [Illustration]
i [Illustration] _wulu_ [Illustration] is placed above the
letter.
u [Illustration] _súku_ [Illustration] is placed below the
letter.
é [Illustration] _táling_ [Illustration] is placed before the
letter.
o [Illustration] _táling-tárung_ [Illustration] with the letter
between.
e _pápet_ [Illustration] is placed above
the letter, and is
pronounced as _le_
in French.
_ng'a lálet_ [Illustration] gives the sound of _le_, and _pachérak_
[Illustration] gives the sound of _re_, as in Sanscrit.
AKSÁRA GEDÉ,
(_Being peculiar forms under which some of the letters
occasionally occur_).
[Illustration:
N T S S P Nia G B]
ÁNGKA or NUMERALS.
[Illustration:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0]
AKSÁRA BÚD'DA, or ANCIENT ALPHABET.
[Illustration:
_ha na cha ra ka da ta sa wa la
pa da ja ya nia ma ga ba ta ng'a_]
ANOTHER FORM.
[Illustration:
_ha na cha ra ka da ta sa wa la
pa da ja ya nia ma ga ba ta ng'a_]
RÉPA.
(_Or Contractions of Consonants, &c., their Position being the same
as in the modern Javan_).
_wignian_ [Illustration] pronounced as _h_.
_chákra_ [Illustration] _r_.
_láyar_ [Illustration] _r_.
_péngkal_ [Illustration] _y_.
_chéchak_ [Illustration] _ng'_.
_chákra gántung_ [Illustration] _r_.
_pángkun_ [Illustration] the mark of elision.
SANDÁNGAN or VOWELS.
(_Their position being the same as in the modern Javan_).
_wúlu_ [Illustration] pronounced as _i_.
_súku_ [Illustration] _u_.
_táling_ [Illustration] _é_.
_táling tárung_ [Illustration] _o_.
_pápet_ [Illustration] _e_.
_ng'a lélet_ [Illustration] _le_.
The Javans write from left to right. Every consonant (_aksára_) is
written separately, not being joined to that which precedes it, and no
space is left between the words. One or two short diagonal lines are
used at the close of every poetical stanza, and sometimes a comma, and
this is the only mark in the language which simply indicates a stop.
In Java the natives usually write with Indian ink upon paper
manufactured by themselves, as already described, and sometimes on
European and Chinese paper; but in _Báli_ the natives invariably use an
iron style, and cut the letters on a prepared palm leaf, in the same
manner as in Western India. This practice is still partially continued
in some of the more eastern parts of Java, and was no doubt, at a
former period of their history, general throughout the island. The leaf
is called _lóntar_ (from _ron_ a leaf, and _tal_ the palm tree, the
first and last letters being transposed), and the leaves or manuscripts
are strung together to form books in the same manner as on continental
India. Of these I have several specimens, containing nearly all the
interesting compositions of the country.
As in the _Maláyu_, by far the greater proportion of primitive Javan
words are dissyllables, pronounced with a slight stress or accent on
the former of the two. There are a great number of derivative words,
formed after the same manner as those in the _Maláyu_, by prefixing or
annexing certain inseparable and otherwise non-significant particles.
Compound words, formed by the junction of two or more significant
terms, are frequently met with, though they by no means form an
extensive portion of the language.
Many words, in their primitive sense, are not confined to one
particular part of speech, but are common to two or more. Nouns, as
in the _Maláyu_, cannot be said to possess the distinctions of either
gender, number, or case. The males and females of all animals are, with
few exceptions, as in the instances _Pútra_--_Pútri_, _Déwa_--_Déwi_,
_Bramána_--_Bramáni_, and some few others, denoted by adding to the
general terms words applicable to the different sexes. Number is not
denoted by any variety of termination or change in the form of the
noun, but by separate words, expressive of plurality or singularity; a
duplication of the singular sometimes occurs, though rarely, to denote
plurality. Where the terms _bíji_, _ékor_, _buáh_, _képing_, &c. are
used in the _Maláyu_ to specify a particular number, the term _wíji_ is
used indiscriminately in the Javan, whatever may be the thing spoken
of. The nouns have no cases.
The adjectives are indeclinable, and generally follow the noun; and
these are sometimes formed from nouns by prefixing a particle. The
comparative degree is sometimes formed by prefixing a word meaning
higher or larger, but more frequently by placing adverbs, significant
of "with," before that with which the comparison is made, as if we
should say "by the side of." The superlative degree is formed by
annexing adverbs signifying "very, exceedingly, entirely, alone."
The cardinal numbers are placed sometimes before and sometimes
after the nouns to which they are attached. When prefixed, they
undergo, for the sake of the sound, a variety in their termination,
or drop the first syllable. The ordinals are formed by prefixing a
distinguishing word to the cardinals. Ten characters, which are all
either alphabetical letters or signs slightly altered in form, serve to
express all numbers, the notation being decimal, and the numerals being
combined in the same manner as the Indian and Arabian.
The pronouns of the first and second person are always significant, and
vary with the relative rank of the parties. There is no proper pronoun
of the third person, but a word signifying "alone, self," with the
addition of the possessive particle, is used as a personal pronoun of
the third person. The personal pronouns may all be used as possessive
pronouns, by being placed as such after the noun to which they belong.
The relative and demonstrative pronouns correspond very nearly with
those of the _Maláyu_.
With regard to the verb, it may be noticed that many of the
observations in Mr. Marsden's grammar, on the nature and formation of
the different parts of the _Maláyu_ verb, are applicable to the Javan.
It belongs rather to the detail of the grammar to point out these;
but it may be remarked, that the use of these inflexions in the Javan
appears to be so varied and undefined, that it is impossible, without
a much more extensive knowledge of the language than Europeans at
present possess, to make out a perfect conjugation, or to lay down any
fixed rules for them. All that could perhaps be done, in the present
state of the language and of our knowledge of it, would be to give a
number and variety of correct idiomatical expressions in the Javan,
by which their nature and irregularity may be shewn; and our present
limits do not admit of this.
The Javan language has never been reduced within the grammatical rules
adopted by Europeans, nor have the Javans themselves any notion of
grammar. The construction is generally simple and regular; but owing
to prosodial refinements (every writing of importance being written
in verse), syllables and words necessary to express a perfect sense
are often omitted; at other times, unnecessary syllables or words
are added, and letters at the beginning, middle, and end of a word
are transposed. Hence, and also from the usual ellipsis of the verb
transitive and personal pronouns, the meaning of many passages appears
obscure.
The language is remarkable for the profusion of words which it
contains, for the minute distinctions and shades of meaning, and the
consequent extent of synonymes, and for difference of dialect.
Of the profusion of words it may be observed, that the Javan, in this
respect, may be put in competition with many of the more cultivated
languages of Europe and Asia, and that a dictionary would perhaps be
far from complete, if it comprehended less than twenty thousand.
Of the extent of synonymes, and the minute shades of distinction which
are found in this language, some notion may be formed from the extracts
from the _Dása Náma_ which are annexed[126]. In order to facilitate
the acquirement of the language, it is usual to collect all the words
in the different dialects, with their synonymes, and to connect them
together by stringing them in classes following each other, according
to the natural chain of our ideas. Thus, after commencing with the
word _man_, and giving an explanation of every word in the vernacular,
polite and _Káwi_ languages, applicable from his birth to his death,
as _infant_, _boy_, _youth_, and the like, it proceeds to _woman_,
_child_; from thence to the deities, afterwards to the various
avocations of mankind, &c. This collection of synonymes is called
_Dása Náma_, literally the "ten names," a term probably given to it on
account of few important words in the language having less than ten
synonymes. Children are no sooner taught to know the letters of the
alphabet (which they first describe on the sand), and to connect them
in syllables and words, than they are instructed in the _Dása Náma_,
without a partial knowledge of which, no youth is considered competent
to enter upon any public office, or can advance to a knowledge of
the written compositions of the country. These collections are
varied in their contents and order of arrangement, according to the
acquirements and notions of the compiler. As books of reference they
may be considered to supply the place of dictionaries, and if less
convenient for this purpose than works alphabetically arranged, they
have certainty an advantage over them, in the comparative facility with
which their contents are impressed on the memory.
But there is no feature in the language more deserving of notice than
the difference of dialect, or the distinction between the common
language, and what may be termed the polite language or language of
honour. The latter contains many words of Sanscrit origin, and a
portion of _Maláyu_; and in those instances in which it appears to
have been borrowed from the vernacular language, which may perhaps
be loosely estimated at a fourth of the whole, a slight alteration
is commonly made in the orthography and pronunciation, to mark the
distinction. To render this distinction intelligible to those who
are not locally informed, it may be necessary to explain, that from
whatever cause the distinction may have originated, so clearly is
the line drawn on Java, between the higher and the lower classes of
society, that on no account is any one, of whatever rank, allowed
to address his superior in the common or vernacular language of the
country. This language is exclusively applied when addressing an
inferior, or among the lower orders or uneducated, where distinction
of rank may not be acknowledged. Persons of high and equal rank, when
discoursing among themselves, sometimes use the polite language, but in
general they adopt a medium, by introducing words belonging to both
branches of the language; and this is generally adopted by them in
epistolary correspondence.
It is probable, that in the earlier stages of society, the terms of
respect used towards a superior were comparatively few: that this
second dialect, which now forms so extensive a branch of the general
language, has been gradually formed with the growth of arbitrary power;
and that, at one period, the extent of these terms did not exceed what
is to be at this day found in the less cultivated dialects, and among
the more independent races of _Madúra_ and _Súnda_. Such, however,
is their present extent in the Javan, that nearly one half of the
words in the vernacular language, have their corresponding term in
the _Bása Kráma_ or polite language, without a knowledge of which no
one dare address a superior; and although the general construction
of the language, and its grammatical principles are not altered, so
effectually is the language of inferiority contrasted with that of
superiority, that it is possible to suppose a case in which a person
might be well acquainted with one dialect, without being able to
understand one sentence of the other.
It is not, however, to be inferred, that the one is studied and
attained exclusively of the other, for while the one is the language
of address, the other must be that of reply, and the knowledge of both
is indispensable to those who have to communicate with persons of a
different rank with themselves. Children are accustomed from their
infancy to employ the polite language in addressing their parents and
relations, and this added to the mode of instruction by the _Dása Náma_
above described, early impresses upon their memory the corresponding
terms to be used according to the occasion. The _Bása Kráma_, as has
been before noticed, consists of a more extensive class of foreign
words, and where different words from the common language have not been
introduced, a variation in the orthography and termination is adopted;
and the more effectually to render it distinct, not only are the
affirmatives and negatives, as well as the pronouns and prepositions
varied, but the auxiliary verbs and particles are different.
