_Origin of the Natives--Javans compared with
Maláyus and Búgis--Comparative Progress of the
three Races--Foreign Influence--Persons of the
Natives--Manners--Population--Inequality of it accounted
for--Population Tables--Increase of Population--Foreign
Settlers--Chinese--Búgis--Maláyus--Moors--Arabs--Slaves--Gradations
of Rank among the Javans--Their Habitations, Dress, and Food._
The inhabitants of Java seem to owe their origin to the same stock,
from which most of the islands lying to the south of the eastern
Peninsula of Asia appear to have been first peopled. This stock is
evidently Tartar, and has, by its numerous and wide-spreading branches,
not only extended itself over the Indian Archipelago, but over the
neighbouring Continent. "To judge from external appearance, that is to
say, from shape, size, and feature," observes Dr. Francis Buchanan,
in his Notices on the Birman Empire[34], "there is one very extensive
nation that inhabits the east of Asia. It includes the eastern and
western Tartars of the Chinese authors, the Calmucs, the Chinese, the
Japanese, and other tribes inhabiting what is called the Peninsula
of India beyond the Ganges, and the islands to the south and east
of this, as far at least as New Guinea."--"This nation," adds the
same author, "may be distinguished by a short, squat, robust, fleshy
stature, and by features highly different from those of an European.
The face is somewhat in shape of a lozenge, the forehead and chin being
sharpened, whilst at the cheek bones it is very broad. The eyebrows, or
superciliary ridges, in this nation, project very little, and the eyes
are very narrow, and placed rather obliquely in the head, the external
angles being the highest. The nose is very small, but has not, like
that of the negro, the appearance of being flattened, and the apertures
of the nostrils, which in the European are linear and parallel,
in them are nearly circular and divergent, for the _septum narium_
being much thickest towards the face, places them entirely out of the
parallel line. The mouths of this nation are in general well shaped;
their hair is harsh, lank, and black. Those of them that live even in
the highest climates do not obtain the deep hue of the negro or Hindu;
nor do such of them as live in the coldest climates acquire the clear
bloom of the European."
But although the Javans are to be included under this general
description, it does not follow that they bear an exact, or very
striking resemblance, in person and feature, to the Chinese or
Japanese, nor even that they are liable to be confounded with the
Birmans or Siamese. From the former, indeed, they are far removed by
many obvious characteristics; and though more nearly resembling the
latter, they possess many peculiarities, which mark them out to the
most careless observer as a race distinct and separate for ages, though
still retaining general traces of a common origin. As we approach the
limits of savage life, and recur to that inartificial, unimproved state
of society, in which the primitive divergence may be supposed to have
taken place, we shall find the points of resemblance increased, and the
proofs of a common descent multiplied. The less civilized of the tribes
inhabiting the islands, approach so nearly, in physical appearance, to
that portion of the inhabitants of the Peninsula, which has felt least
of the Chinese influence on the one side, and of the Birman and Siamese
on the other, and exhibit so striking an affinity in their usages and
customs, as to warrant the hypothesis that the tide of population
originally flowed towards the islands, from that quarter of the
Continent lying between Siam and China. But at what era this migration
commenced; whether, in the first instance, it was purely accidental
and subsequently gradual; or whether, originally, it was undertaken
from design, and accelerated, at any particular periods, by political
convulsions on the Continent, we cannot at present determine with any
certainty, as we have no data on which to rely with confidence. It
is probable, however, that the islands were peopled at a very remote
period, and long before the Birman and Siamese nations rose into
notice.
Whatever opinion may be formed on the identity of the tribes inhabiting
these Islands and the neighbouring Peninsula, the striking resemblance
in person, feature, language, and customs, which prevails throughout
the whole Archipelago, justifies the conclusion, that its original
population issued from the same source, and that the peculiarities
which distinguish the different nations and communities into which it
is at present distributed, are the result of a long separation, local
circumstances, and the intercourse of foreign traders, emigrants, or
settlers.
Excluding the Philippines, as distant from the scene of our present
observations, it may be noticed, that of the three chief nations in
these islands, occupying respectively Java, Sumatra, and Celebes, the
first has, especially by its moral habits, by its superior civilization
and improvements, obtained a broader and more marked characteristic
than the others. Both the Malayan and _Búgis_ nations are maritime and
commercial, devoted to speculations of gain, animated by a spirit of
adventure, and accustomed to distant and hazardous enterprises; while
the Javans, on the contrary, are an agricultural race, attached to
the soil, of quiet habits and contented dispositions, almost entirely
unacquainted with navigation and foreign trade, and little inclined to
engage in either. This difference of character may perhaps be accounted
for, by the great superiority of the soil of Java to that of the other
two islands.
It is to be regretted, that our information on the state and progress
of society in these islands is scanty, as Europeans only became
acquainted with them when they were on their decline. The Malayan
empire, which once extended over all Sumatra[35], and the capital of
which is still nominally at _Menáng-kábaù_ on that island, had long
been dismembered; but its colonies were found established on the
coasts of the Peninsula and throughout the Islands, as far east as
the Moluccas. The Mahometan institutions had considerably obliterated
their ancient character, and had not only obstructed their improvement,
but had accelerated their decline. Traditional history concurs with
existing monuments, in proving them to have formerly made considerable
advances in those arts, to which their industry and ingenuity were
particularly directed, and they still bear marks of that higher state
of civilization which they once enjoyed.
What the Malayan empire was on Sumatra, in the western part of the
Archipelago, that of _Guah_ or _Mengkásar_, was on Celebes in the east;
but the people of this latter nation, whom we may generally designate
by the name of _Búgis_, had not been equally influenced by foreign
settlers nor exposed to the inroads of the Arab missionaries, and
they consequently maintained their ancient worship and their native
institutions for a longer period. Like the _Maláyus_, they sent forth
numerous colonies, and at one period extended the success of their
arms as far west as Acheen on Sumatra, and _Kéddah_ on the Malayan
peninsula, and in almost every part of the Archipelago, Malayan and
_Búgis_ settlers and establishments are to be found.
The Javans, on the contrary, being an agricultural people, are
seldom met with out of their native island. At one period of their
history, indeed, their power seems to have been exerted in acquiring
or perpetuating foreign dominion, and they seem to have sent out
colonies to Borneo, the Peninsula, Sumatra, and probably Celebes: but
when Europeans became acquainted with them, their external influence
appears to have been contracted, and their sovereignty nearly confined
within the limits of Java itself. Their foreign establishments thus
receiving from them no protection, and deriving no advantage from
nominal obedience, declared their independence: and, having but little
communication with the mother-country, soon became assimilated to the
character, and merged into the body of the Malayan nation.
The comparative advancement of these three nations in the arts of
civilized life, seems to be directly as the fertility of the soil they
occupied, or the inducements they held out to foreign intercourse; and
inversely, as the indulgence of their own roving, adventurous spirit,
and piratical habits. The arts never fix their roots but in a crowded
population, and a crowded population is generally created only on a
fertile territory. Egypt, from the fertility of soil and the consequent
density of its population, led the way in science and refinement among
ancient nations; while the sterile tracts contiguous to that favoured
land have been inhabited, from primeval times, by dispersed tribes of
unimproved barbarians. In like manner, Java having become populous from
its natural fertility, and having, by its wealth and the salubrity of
its climate, invited the visits of more enlightened strangers, soon
made great progress in arts and knowledge; while the _Búgis_, being
more deficient in these advantages, have been left considerably behind
in the race of improvement. They may lay claim, however, to the most
originality of character.
It will be the object of another part of this work, to trace the
source of that foreign influence, to which these three nations are
principally