I have already mentioned, that besides the ordinary and the polite
languages of the country, the inhabitants of these Islands possess a
poetic or classic language, called _Káwi_. In this are written all the
historical and poetical compositions of note, as well as most of the
ancient inscriptions on stone and copper, which are found in different
parts of the Island. In a short vocabulary already referred to[127],
the relation of the _Káwi_ to the Sánscrit and _Páli_ is shewn; and in
order to enable the Sánscrit scholar to extend the comparison, I have
annexed a further vocabulary of _Káwi_ words, with the meaning which
the Javans at present attach to them[128].
At what period this language was introduced into Java, whence it
came, and whether it was ever the sacred or vernacular language of
any foreign people, remains to be decided. Of the words of which it
is composed, as far as we may judge from the annexed vocabulary, and
the compositions which have come down to us, nine out of ten are of
Sánscrit origin, and less corrupted than the present _Páli_ of _Siam_
and _Ava_ appears to be: if, therefore, it was ever the same language
with the _Páli_, it must have been before the _Páli_ was corrupted, and
therefore probably at a very remote period.
In _Báli_ the _Káwi_ is still the language of religion and law; in
Java it is only that of poetry and ancient fable. In the former,
the knowledge of it is almost exclusively confined to the _Bramána_
(Bramins); in the latter, a slight knowledge of it is deemed essential
for every man of condition. In _Báli_, the ancient, mythological, and
historical poems, are however preserved in more correct _Káwi_ than
on Java: and it is to the copies obtained from thence, that reference
will be principally made in the observations which follow on Javan
literature.
In noticing "the accessary tongues from whence the _Maláyan_ acquired
such a degree of improvement, as removed it from the general level
of the other cognate dialects, and gave it a decided predominance in
that part of the east," Mr. Marsden observes, "that the earliest, as
well as most important of these, appears to have been, either directly
or mediately, that great parent of Indian languages, the _Sanscrit_,
whose influence is found to have pervaded the whole of the eastern
(and perhaps also of the western) world, modifying and regenerating
even where it did not create. That the intercourse, whatever its
circumstances may have been, which produced this advantageous effect,
must have taken place at an early period, is to be inferred, not
only from the deep obscurity in which it is involved, but also from
the nature of the terms borrowed, being such as the progress of
civilization must soon have rendered necessary, expressing the feelings
of the mind, the most obvious moral ideas, the simplest objects of the
understanding, and those ordinary modes of thought which result from
the social habits of mankind; whilst, at the same time, it is not to
be understood, as some have presumed to be the case, that the affinity
between these languages is radical, or that the latter is indebted to
any Hindu dialect for its names for the common objects of sense[129]."
The same observations apply still more extensively to the Javan; and
in the _Káwi_ or classic language, we may presume to have discovered
the channel by which the Javan received its principal store of Sanscrit
words, for it is the practice, even at present, among the better
educated of the Javans, for the party to display his reading, by the
introduction, particularly into epistolary correspondence and literary
compositions, of _Káwi_ words, by which means the colloquial, but more
particularly the written language of the country, is daily receiving
fresh accessions of Sanscrit terms. From the vocabularies now presented
to the public, and the account which will be given of their literary
compositions, it will appear, that few languages, even on the continent
of India, have been more indebted to the Sanscrit than the Javan. One
original language seems, in a very remote period, to have pervaded the
whole Archipelago, and to have spread (perhaps with the population)
towards Madagascar on one side, and to the islands in the South Sea on
the other; but in the proportion that we find any of these tribes more
highly advanced in the arts of civilized life than others, in nearly
the same proportion do we find the language enriched by a corresponding
accession of Sanscrit terms, directing us at once to the source whence
civilization flowed towards these regions. At what period, however, the
light first broke in upon them, or at what period the intercourse first
took place between the enlightened inhabitants of Western Asia and the
islanders of this extensive Archipelago, is a question which, perhaps,
may be more properly discussed, when treating of the antiquities and
history of the country, and at best is involved in so much obscurity
and fable, that much must be left to conjecture.
The letters of the Javan alphabet, as well as the orthographical
signs, are decidedly on the principle of the _Devanágari_; but it is
remarkable, that the letters of the alphabet do not follow the same
order, notwithstanding that order is preserved in all the alphabets
of Sumatra as well as in that of Celebes. This deviation has been
considered presumptive of the alphabet having been introduced into
the island anterior to the period when this order might have been
established for the _Devanágari_ itself, or before the refinement
supposed to have been effected in that alphabet by the Bramins; but
the deviation may, perhaps, be sufficiently accounted for, by the
circumstance of a meaning being attached to the words formed by the
order of the Javan alphabet as the letters are at present arranged,
thus: _hána charáka dáta sawála páda jayánia mága batáng'a_; means,
"there were two messengers disputing with each other, equally
courageous, till they both died[130]." That this is not accidental may
be inferred, not only from the common laws of chance, but from the
probability of such an arrangement being preferred, both on account
of its convenience, and in conformity with the spirit which in the
_Chándra Sangkála_ seeks to select such expressions for the particular
numerals that are required, as may make a sentence.
Near the ruins of _Brambánan_ and _Sínga-sári_, are still found
inscriptions in the pure _Devánágari_ character of a very ancient
form. A specimen of these, together with one of the square _Káwi_, is
exhibited in the accompanying plate, corresponding in size with the
original. Annexed to each letter in the _Devanágari_ character found on
Java, is the modern character, and in the same manner the modern Javan
letters are placed under the _Káwi_; and, in order to enable the reader
to compare the forms of the consonants used in the alphabets of Ava,
Siam, and Java, with the _Devanágari_, they have been placed against
each other in another plate. It will be seen that many of the letters
of the _Káwi_ correspond so exactly with the square _Páli_ of the
Birmans, as to leave no doubt of their having originally been the same.
It is probable, also, that were our acquaintance with the _Páli_ more
extensive, a similar coincidence would be found between the languages.
Upon the overthrow of the Hindu empire on Java, the natives may
be considered to have lost most of their knowledge of the _Káwi_
language; for although numerous compositions in it are still to be
found among them, and these compositions are recited in their national
entertainments, they would not be generally understood, but for the
versions which have long since been rendered of them into the modern
Javan. The _Panambakán_ of _Sumenap_ is perhaps, at present, alone
entitled to be considered as a _Káwi_ scholar, and he knows so little
of the language as to acknowledge, while assisting in translating from
it, that he was often under the necessity of guessing at the meaning.
The knowledge of the ancient characters seems, on Java, to have been
for many years almost exclusively confined to the family of this
chief, and it is stated, that they owe their knowledge of it, and of
the _Káwi_ language itself, to the circumstance of one of them having
visited _Báli_, to which island it is that we must now look as the
chief depositary of what remains of the literature and science which
once existed on Java.
It is not unusual for the Javans, in carrying on any secret or
political correspondence, to adopt a mystical language, known only
to the parties themselves; and on occasions where attempts have been
made to stir up the common people to commotion, scrolls have been
distributed in various unintelligible characters, which, for the most
part, appear to have had no other object but to impose on the credulity
of those who were too willing to believe them sacred and mysterious.
Were the characters intelligible, the mystery would cease, and the
charm be dispelled. Of the manner in which the letters of the alphabet
are applied in forming this mystical language, an instance is given at
the conclusion of the vocabulary of _Káwi_ words[131].
Unlike the Malayan, the Javan language owes little or nothing to
the Arabic, except a few terms connected with government, religion,
and science, which have been admitted with the religion and laws of
Mahomet. The language, as well as the ancient institutions of the
country, have been but little affected by the conversion. The Javan
language was abundantly copious before the introduction of Arabic
literature, and had few or no deficiencies to be supplied.
The general character of the language is strongly indicative of a
former advanced state of civilization, and illustrates, in some degree,
the present character of the people. It is rich and refined; it abounds
in synonymes and nice distinctions; it is mixed and easily made to
bend, and suit itself to every occasion; it is, in a high degree,
expressive of power and servility[132].
As the languages of the whole Archipelago are so intimately connected
with each other, and that of Celebes in particular is so little known,
I have subjoined in an Appendix some further comparative vocabularies
of the languages of Java, with some observations on the _Búgis_ and
_Mangkásar_ nations[133].
For ordinary purposes, the Javans, as already described, use a
modification of some of the letters of their alphabet as numerals, and
a representation of these numerals has been given in the table of the
Javan alphabet, page 404; but on occasions of importance, it is usual
to employ certain signs or symbols in lieu of these ordinary numerals,
and this practice appears to be of great antiquity among them. These
symbols are termed _chándra sangkála_, "reflections of royal times,"
or "the light of royal dates," and consist in a certain number of
objects, &c. either represented in design or named, each of which is
significant of one of the ten numerals. Of the former class are said
to be those found in most of the ancient buildings and coins, which in
that case usually bear no inscription. The latter is found in most of
the ancient inscriptions, and in such of the written compositions as
possess any date at all, and is adopted in all proclamations and public
writings by the sovereign of the present day.
The Appendix G. contains an account of these peculiar numerals, as far
as they are at present understood by the Javans. In the use of them,
they endeavour to select such objects from the list, as when read in
succession, may afford some meaning illustrative of the fact the date
of which is recorded; but this is not always attended to, or at least
is not always to be traced. The date of the destruction of _Majapàhit_
(1400), the most important in the history of Java, is stated as
follows, the numbers being always reversed.
_Sírna_ _ílang_ _kertáning_ _Búmi_
Lost and gone is the work (pride) of the land.
0 0 4 1
In like manner, the date of the long graves at _Grésik_, near the tomb
of the Princess of _Chermai_ (1313), is thus stated:
_Káya_ _wúlan_ _pútri_ _íku_
Like unto the moon was that Princess.
3 1 3 1
Other examples will be given, in detailing some of the principal events
of Javan history.
However imperfect the foregoing general account of the languages of
Java may be, it will have served to convey to the reader some notion
of the extent to which it has been indebted to a foreign source for
its copiousness and refinement, and to prepare him for that extensive
influence of Hindu literature, which is still to be found in the
compositions of the country. Of these the most important, and indeed
all that have any claim to literary distinction, are found either in
the _Káwi_ or in Javan versions from that classic language. On Java the
establishment of a Mahomedan government for nearly four centuries, has
tended in a great measure to obliterate that general knowledge among
the better educated, which, there is reason to believe, once existed;
but in _Báli_, the Hindu faith, however blended with the local customs
of the island, and however perverted and distorted in its application
by a semi barbarous people, is still the established religion of the
country. Mahomedanism has gained but little ground there, and no part
of the island has yet submitted to European authority. It was in this
conveniently situated island that the adherents to that faith took
refuge, when the sword of Mahomed prevailed on Java, carrying with
them such remnants of the sciences and literature as they were able to
rescue from the general wreck.
An account of the present state of the island of _Báli_, of the
religious and political institutions, and of some of the peculiar
customs and usages which subsist there, is essential to the
illustration of Javan history; and although the limits of the present
volume will not admit of our enlarging so much on this interesting
subject as we could wish, it is hoped that a general notion may be
formed, from the particulars which will be inserted in the chapter on
the religion and antiquities of Java. In the following account of the
literary compositions of Java, I shall avail myself of the more correct
copies, which I was fortunate enough to obtain from _Báli_, confining
myself in the explanation of them to the existing notions of the best
informed of the Javans, it being the present state of their literature,
rather than that of _Báli_, that I am now to describe.
The literature of Java may be considered under the general heads of
ancient and modern, the former and more important division consisting
of compositions in the _Káwi_ language, which appear connected with the
mythology and fabulous history of continental India.
It is to be regretted, that the work which treats most extensively of
the ancient mythology of the country, and of the earliest periods of
fabulous history to which the Javans of the present day refer, is not
to be found in the _Káwi_. The Javan work, termed _Kánda_, is probably
a translation from the _Káwi_, and, in the absence of the original,
claims our first attention. It is to this work, and the _Mánek Móyo_,
of which an abstract will be given in the chapter on religion, that
the modern Javans constantly refer for an explanation of their ancient
mythology.
This composition is frequently called _Pepákam_. It contains the
notions of mythology which appear to have been general throughout
the Eastern Islands, with imperfect portions of their astronomical
divisions, and of ancient history. It is to be regretted, however,
that the Javan copy from which the following account is taken, though
otherwise written in a very correct style, abounds in passages unfit
for a chaste ear, and that it has been almost impossible entirely to
purify it.
It opens with an account, first of _Sáng yáng Wénang_ (the most
powerful), who was sixth in descent from _Purwáning Jan_ (the first of
men, or Adam), and who had a son named _Sáng yáng Túng'gal_ (the great
and only one), the first, who (as is inferred from the meaning of his
name) conceived that he was above all, and who setting aside the ways
of his father, established the heavens, with all that they contain,
under the name of _Suréndra Buána_, or _Suraláya_.
Plucking a leaf from the _kastúba_ tree, and paying adoration to it,
the leaf assumed the form of a beautiful woman, by whom he had four
sons:--1, _Sáng yáng Púgu_; 2, _Sáng yáng Púng'gung_; 3, _Sáng yáng
Sámba_; 4, _Sáng yáng Pang'at_. When these children attained maturity,
_Púgu_ quarrelled with _Púng'gung_, on account of the splendour and
riches of the dwelling of _Sáng yáng Túng'gal_, which each of them
desired to possess. _Sáng yáng Túng'gal_ became enraged at this: not
being able to reconcile them, the heavens became disturbed; he, in
consequence, seized hold of both of them, _Púgu_ by the right and
_Púng'gung_ by the left hand, and cast them aside. To the former,
who fell on _Sábrang_ (the opposite coast), he gave the name of
_Sécha Túng'gára_; to the latter, who fell on Java, he gave that of
_Náyan-taka_ (the same with _Sémar_, the attendant on _Arjúna_). He
converted them into monstrous figures, ridiculous in appearance and
speech, exciting laughter by their actions, and with an inclination to
follow in attendance on warriors.
_Sáng yáng Tung'gal_, who is said to have been invisible, and who in
the _Wáyangs_ of the present day is designated by a sun or glory of
light, transferred the government of heaven to his son, _Sáng yáng
Sámba_, directing him not to separate from his remaining brother, whose
assistance he would require, and conferring upon him the title of _Níla
Kánta_ (blue necked), on account of his being of bright appearance, but
having a tinge of blue on the front of his throat. To _Pang'at_, his
brother, he gave the name of _Kaníka pútra_.
_Srí Níla Kánta_ subsequently assumed various names and titles; the
most pre-eminent of which was _Pramésti Gúru_, by which name and title
he is acknowledged as supreme throughout the Eastern Islands. This
title was first conferred upon him when the deities in _Saraláya_ were
numerous, and when all looked up to him as an instructor or _Gúru_.
_Kaníka Pútra_ took the name of _Rési Naráda_.
The thoughts of _Sáng yáng Gúru_ turning one day upon women, he took
a leaf of the _kastúba_ tree, and paying adoration to it, it was
immediately converted into a most beautiful female, who took the
name of _Uma_. While she was young he looked upon her as a daughter,
but when she arrived at maturity, he felt a stronger passion. _Uma_
disliking this fled, and _Sáng yáng Gúru_ being unable to catch her, it
occurred to him that he might be more successful if he employed four
hands and arms; whereupon, at his desire, two additional arms sprang
from his shoulders, and _Uma_ was immediately within his embrace. But
she still resisted his desires, and during the struggle _Káma Sála_ and
_Máha Praláya_, both _Rasáksas_, but the latter in the form of a man,
were produced, by an event similar to that which gave birth to some
of the children of Jupiter[134]. _Sáng yáng Gúru_ still observing the
repulsive conduct of _Uma_, said to her, "your appearance is like that
of a _Rasáksa_," whereupon she immediately assumed the form of one;
and grieving sorely at this transformation, beseeched that she might
again become what she had been, but _Sáng yáng Gúru_ was deaf to her
entreaties, and he conferred upon her the name of _Káli Dúrga_.
_Káma Sála_ and _Máha Praláya_, when they arrived at maturity, mutually
sought from each other to discover their descent, but not succeeding,
they agreed to proceed in company to Suraláya, to demand information
from _Sáng yáng Gúru_, resolving that, if they were not satisfied with
his reply, they would make war against him. Arrived at _Suraláya_,
they overcome the opposition of _Rési Naráda_, and reach the presence
of _Sáng yáng Gúru_, who informs them that they are not his children,
though they sprang from his body, and that it was the fault of the
woman only that they had their present form. He tells them that he
cannot allow them to remain in _Suraláya_, but will provide for them a
place in which with their mother they may reside. He then appoints the
mother to be sovereign of _Naráka (Tambráka múka_), under the title of
_Yáma Dipáti_. To _Káma Sála_ he gives the title of _Batára Kála_; the
other retained the name of _Máha Praláya_. To _Kála_ he assigns the
charge of the bridge between earth and heaven, called _Wot ágal ágil_
(the tremulous or swinging bridge, over which a good man may pass in
safety, but from which, on account of its being shaken by his sins, a
bad man falls into the gulph below), and to _Máha Praláya_ that of the
souls of men when they die, in order that he may direct to the bridge
such as, from good conduct on earth, have a chance of passing it, and
cast the others into _Naráka_, to his mother _Yáma Dipáti_.
_Sáng yáng Gúru_ was again inclined to take another leaf of the
_kastúba_ tree, but apprehending that it might turn out as before, he
restrained his inclination. Then purifying himself, there appeared
before him, at his desire, a beautiful boy, to whom he gave the name
of _Sámbu_, and after five more purifications, there successively
appeared, secondly, a boy of a high colour, beautiful and very
powerful, to whom he gave the name of _Bráma_; thirdly, a boy,
appearing extremely powerful and enraged, to whom he gave the name of
_Máha déwa_; fourthly, a boy beautifully white, bright, and fierce
looking, and having sharp and sparkling eyes, to whom he gave the name
of _Basúki_; fifthly, a boy of a deep black colour, but extremely
beautiful, to whom he gave the name of _Wísnu_ (Vishnu); sixthly, a
girl of a bright yellow colour, beautiful and slender, to whom he gave
the name of _Warsíki_.
_Rési Naráda_[135] following the example of his superior, there
appeared before him after several purifications, five boys. The first
was brilliant and bright as a pure flame; on him _Sáng yáng Gúru_
conferred the name of _Súria_. The second was very weak and delicate,
but well formed and beautiful; he received the name of _In dra_. The
third was short and strong, and was named _Sákra_ (or _Chákra_). The
fourth was of a blue colour, and looking as if he would grow to a great
height, with curled hair like a _Papúa_[136]; on him, was conferred
the name of _Báyu_. The fifth was most beautiful, but appeared sad and
sorrowful; to him _Sáng yáng Gúru_ gave the name of _Chándra_.
This effected, _Sáng yáng Gúru_ considered that a sufficient number of
deities had been created for the charge of _Suraláya_.
_Sáng yáng Gúru_ then turned his amorous thoughts towards _Warsíki_,
but all the deities opposing it, _Rési Naráda_ advises him to take
a woman from the earth, and offers himself to go in search of one.
This being agreed to, _Naráda_ descends upon the earth, and discovers
a most beautiful virgin, not yet arrived at maturity, at a place
called _Mádang_; _Sáng yáng Gúru_ no sooner beheld her than he became
enamoured of her, and giving the name of _Sri_, he places her under the
charge of _Batára Sákra_, with especial injunctions to take care of
her. When she arrived at maturity she became most beautiful, and it so
happens that _Batára Wísnu_ beholds her by accident: they immediately
feel a mutual passion, and _Wísnu_ obtains his desire. When _Sáng
yáng Gúru_ hears of it, he becomes highly enraged; _Batára Wísnu_ is
cast out from _Suraláya_ and thrown upon the earth, at a place called
_Waríngen pítu_, or seven banyan trees.
[Here the narrative breaks off, and the story of _Wátu Gúnung_
commences as follows.]
There was a woman of the name of _Sínta_, who resided on the earth,
and who had a younger sister named _Lándap_. _Sínta_ dreamt one night
that she was sleeping with a _Pandíta_, named _Rési Gána_: after a few
months she felt herself pregnant, and at the expiration of nine she was
delivered of a most beautiful boy. This child, however, soon became
unruly; and it happened that one day, when he had enraged his mother
excessively, she struck him on the head with the wooden spoon which was
in the rice vessel, on which he fled into the woods, and afterwards
becoming a devotee, his mother long searched for him in vain.
At length having concluded his penance, he wandered about in quest of
subsistence, until he came to the country of _Gíling Wési_, where he
sought alms at a feast; but not being satisfied with the provision
afforded to him, the parties became enraged, and hostilities ensuing,
the Raja of the country was slain, and this boy succeeded him, under
the title of _Rája Séla Perwáta_, which in the common language is
the same as _Wátu Gúnung_, a name conferred upon him from his having
rested on a mountain like a stone, and obtained his strength and power
thereby, without other aid or assistance.
Becoming a great and powerful sovereign, he was still unmarried when
his mother and sister arrived in the country. Ignorant who they were,
and admiring their beauty, he espoused them both, and by his mother
_Sínta_ had twenty-seven children, when being one day restless and
anxious to sleep, he requested her to comb and scratch his head, in
doing which she discovered the wound and recognized her son. Her grief
became excessive, and explaining the circumstance to him, she urged him
to obtain another wife from among the _Widadári_ of _Suraláya_, and
recommended _Sri_ as a proper object of his choice.
_Wátu Gúnung_ thereupon sent an embassy to _Suraláya_, but the gods
opposing his desires, because _Sri_ had been delivered of a child
by _Wísnu_, he assembled his forces and nearly defeated those of
_Suraláya_, when _Naráda_ pointing out the danger to _Sáng yáng Gúru_,
urged the advantage that would arise from the recal of _Wisnu_.
_Naráda_ was accordingly authorized to call him back, with a promise
that if he should be victorious on the present occasion, he should be
pardoned, and permitted to return to his former abode in _Suraláya_.
_Wísnu_ was no sooner engaged in the cause, than he formed a stratagem
with _Wilúwuh_, a demon _Rasáksa_, with whom he had become intimate
at _Waríngen pítu_, and directed him to proceed to the sleeping place
of _Wítu Gúnung_, in order to ascertain his secret. This spy had
no sooner concealed himself in a place where he could overhear the
conversation that was going on, than he heard the following discourse
between _Wátu Gúnung_ and _Sínta_.
_Sínta._ "What think you; shall we be successful or not in this
enterprise?"
_Wátu Gúnung._ "If the gods are so nearly destroyed by those who are
subordinate to me, what must they not suffer when I go myself? for I
shall not then have occasion to use force. I need only say a few words,
and if they don't understand the meaning of them, they will forthwith
be destroyed, and I shall myself become sovereign of _Suraláya_. Should
they, however, comprehend the meaning of what I say, then I shall know
that my power is gone; but still there will be trouble in putting me to
death."
_Sínta._ "Tell me what are the words you mean to use, and why they have
not the power to put you to death?"
_Wátu Gúnung._ "I shall enclose in my hand the _Sástra_ or description
of my country, and holding it out, demand of them to tell me what it
is. Then I shall repeat these words: _dáka wói díki_, and also _díki
wói dáka_. The meaning of these words is easy enough, but the gods
don't understand it: a great tree has small fruit; great fruit has a
small tree. The great tree with small fruit means the _waríngin_ tree;
the great fruit and small tree means the gourd. I am invulnerable by
all weapons, but if they pull my two arms asunder, then will they find
it easy to put me to death; but this the gods know not."
With this intelligence the spy immediately hastened to _Wísnu_,
who arrived at _Suraláya_ when the gods were nearly beaten by the
twenty-seven sons of _Wátu Gúnung_. After this success, _Wátu Gúnung_
approaching _Sáng yáng Gúru_, put the intended questions to him. The
latter referring to _Wísnu_, they were immediately recognized by him,
on which _Wátu Gúnung_ attempted to escape, but was soon overtaken by
_Wísnu_, who laying hold of one of his arms, while his son, _Sri Gáti_,
held the other, they soon succeeded in putting him to death. As he
expired a voice was heard by _Wísnu_, saying, "think not that it will
end here: hereafter trouble will again arise in _Suraláya_, in the time
of _Rája Sumáli_, of the country of _Séla gríng'ging_, who will have a
brother named _Mang'liáwan_. Forget it not."
When the twenty-seven sons of _Wátu Gúnung_ heard of their father's
fate, they wished to sacrifice themselves; but _Wísnu_ disposed of them
as follows, saying, "let there be a sign to the world of this victory.
I will once in seven days put to death one of these twenty-seven,
so that they may be killed in rotation." The grief of _Sínta_ being
excessive, she wept for seven days, and afterwards was received into
_Suraláya_, and _Wísnu_ added her name, as well as those of her sister
and _Wátu Gúnung_, to the twenty-seven, and established the thirty
_wúku_, as everlasting signs, in commemoration of this victory. From
the grief of _Sínta_ for seven days, it is said that rain always falls
during the _wúku_ which bears her name[137].
Then seizing the _Pepáteh_ and three assistants, who with _Wátu Gúnung_
had constituted the council of five, he declared that they should serve
to commemorate the four great revolutions or _Nága_ (serpents:) _Nága
Búmí_ (of the earth,) _Nága Dína_ (of the day,) _Nága Wúlan_ (of the
moon,) _Nága Táhun_ (of the year.) He struck out both the eyes of _Nága
Búmi_, that the earth might never again see to attack the heavens, and
afterwards the left eye of _Nága Dína_, and the right eye of _Nága
Wúlan_.
[Here that part of the relation which has an astronomical reference
breaks off.]
_Bráma_ then following the example of _Naráda_, purifies himself, and
at his desire, first there appears before him a boy of strong make,
on whom he confers the name of _Bráma Táma_; secondly, a boy, also of
strong make, whom he names _Bráma Sudárga_; and thirdly, a beautiful
girl, on whom he confers the name of _Bramáni Wáti_.
The two boys, when they attained maturity, descended from _Suralága_.
_Bráma Sudárga_ united in marriage with a female of the earth:
from them, in the third degree, were descended _Raja Sumáli_ and
_Mangliáwan_. In the reign of the latter of these a destructive war is
stated to have taken place. _Mangliáwan_ laid waste _Suraláya_ and slew
_Sri Gáti_, but afterwards, when he shewed a desire to possess _Sri_,
_Wísnu_ exerted all his strength, and put him to death. As _Mangliáwan_
expired _Wísnu_ heard a voice saying unto him, "The work is not
yet complete; hereafter, when there shall be on earth a man named
_Rahwána_, who will be descended from _Bráma Táma_, beware of him: in
his time the peace of heaven will be again disturbed, and he will lay
it waste." _Bráma Táma_ espoused a princess of _Chámpa_, named _S'ráti
Déwi_, by whom he had a son, named _Bráma Rája_, who became _Raja_
of _Indrapúri_, and had a son named _Chítra Bahár_ or _Angsárwa_, to
whom, when he became advanced in age, he delivered over charge of the
country, proceeding himself into the forests as a devotee, and assuming
the name of _Rési Táma_.
_Sumáli_ had a daughter, named _Sukési Déwi_. This prince, alarmed at
the accounts of _Mangliáwan's_ death, fled with her to _Chítra Bahár_,
and requested him to protect her as a maiden, giving him authority
to sanction her marriage on any proper occasion which might offer.
He himself fearing the vengeance of _Sáng yáng Gúru_, fled further
into the woods for concealment, but died on the way. _Chítra Bahár_,
forgetting the nature of his charge, became enamoured of the girl. This
happened when he was performing a penance; for he had two sons, named
_Mísra Wárna_ and _Bísa Wárna_, to the former of whom he had intrusted
the charge of his government. The girl resisted on account of his age,
but he at last succeeded. During the first amour he received from her
nine strokes on the head with a stone. In due time she became pregnant
and was delivered of a boy, having nine marks or excrescences on his
head, which added to his natural face, making as it were ten fronts to
his head: he was thence called _Dása múka_ (ten-faced.) In the second
attempt she pulled the lobes of both his ears with great strength, and
when delivered she produced a child in the form of a _Rasáksa_, and
having immense lobes to the ears: this child was named _Amba kárna_,
or long-eared. In the third she scratched him all over, and the fruit
of it was a girl, born with long nails and claws at the end of each
finger: she was named _Sárpa kanáka_, or serpent-nailed; the wounds
inflicted by these nails are said to have been mortal. But the fourth
being unresisted, she was delivered of a most beautiful boy, who,
having a countenance and mouth beautiful like those of a girl, was
named _Bibisána_.
When these children were grown up _Chítra Bahár_ carried them to
_Mísra Wárna_, saying, "these are your brothers and sister, assist
them, and they will be of use to you in your government." _Mísra
Wárna_ had a great dread of thunder. He possessed a weapon called
_límpung_, which descended to him from _Bráma Rája_, and _Dása Múka_,
desirous of possessing it, ingratiated himself into his favour, but no
sooner obtained possession of it than he formed a design against his
brother's life, in the hope of succeeding him. He accordingly performed
a penance and prayed for thunder, and as soon as it was heard he slew
his brother, and gave out that he disappeared during the thunder. At
the moment, however, that he struck _Mísra Wárna_ with the weapon it
vanished; still he became Raja.
In the mean time _Bísa Wárna_ became beloved by the gods, and they
presented to him a car, named _jaladára_, in which he could be conveyed
through the clouds. When _Dása Múka_ heard of this he became enraged,
and demanded the carriage for himself; but he had no sooner made the
request than he perceived his lost weapon descend upon the lap of _Bísa
Wárna_. Still more enraged at this, the altercation did not cease
until _Bísa Wárna_, with one blow, laid him senseless on the ground;
at which moment the father, _Chítra Bahár_, coming up, he succeeded in
reconciling them, and with impressing upon _Dása Múka_ the futility
of his attempts against his brother. _Chítra Bahár_ on this occasion
repeated several invocations to the deity, which were treasured up in
the recollection of after ages: such as _Hong! Awígna; Hong! Widadánia;
Hong! Widadáni_, &c.
The father, however, had no sooner withdrawn, than _Dása Múka_ again
took courage, and another combat ensued, which ended in his being a
second time struck senseless on the ground, blood issuing from his
mouth. _Bísa Wárna_ then laying hold of his body was about to cut his
throat with the _limpung_, when _Rési Naráda_ appeared and arrested his
hand, saying, "forbear, _Sáng yáng Gúru_ does not permit that you slay
your brother. By attending to this advice you will hereafter become
a deity in heaven. Give your weapon to your brother, who is Raja of
_Indrapúri_." _Bisa Wárna_ assenting, _Rési Naráda_ then brought _Dása
Múka_ to his senses, and delivering over to him the weapon and car,
conferred upon him the name of _Rah-wána_[138], from his blood having
flowed in such quantity as to reach the adjoining forest.
[In some copies of this work it is said that _Dása Múka_ was called
_Rahwána_, because in his youth he delighted in the destruction of
children and to spill their blood. There is also some variation in
this part of the story, and _Citrá Bahár_ is termed _Chátor Bója_
(four-shouldered), on account of the great strength he exhibited in the
war with _Níli Kewácha_].
_Rési Naráda_ then presented _Rahwána_ to _Sáng yáng Gúru_, who taking
a liking to him adopted him as his son, giving him a _saléndang_[139]
as a mark of his affection. _Rahwána_, however, was soon dazzled by
the appearance of a bright flame, when forgetting the attachment of
_Sáng yáng Gúru_, he pursued it, until he came into the presence of
_Sri_, from whose beauty it proceeded. She, however, ran to her husband
_Wísnu_ for succour, and a severe combat ensued, during which the
heavens were disturbed, and many of its most valuable contents were
destroyed by _Rahwána_. _Rési Naráda_ at length approaching, separated
the combatants, saying, "this is not the proper place for your
contention; better had you descend to the earth. As for you, _Wísnu_,
as you are a god, and may be ashamed to shew yourself as such on earth,
it is the will of _Sáng yáng Gúru_ that you be permitted to appear
there in the form of a man, and to do there as you like." On which
_Rahwána_ was cast out of _Suraláya_, and _Wísnu_, with his consort
_Sri_, disappeared, without any one knowing whither they went.
_Bísa Wárna_ was then, in fulfilment of the promise given by _Naráda_,
called up to heaven, to supply the place among the _Déwas_ vacated by
_Wísnu_, and approaching the presence of _Sáng yáng Gúru_ received from
him the name of _Batára Asmára_ or _Kamajáya_ (the god of love), and
presented him with a consort, named _Káma Ráti_ or _Batári Ráti_.
[Here ends the _Kérta Yoga_, or first age of the world, and the _Tréta
Yóga_, or second age, commences.]
_Wísnu_, after his descent upon the earth, first became incarnate in
the person of an illustrious sovereign, named _Arjúna Wijáya_, of the
country of _Mauspáti_, and reigned for a period of seventeen years,
during which he was successful in two wars. One, in which the _Rája_
of _Tánjung-púra_, having a beautiful daughter, named _Chítra Wáti_,
in whom _Sri_ had become incarnate, offered her in marriage to the
prince who should overcome in wrestling all the others assembled:
_Arjúna Wijáya_, however, carried her off from the place in which
she was secreted (_Gedóng Brahála_) which produced a war, wherein he
was victorious. The other war was with _Rahwána_, who attacked him
at _Mauspáti_: in this _Rahwána_ was taken prisoner and confined in
a cage; but on the solicitations of his father, _Chítra Bahár_, he
was forgiven, and allowed to return to his country, on condition that
neither he nor his descendants would ever again make war on _Arjúna
Wijáya_.
_Wísnu_ afterwards quitting the body of _Arjúna Wijáya_ became
incarnate in the person of _Ráma_, son of _Dása Ráta_ (who when
young was called _Murdáka_), entering the body of his mother during
conception, and coming into the world with the child. About the
same time _Batára Basúki_, who had a son named _Baswárat_, united
to _Bramáni Wáti_, becoming sorrowful, quitted _Suraláya_, with a
determination to follow the fortunes of _Wisnu_, who after quitting the
body of _Arjúna Wijáya_ roamed for some time round the skirts of the
earth until he fell in with _Basúki_. _Wisnu_ then said to him, "there
is a _Raja_ of _Mándra-púra_, named _Bása Ráta_, who has two wives,
named _Déwi Rágu_ and _Mánwa-dári_. I am younger than you, but on earth
I must be older. I will enter the body of _Rágu_, and become incarnate
in the child she will bring forth; do you the same with the other."
_Mánwa-dári_ was delivered of a child named _Lakasamána_, in which
_Basúki_ accordingly became incarnate.
[The portion of the work, which also includes a relation of the feats
of _Báli_ son of _Gotáma_, the founder of _Astíno_, brings the story
down to the period of the poem of _Ráma_. The history is then carried
on to the period of the _Pendáwa Líma_ or _Bráta Yudha_, and may be
concisely stated as follows:]
_Baswárat_, son of _Basúki_, had by _Bramáni Wáti_ two sons,
_Mánu-Manára_ and _Mánu-Madéwa_. The daughter of _Mánu-Madéwa_, named
_Siráti_, was married to _Bramána Rája_, and from this marriage
proceeded _Rahwána_. The _Pendáwa Líma_ were tenth in descent from
_Mánu-Manára_, as in the following pedigree:
1. _Mánu-Manása_,
2. _Tritrushta_,
3. _Parikéna_,
4. _Sutápa_,
5. _Sa-pútram_,
6. _Sákri_,
7. _Pulasára_,
8. _Abiása_,
9. _Pándu-déwa Náta_.
The _Tréta Yóga_ or second age, is supposed to have ended, and the
_Duapára Yóga_, or third age, to have commenced on the death of _Ráma_,
which happened about the time of _Sákri_.
The _Wiwáha káwi_ is a regular poem, and contains three hundred and
fifty-five _páda_, or metrical stanzas. The subject is as follows:
_Erang Báyu_ had a son, whose form was that of a _Rasáksa_, and who
became sovereign of the country of _Ima-ímantáka_, under the name of
_Détia Kéwácha_. The father, desirous of getting rid of him, urged him
to go to _Suréndra Buána_, in search of a flower, called _Turáng'ga
játi_, which was worn by all the _Widadáris_. The _Rasáksa_ accordingly
goes in search of it, and no sooner comes into the presence of _Batára
Gúru_, than a _Widadári_ sitting by his side, named _Su Prába_, the
daughter of _Batára Sámba_, presents one of these flowers to him, with
which he returns to his father, who alarmed at his success, immediately
delivers over to him the government of his country.
After _Détia Kéwácha_ had thus become sovereign, he desired to be
united in marriage with the _Widadári_ who had given him the flower,
and dispatches a _Rasáksa_ named _Kolángkía_, with a letter addressed
to _Batára Gúru_, soliciting _Su Prába_ in marriage, and threatening
to destroy the heavens in case of refusal. When the messenger reached
_Suréndra Buána_ he presented the letter to _Batára Sákra_, who knowing
its contents without reading it, immediately replied in a rage, "then
let your sovereign carry his threat into execution, for _Bitára Gúru_
will never consent that a _Widadári_ be married to a _Rasáksa_."
When the messenger had disappeared, _Batára Sákra_ communicated to the
gods the state of affairs, on which _Batára Gúru_ became enraged. As
he curbed his passion, _Naráka_ becomes disturbed; smoke issued from
its deepest recesses and the heavens rocked to and fro. _Rési Naráda_
then apprised _Batára Gúru_ that there was a man on the earth, named
_Bagáwan Wardiníngsih_, or _Mitarága_, who had long performed his
devotions on the mountain _Indra-kíla_, and suggested that it might be
better to employ him against _Detia Kewácha_ than for the gods, who
were ignorant of the art of war, to await in heaven the coming of the
_Rasáksa_. _Batára Gúru_ approves of the suggestion, and _Rési Naráda_
descends accordingly to _Indra-kíla_, accompanied by seven _Widadáris_,
in the hope that by the influence of their charms, he might succeed
in abstracting _Wardiníngsih_ from the severe penance which he was
performing. The names of the _Widadáris_ who accompanied him were _Su
Prába_, _Wilotáma_, _Leng-leng-Mandana_, _Sumartáka_, _Ang'impuni_, _Su
Prába-sini_, and _Dérsa-nála_. In their train followed a thousand of
the young and beautiful maids of heaven.
_Wardiníngsih_ was performing a long and rigid penance, for the purpose
of recovering the kingdom of _Astína_; and when _Naráda_ arrived
at _Indra-kíla_, the sun had climbed half way up the heavens. The
_Widadáris_ immediately displayed their charms, and employed every
artifice to attract his attention, but they could not succeed. One of
them, who resembled his wife, even threw off her upper garments, and
exposing her bosom embraced him with transport; but it did not avail.
_Batára Sákra_ then descended to _Indra-kíla_, in the disguise
of a Dervise, assuming the name of _Panjíngrum_, and approaching
_Wardiníngsih_, as if in grief, threw off his disguise, and resuming
the god, addressed _Wardiníngsih_ as follows: "My visit to you is on
three accounts; first, I request your assistance in this war; secondly,
I wish to apprise you, that _Batára Gúru_ will in a short time appear
to you; thirdly, to advise you, that when you see _Batára Gúru_, and
he asks you whether you have courage to engage in the war or not, you
answer that you have; requesting, however, in return, that when the
war _Bráta Yúdha_ takes place, the _Pandáwa_ may be successful. You
may then request two arrows, called _paso páti_ and _trisula_, and
the crown _cháping basunánda_, the vest _ánta kasúma_, the slippers
_márdu kachárma_: these slippers, when you wear them, will enable you
to fly, and to enter heaven in person. Request, moreover, the chariot
_mánik_, which is drawn by elephants and horses of the heavenly
race (_sambráni_), and called _chípta waláha_, and that if you are
successful in the war with _Détia Kewácha_, _Batára Gúru_, as well as
the other gods, may each present you with a _Widadári_." _Batára Sákra_
having made an impression on the mind of _Wardiníngsih_ returned to
heaven.
In the mean time _Mang-máng Múrka_, the _Peptáeh_ of _Détia Kewácha_,
who had a face like a hog, received orders to lay waste the mountain
of _Indra-Kíla_. He no sooner arrived there, and began to destroy the
cultivation, than _Sémar_ gave information of it to _Wardiníngsih_, who
coming forth with his bow and arrow, immediately struck the _Rasáksa_;
upon which _Batára Gúru_ appeared in the form of a forester, holding in
his hand a bow without an arrow. Then straggling with _Wardiníngsih_
to withdraw the arrow with which the _Rasáksa_ had been struck, each
pulled at it ineffectually until a quarrel ensued, in which _Batára
Gúru_ accused _Wardiníngsih_ of having a bad heart, and of following
the dictates of his _Gúru Dúrna_, who was at _Astina_, and who had
a crooked nose and mouth. _Wardiníngsih_ being enraged at this, a
severe combat ensued, when _Batára Gúru_ having laid hold of his
adversary's hair, the other attempted to retaliate, on which _Batára
Gúru_ vanished. A fragrant odour immediately arose, and _Wardiníngsih_
reflected upon what _Sákra_ had told him, and instantly perceived a
bright arch, like the rainbow, with _Batára Gúru_ appearing within
it, attended by _Rési Naráda_ and a suite of _Widadáris_: bowing
profoundly to the ground, he felt himself permitted to approach the
deity and kiss his feet; _Batára Gúru_ then informed him of his object
in coming to _Indra-kíla_, and requested that he would make war upon
_Détia Kewácha_, who was the enemy of the gods; to which _Wardiníngsih_
consented, making the requests which had been suggested by _Batára
Sákra_. To these _Batára Gúru_ assented, adding, "If you have success
in this war, I will appoint you sovereign of the heavens for one year.
You shall have power over all the gods, and the _Widadáris_ shall be
your attendants; and as long as you live you shall have power to visit
_Suraláya_ at your pleasure." This said, _Batára Gúru_ disappeared.
On the next day _Wardiníngsih_ prepared for his journey to _Ima
imantáka_, the country of _Détia Kewácha_, and on his way thither fell
in with the _Widadáris_, _Su Prába_ and _Wilá Táma_, who had been sent
by _Batára Sákra_. _Wardiníngsih_, on his arrival at the _Rasáksa's_
capital, commissioned these _Widadáris_ to enter the palace and feign
an attachment for _Détia Kewácha_. _Détia Kewácha_ no sooner beheld
them, than being thrown off his guard, he declared, that the object of
the war being thus attained without trouble, he would enjoy himself at
his ease. Then dressing himself in his princely robes, and perfuming
himself as a bridegroom, he approached _Su Prába_, and taking her
on his knee chaunted a song, which so delighted her that she fell
asleep. _Wardiníngsih_, on this, entered into her ear-stud, and awoke
her. _Detia Kewácha_ then urged her to gratify his passion, but she
refused, and required, as a mark of confidence, that he would trust
her with the secret of his power. This he refused, until she was about
to stab herself, when he whispered in her ear that he was invulnerable
except within his throat; if any one injured that part in the least he
must instantly die. _Wardiníngsih_ thus ascertaining his vulnerable
point, escaped with the _Widadáris_, and ascended to _Batára Sákra_ in
_Suraláya_.
_Détia Kewácha_, then collecting his forces, proceeded to the war with
a countless host, laying waste the country, until he arrived near
_Tánda Wáru_, where he halted to make preparations for the attack. The
heavens now shook, and _Naráka_ emitted smoke. The gods trembled with
fear, and the wind, charged with the gross stench of the _Rasáksa_,
almost overpowered them.
_Wardiníngsih_ having arrived at the abode of _Sákra_, the great bell
(_gatíta_) was struck, when the gods immediately assembled. The forces
of _Suraláya_ then moved on, _Wardiníngsih_ following in a splendid
chariot. Having thrown off the _Pandíta's_ garment, he now appeared
richly clothed in the character of _Arjúna_, adorned with gold and
costly gems. The chariot had formerly belonged to _Ráma_, and had been
preserved by _Batára Gúru_, when _Ráma_ committed himself to the flames.
The battle commenced, and the forces of the _Rasáksa_ being most
numerous and powerful, were about to carry all before them, when _Gatot
Kácha_ arrived, and taking part with _Wardiníngsih_, turned the tide
of the battle in favour of the gods, plucking up the mountains by the
roots, and casting them upon the _Rasáksas_. _Détia Kewácha_ escaping
the general overthrow, and attended by _Sécha Tung'gára_, shot an arrow
at _Wardiníngsih_, which the latter caught under his arm, and feigning
death, fell to the ground. Great was the grief of _Sémar_ and of all
his other attendants; but _Détia Kewácha_ approaching burst out into
a loud laugh, when _Wardiníngsih_, who had watched his opportunity,
observing the _Rasáksa's_ mouth open, instantly rose, and struck the
arrow into it, and so killed him.
_Gátot Kácha_, who, in consequence of the absence of _Arjúna_ on
a penance for three years, had been sent to recall him, and who
had discovered him by the appearance of his attendant _Sémar_, now
approached _Wardiníngsih_, and kissing his feet, informed him of
the sorrow of _Séna_ and _Dérma Wángsa_ at his absence, on which
_Wardiníngsih_ desired him to return and report what he had seen.
He then proceeded, attended by the victorious host, to the dwelling of
_Batára Gúru_, called _Papáriwárna_; on which _Batára Gúru_ assembling
the gods, and permitting _Wardiníngsih_ to approach and kiss his feet,
declares to him that he was not forgetful of his promise, and would
forthwith fulfil it. He then declared him sovereign of _Suraláya_,
under the title _Prábu Aníli Kíti_, and gave him free access to every
part of the heavens. _Arjúná_ then visited the seven quarters of
_Suraláya_, in which was the abode of the _Widadáris_, and assumed the
sovereignty accordingly; while _Gatot Kácha_, proceeding to _Amérta_,
informed _Séna_ and _Dérma Wángsa_ of what had passed. There were also
present at his relation _Nakóla Sa déwa_, _Batára Krésna_, _Sámbu_,
and _Panchawála_, all equally anxious to know the fate of _Arjúna_.
_Déwi Kúnti_, the mother of _Pandáwa_, having calculated on the death
of _Arjúna_, and made preparation for burning herself in consequence,
was overjoyed at this unexpected good news; and _Dérma Wángsa_, the
sovereign _Amérta_, gave a grand entertainment, in which the _Bedáyas_
danced to the sound of the music, while _Gàtot Kácha_ related the feats
of _Arjúna_.
The _Ráma Káwi_ is usually divided into four parts. The first, called
_Ráma Gán-drung_, contains the history of _Ráma_, from his infancy
until his marriage; the second, _Ráma Bádra_, from his marriage until
his consort, _Síti Déwi_, is carried off by _Rahwána_; the third,
_Ráma Táli_, from the first employment of _Hánuman_ as a _dúta_ or
messenger, until he builds the bridge from the continent to the island
_Ang'lángka-di púra_; and the fourth, called _Ramayána_ (by which is
understood _Ráma_ when arrived at his full power), from the beginning
of the war of _Dána Lága_ on _Lánka_ till the end of it, when _Ráma_
regains his consort _Siti Déwi_, and returns to _Nayúdía_, leaving
_Rahwána's_ brother, _Bibisána_, sovereign of _Lángka_. Of these
the _Rámayána_ is the most common on Java. The _Ráma Táli_ has been
recently obtained from _Báli_. This composition, as one poem, is by far
the most extensive of any which the Javans possess.
The mythology contained in the _Ráma_ differs, in some measure, from
that of the _Kánda_. _Ráma_ is here made to relate to _Bibisána_,
in _Artáti_ measure but _Káwi_ language, that _Bráma_, in the first
instance, sprang from _Wísnu_; that in the beginning of the world,
_Wísnu_ existed in that part of the heavens named _Antabóga_, the
place of serpents; that _Bráma_ first communicated the knowledge of
the _Sástra_. Nine incarnations of _Wísnu_ are then detailed: the
first, when he appeared as _Iwak Mokúr-mo_ (the tortoise); the second,
as _Sing'ha_ (the lion), when he was called _Barúna_; the third, as
_Arjúna Wijáya_; the fourth in _Winákitáya_ or _Ráma_. In the fifth he
was to appear as _Krésna_; and after the sixth, seventh, and eighth,
in the ninth when he would become incarnate in the person of a great
sovereign, named _Prábu Purúsa_.
_Anráka Súra_ (the courageous child of the sun) is written in _Káwi_,
but translated into Javan, under the name of _Búma Kalantáka_, or _Emba
táli_. The period to which it refers is that occupied posterior to that
of the _Wiwáha_, and prior to that of the _Bráta Yúdha_. It relates
almost exclusively to the exploits of _Búma_, who was the son of _Déwi
Pratíwi_, of the race of _Widadáris_.
_Déwi Pratíwi_ being enamoured of _Wísnu_, her thoughts were
continually turned towards him, notwithstanding he had been cast out
of _Suraláya_. One night having dreamt that her passion for him was
gratified, she conceived a child. She afterwards heard in her sleep a
voice saying to her, "Descend to the earth in search of _Krésna_, for
_Wísnu_ is become incarnate in his person: his colour is deep black."
She descended accordingly; and established herself at _Praju-téksna_,
where she was delivered of a son, whom she named _Búma Kalantáka_. When
he arrived at maturity, she informed him who was his father, and when
he discovered him he was received and acknowledged by him. _Krésna_ had
afterwards another son, named _Sámba_, who having insulted the wife of
_Búma_ a quarrel arose between the two brothers, in which _Búma_ put
_Sámba_ to death in a most disgraceful manner, mangling and exposing
his body. _Krésna_, enraged at this, threw his _Chákra_ at _Búma_,
desiring _Gátot Kácha_ to raise him from the earth the moment he is
struck, lest the power of his mother should restore him. _Gátot Kácha_
obeys his orders and _Búma_ is destroyed. _Séna_, one of the sons of
_Pándu_, is one of the personages of this poem.
The history of the succeeding period is contained in the _Bráta Yudha_,
or holy war, the most popular and esteemed work in the language. This
poem is identified in its subject with the _Mahabárat_ of continental
India, in the same manner as that of _Ráma_ is with the _Ramáyan_. An
analysis of this poem will be given under the head poetry.
Next, in point of time, to this story, follows that of the poem called
_Parakísit_, which abounds with the praises of that prince, who was
the son of _Bimányu_ and grandson of _Arjúna_, and is descriptive of
the tranquillity and happiness which universally prevailed during his
reign. It also contains an historical relation of the sovereigns who
succeeded him, and brings down the line of princes from _Parikísit_
through ten descents to _Aji Jáya Báya_, as follows.
-- _Parikísit._
1. _Súma Wichítra._
2. _Ang'ling Dría._
3. _Udiána._
4. _Madiwáng'i._
5. _Miséna._
6.
7.
8.
9. _Súma Wichála._
10. _Aji Jáya Báya._
It was during the reign of the last of these princes that the first
intercourse with Western India is supposed to have taken place; an
account of the historical composition relating to a subsequent period
is therefore reserved for the chapters on History.
The _Súria Kétu_ (or lofty sun) contains in a few stanzas the history
of a prince, the fifth in descent from the _Kuráwa_, who by dint of
prayer to the gods obtained a son named _Kérta Súma_.
The _Níti Sástra Káwi_ is a work on ethics, comprized in one hundred
and twenty-three stanzas, each of which contains a moral lesson: it is
considered coeval with, if not more ancient than the _Bráta Yudha_, and
the _Káwi_ is considered the most pure extant. The modern version of
this work has already been referred to, and translations of some of the
stanzas have been introduced. The following are taken indiscriminately,
and translated immediately from the _Káwi_.
A man who is moderate and cool in his desires will do good to a
country. A woman is like unto _Déwi Manuhára_ when her desires
are moderate, and men cannot look upon her without delight. A
_Pandíta_ must act up to his doctrines; although it may be in war
and difficulty, still he must act up to what he professes.
This must be the conduct of the _Pandíta_. If attacked by a
serpent, he must not be moved by it, nor even by a lion: still
the same, he must be firm and unmoved, and neither the serpent
nor the lion will have power to hurt him.
As the _surája_ flower floats in the water, so does the heart exist
in a pure body; but let it not be forgotten, that the root of the
flower holds to the ground, and that the heart of man depends
upon his conduct in life. The conduct of a _Pandíta_ must be
distinguished by mercy, charity, firmness, and prudence. His
speech should be soft and gentle, and in accordance with and like
unto written instruction, so as to moderate and calm the mind and
desires of mankind.
It is mean and low for a rich man not to dress well: it is still
more mean and low for a man of understanding to mix with bad
company. So it is when a man attains a high age and knows not the
_Sástra_; but when a man, through the whole course of his life,
does not reflect upon his conduct, such a man is of no use in the
world whatever.
A man should wear that sort of apparel which in the general opinion
is considered proper, and should also eat that kind of food which
is generally approved of. If he does this, he will appear like
unto a virgin, who has just attained maturity. Let him not follow
implicitly the advice and instruction he may receive, but let him
weigh them, and select what is good by his own understanding.
In war, let there be no fear on any account, but let the whole
thoughts be directed to the main object of urging the warriors to
the attack of the foe. Moreover, let the thoughts be directed to
what may be the enemy's plans: this done, let the heart feel fire.
When a man engages another in his service, there are four points
on which he should satisfy himself respecting him. First, his
appearance: secondly, his conduct; thirdly, his intelligence; and
fourthly, his honesty.
The most valuable property is gold; and whoever has much of it, if
he does not assist those who are poor and in want, is like unto
a house without a fence, and he will soon be deprived of the
property which he possesses.
As the moon and the stars shed their light by night, and the
sun giveth light by day, so should the sayings of a wise man
enlighten all around him.
Follow not the seeming wisdom of a woman's discourse; for as a man
is more powerful and better informed than a woman, it is fitter
that he should stand on his own ground.
A man who knows not the customs of the country (_yúdya Nagára_),
is like a man who would bind an elephant with cords made from
the _tánjung_ flower. It is not necessary for the elephant to be
enraged: with the least motion he breaks the cords asunder.
Deprive not another of the credit which is due to him, nor lower
him in the opinion of the world: for the sun, when he approaches
near to the moon, in depriving her of her light adds nothing to
his own lustre.
There is nothing better in the world than a man who keeps his word;
and there is nothing worse than a man who swerves from his word,
for he is a liar. There are five witnesses, which may be seen by
every one: _Yang-anála_ or _Bráma_ (fire), _Súria_ (the sun),
_Chándra_ (the moon), _Kála_ (time), _Báyu_ (life). And they are
the great witnesses always present throughout the three worlds;
therefore let men recollect never to lie.
There are three things which destroy a man's character, and they
are as three poisons: the first, to disgrace his family or lower
himself; the second, to take delight in bringing misfortunes and
unhappiness upon others; the third, to be a hypocrite, and assume
the character of a _Pandíta_.
Several works have been recently discovered in _Báli_, called _Agáma_,
_Adigáma_, _Púrwa Digáma_, _Súrcha_, _Muscháyagáma_, _Kantára_ or
_Sástra Menáwa_, _Dewagáma_, _Maiswári_, _Tatwa_, _Wiya Wasáha_,
_Dásta Kalabáya_, _Slákan Taragáma_, _Satmagáma_, _Gamíga Gamána_. Of
many of these, copies have been procured, and the _Sástra Menáwa_, or
institutions of _Menu_, have been partially translated into English.
This is a book of law comprised in about one hundred and sixty
sections, evidently written on the spot, and with reference to the
peculiar habits and dispositions of the people for whom it was framed.
As a code of civil law, it is remarkable for the proof it affords of
the existence of actual property in the land; and as a criminal code,
for the frequency of capital punishment, and the almost total absence
of all degrading or minor corporeal punishment.
Of the more modern compositions, and which may be considered as more
strictly Javan, the following are the principal:
_Angréné_ is an historical work, which commences with the reign of
_Sri Jáya Langkára_ sovereign of _Médang Kamúlan_, the grandfather
of the celebrated _Pánji_, and concludes with the death of _Pánji_.
This is the longest work to be found in the modern literature of Java,
and contains the most interesting and important part of Javan history
immediately antecedent to the establishment of Mahomedanism. It is
composed in several measures of the _Sékar Gángsal_, and is usually
divided into several smaller works, to each of which the name of Pánji
is prefixed, as:
_Pánji Mordaningkung._ The history of that part of the _Pánji's_ life,
when his consort, _Sékar-táji_, is carried off by a deity. This is
replete with relations of his adventures in war, and partly written in
the _Sékar Sépoh_ and partly in the _Sékar Gángsal_.
_Pánji Magát-kung_ relates to that period when the object of _Pánji's_
love was not yet attained.
_Pánji-áng'ron ákung_, containing the particulars of marriage
ceremonies observed by _Pánji_.
_Pánji priambáda_, containing an account of the success and completion
of _Pánji's_ love, and ending with his marriage.
_Pánji Jáya Kasúma._ This is one of the names assumed by _Pánji_ after
the loss of his consort, _Sékar-táji_ and contains an account of his
expedition to _Báli_, where he regained her.
_Pánji Chékel Wáning Páti_ (when young brave even to death) contains
the juvenile exploits of this hero.
_Pánji Norowangsa_ includes the period of his life, when the Princess
of _Dahá_ transforms herself into a man.
Neither the date of the principal work from which these minor
compositions are taken, nor the name of the author is known; but it is
supposed to have been written subsequently to the time of _Majapáhit_,
the language being modern Javan.
Literary compositions of the higher cast are generally classed by the
Javans under the head of _Pepákam_ or _Bábat_, the latter of which
includes all historical works and chronicles of modern date.
_Srúti_ is a work which contains regulations for the conduct and
behaviour of an inferior to a superior. It is written in the _Káwi_
language, but _Artáti_ measure, and has not yet been translated into
Javan. It is of the same length as the _Níti Sástra Kâwi_.
_Níti Prája_ is composed in the same measure as the _Srúti_, and
contains regulations for the conduct of sovereigns and chiefs, partly
in the _Káwi_ and partly in the Javan.
_Asta Prája_ is a work of the same nature and similarly composed.
_Siwáka_ contains regulations for behaviour when in the presence of a
superior, in the Javan language and _Artáti_ measure.
_Nagára Kráma_, regulations for the good administration of the country,
in the same language and measure.
_Yúdha Nagára_, the customs of the country, containing rules for the
behaviour of persons of different ranks, in Javan and in the _Artáti_
and _Pamíjil_ measures.
_Kamandáka_ contains instructions for inspiring respect and fear in the
exercise of authority, partly _Káwi_, partly Javan, and in _Artáti_
measure.
The seven last mentioned works are supposed to have been written about
the same period. The _Chándra Sangkála_ of the _Srúti_ is 1340 of the
Javan era. From the allusion to _Islam_ customs which they contain it
is concluded that they were all composed on the decline of _Majapáhit_,
at a period when the influence of that religion was rapidly gaining
ground. These works are in pretty general circulation, and form
the basis of the institutions and regulations of the country. The
translation already given of a modern version of the _Níti Prája_ will
serve to shew their nature and tendency.
_Jáya Langkára_ is a work supposed to have been written by a chief
of that name, when sovereign of _Médang Kamúlan_, and which contains
regulations for the highest judicial proceedings.
_Júgul Múda_, supposed to have been written by _Júgul Múda_ the _Páteh_
or minister of _Kandiáwan_, chief of _Médang Kamúlan_, containing
rules for the guidance of _Pátehs_ in the judicial department of their
office.
_Gája Múda_, a similar work, supposed to have been written by _Gája
Múda_, the _Páteh_ of the great _Browijáya_ of _Majapáhit_.
_Kápa Kápa_, regulations for the guidance of the sovereign in the
administration of justice.
_Súria Alem_, a similar work for the guidance of all persons entrusted
with authority, supposed to have been composed by _Aji Jímbon_, the
first Mahomedan sovereign of Java.
None of the above works are written in verse. They form the basis of
what may be called the common law of the country. The translation of
the modern version of the last of these, contained in the Appendix,
will serve to convey some idea of the nature and spirit of this class
of compositions.
Besides the above may be noticed another work called _Jáya Langkára_, a
romance, supposed to have been written in the time of _Susúnan Ampel_,
in the Javan language and modern measures. This is a moral work of
considerable length, written in allegory, and pointing out the duties
of all classes.
The _Jówar Maníkam_ is of a more recent date, and a general favourite:
it may convey some notion of the modern romances of the Javans.
* * * * *
That is true love which makes the heart uneasy!
There was a woman who shone like a gem in the world, for she was
distinguished by her conduct, and her name was _Jówar Maníkam_.
Perfect was her form, and she was descended from a devotee, from
whom she derived her purity and the rules of her conduct.
Her beauty was like that of the children of heaven (_widadáris_),
and men saw more to admire in her, than was to be found on the
plains, on the mountains, or in the seas.
* * * * *
Pure was her conduct, like that of a saint, and she never forgot
her devotions to the deity: all evil desires were strangers to
her heart.
She rose superior above the multitude from following the dictates
of religion, and in no one instance was her heart disturbed by a
bad thought or desire, so that her life was without reproach.
What pity it is she hath not a lover, for when a young and handsome
woman obtains a husband of high character and qualifications, it
is as milk mixed with sugar!
* * * * *
When her virtue was assailed by the _Panghúlu_, she was astonished,
and exclaimed, "why dost thou thus take the course of a thief?
why dost thou act in this manner?
"Art thou not prohibited from doing thus? forgettest thou thy
_Rája_, and fearest thou not thy God?
"And thinkest thou not either of thyself? Greatly dost thou
astonish me! Is not thy conduct bad even before the world? but
being forbidden by the Almighty, art thou not afraid of his
anger?"
* * * * *
"If such be thy desire, I can never consent to its indulgence, for
I fear my God, and for all such deeds the punishment from heaven
is great.
"Rather let me follow the course pointed out by the prophet: let me
imitate the conduct of his child Fatima.
"How comes it, that thy inclination is so evil towards me? Verily,
if my father knew of this proceeding, wouldst thou not justly
receive severe punishment?"
The _Panghúlu_ thus frustrated in his design, writes in revenge to
her father, and informs him that his daughter has made a fruitless
endeavour to seduce him: upon hearing which the deceived parent orders
her to be put to death. Her brother is about to put this order in
execution, when placing his hand before his eyes while he inflicts the
blow, he stabs a small deer in lieu of his sister, who escapes into the
woods.
With rapidity she fled to the woods, and then taking shelter under
a wide spreading _waríng'en_ tree, the still unripe fruits of the
forest attained maturity, and seemed to offer themselves as a
relief to her.
All the flowers, though the season for opening their petals was not
arrived, now expanded, and shedding their fragrance, it was borne
by a gentle zephyr towards her, while the _bramára_, attracted
by the odour, swarmed around, and the fragrance of each flower
seemed to vie with the other in reaching her presence.
The wild animals of the forest, the tiger, the wild ox, the
rhinoceros came towards the princess, as if to watch and guard
her, crouching around her, but occasioning not the least alarm.
* * * * *
Being in want of water, the princess put up a prayer to heaven,
when close by her feet a spring of pure water issued.
On which the _sarója_ flower soon appeared, opening its petals,
and offering the shade of a _páyung_ to the smaller water-plants
floating beneath.
Her heart now became easy; and delighted at what she beheld, she
proceeded to bathe and perform her devotions.
The father, on his return, learns the treachery of the _Panghúlu_,
and having recovered his daughter, she is subsequently married to
a neighbouring prince, by whom she has three children. Her trials,
however, are not yet at an end, for being on a journey to visit her
father, accompanied by the _Pepáteh_ of her husband, who is appointed
to guard her on the way, the _Pepáteh_ forms a design upon her virtue.
He is represented as saying:--
"If you, oh princess, submit not to my desires, it is my
determination to put your eldest child to death."
The princess on hearing this became so affected as to be deprived
of speech.
When the _Pepáteh_ again repeating his threat in a solemn manner,
She replied, "what would you have me say? Whatever may be the will
of God I must submit. If my child is to die, how can I prevent
it?"
The _Pepáteh_, on hearing this, forthwith drew his sword, and slew
the child, again demanding of the princess whether she would
submit to his desires? To which she answered, "No!"
He again urged her: but the princess hanging down her head was
silent, and in the hope that God would give her resolution, her
mind became more easy.
The _Pepáteh_ then shaking his sword before the princess, again
urged her to submit, threatening that if she refused he would
slay her second child.
But the princess could only reply, "you must act as you say, if it
is the will of God that you should do so."
He then slew the second child, and again urging her to submit,
threatened, in case of refusal, that he would slay the third
child, then at her breast.
Snatching the child from her arms, he put his threat into
execution, and the blood flew on the mother's face, on which she
swooned and fell to the ground.
The _Pepáteh_ having succeeded in recovering her, again attempted
to effect his purpose, threatening that if she still refused he
would slay her: to this the princess at first made no reply.
But placing her sole reliance on the Almighty, a thought at last
struck her, and she said:
"Do as you will with me; but seeing that I am disfigured with
blood, allow me first to bathe in an adjacent stream."
The _Pepáteh_ assenting to this, she went away and effected her escape
into the woods. There she remained in safety, until discovered by her
husband, who in revenge put the three children of the _Pepáteh_ to
death.
It has already been shewn, that notwithstanding the intercourse
which has now subsisted for upwards of four centuries, and the full
establishment of the Mahomedan as the national religion of the country
for upwards of three centuries, the Arabic has made but little or
no inroad into the language; and it may be added, that the Arabic
compositions now among them are almost exclusively confined to matters
of religion. Books in the Javan language are occasionally written
in the Arabic character, and then termed _Pégu_, but this practice
is by no means general. The _Kóran_ was first translated, or rather
paraphrased, about a century ago, and rendered into Javan verse by a
learned man of _Pranarága_, to whom the title of _Kiai Pranarága_ was
in consequence given.
Arabic books, however, are daily increasing in number. The principal
works in this language, with which the Javans are at present
acquainted, are the _Umul brahin_, by _Sheik Usuf Sanusi_; _Mohárrar_,
by _Iman Abu Hanífa_; _Ranlo Taleb_, by _Sheik Islam Zachariah_; and
_Insan Kamil_, by _Sheik Abdul Karim Jili_. The doctrines of _Sheik
Mulana Ishak_, the father of _Susúnan Gíri_ and one of the earliest
missionaries, were those of _Abu Hanífa_, which are the same as the
Persians are said to profess; but these doctrines have, subsequent to
the time of _Susúnan Gíri_, been changed for those of _Shafihi_. There
are, however, some who still adhere to the doctrines of _Hánifa_; but
their numbers are few, and the chiefs are all followers of _Shafihi_.
The number of Arabic tracts circulating on Java has been estimated at
about two hundred.
Several institutions have been established in different parts of
the island, for the instruction of youth in the Arabic language and
literature. At one of these, in the district of _Pranarága_, there were
at one time (about seventy years ago, in the time of _Páku Nagára_),
not less than fifteen hundred scholars. This institution has since
fallen into decay, and the number at present does not exceed three or
four hundred. Similar institutions are established at _Meláng'i_, near
_Matárem_, and at _Sídamârmar_, near _Surabáya_; and at _Bántam_, about
eighty years ago, there existed an institution, of nearly equal extent
with that of _Pranarága_.
Literary compositions are almost invariably written in verse. The
measures employed are of three classes. First, the _sekár[140] káwi_,
or measures in which the _káwi_ compositions are generally written;
secondly, the _sekár sepoh_, high or ancient measures; thirdly, the
_sekár gángsal_, or five modern measures.
A complete stanza is termed a _páda_ (literally a foot); a line is
termed _ukára_; the long syllables are termed _gúru_, the short _láku_;
and although rhyme is not used, the several measures of the _sekár
sepoh_ and _gángsal_ are regulated by the terminating vowels of each
line, which are fixed and determined, for each particular kind of
verse[141], by the number of syllables in each line, the disposition of
the long syllables, and the number of lines in each stanza or _páda_.
Of the _sekár káwi_ there are twelve radical stanzas, most of which
occur in the _Níti Sástra_ and other principal _Káwi_ compositions.
They are named:
1. _Stradúla wikrindíta._
2. _Jága díta._
3. _Wahírat._
4. _Basánta tiláka._
5. _Bágsapátra._
6. _Srágdára._
7. _Sekaríni._
8. _Suwandána._
9. _Champáka máliar._
10. _Práwira lalítá._
11. _Basánta líla._
12. _Dánda._
Each of these stanzas consists of four lines, as in the following
example of the _Sradúla Wíkrindita_, from the _Níti Sástra Káwi_.
"Reng jánma di kámi ta chíta reséping sárwa prája ng'enaka
"Ring s'tri matdia manuára pría wawus andé mána kung lúlut
"Yen ring Madiáni kang pinandîta mochap tetóah pa désa prîen
"Yen ring matdía nikáng mosa mochap-akan wakchúra sing'a k'roti.
* * * * *
A man who is moderate and cool in his desires will do good to a
country.
A woman is like unto _Déwi Manuhára_ when her desires are moderate,
and men cannot look upon her without admiration.
A _Pandíta_ must at all times and on all occasions act up to his
doctrines:
Whether it be in war or in difficulty, still he must act up to what he
says.
Examples of several other measures of the _sekár káwi_ and of the metre
will be given hereafter in the analysis of the _Bráta Yudha_.
Of the _sekáh sepoh_ there are great varieties, several of which are
exhibited in the following examples.
MEGÁTRUH.
(_Consisting of five unequal lines, terminating with the vowel sounds_
u, e, u, i, _and_ o.)
"Wong ahurīp | aywa tā | ang'gung | katungkūl ||
"'Ing kawibawān | kamuktēn ||
"'Aywa ta | ang'gung gumung'gūng ||
"Manawā | dinadung eblīs ||
"Kajarāh | temah wurung wōng ||
* * * * *
Men of this world! give not yourselves up
To the pleasures of power and sensual gratification:
Neither be vain nor open to flattery.
Lest caught in his toils,
You fall into the hands of the devil.
PÚCHUNG.
(_Consisting of four unequal lines, terminating with the vowel sounds_
u, a, i, _and_ a. )
"Den prayitnā | wong agūng | aja pitambūh ||
"Barāng | rahing prajā ||
"Kawruhanā | den atitī ||
"Supayani | 'ing tindāk aywa | ng'alentār ||
* * * * *
Watch well, ye great, and be not unmindful
Of what takes place in the country;
But observe it narrowly,
That the administration of it may not be neglected.
BALÁBAK.
(_Consisting of three long lines, each terminating in_ é.)
"Wong ahurīp | aja anggung mang'an minūm | jarenē ||
"Ananungkūl | íng dría kang tan sayogyā | gawénē ||
"Lamun orā | ing nalika mangsa Kalā | Kalanē ||
* * * * *
Men of this life! devote not yourselves to the pleasures of eating and
drinking;
For it is a passion of which the indulgence is vicious,
Except on grand and particular occasions.
KÚSWA WIRÁNGRONG WIRÁNGRONG.
(_Consisting of six lines, terminating in the vowel sounds_ i, o, u, i, a,
_and_ a).
"Lir dawūh dawūh | ing margī ||
"Sang d'yāh parayāng | paroyōng ||
"Supe duk aniandāk | wastra ng'rangkūs ||
"Kawingkin kang wēntīs ||
"Lumarāp | kadi kilāt ||
"Murub padāng | Kang pasebān ||.
* * * * *
Stumbling as she went,
The Princess walked with faltering pace.
Laying hold of her under garment, she unconsciously drew it up,
When from the exposed calf of her leg
A flash like lightning darted,
Which illumined the Hall of Audience.
SUMEKÁR.
(_Consisting of eight lines, ending in the vowel sounds_ i, a, a, i _and_
e).
"Gugunung'ān | lor-wetan tuhu 'angrawīt ||
"Pinārigī ing selā kakarang'ān ||
"Pandan-janmā | jinemb|ang'ān ||
"Sri jata winujīl | wujīl ||
"Pisang tatār | lir tunjūng | Sikarī |
* * * * *
Beautiful are the hills to the north-east,
Adorned and interspersed with walls of stone,
With the _pándan jánma_ growing in pots,
And overgrown with the _s'ri játa_,
And the _písang tátar_, having a blossom like the _túnjung_.
PALUGÓN.
(_Consisting of eight lines, terminating with the vowel sounds_ a, u, o, u,
o, a, u, _and_ o).
Yen tan hanā | adedangkān ||
Punggawa satryā agūng ||
Miang mantrĭ | rempeg āgolōng ||
Obah osīk | ing prajekū ||
Iku arjā | prajā katōng ||
Lawan pang'wā | saning natā ||
Tan hanā | panasten kalbū ||
Nora cheng'īl | datan leniōk ||
* * * * *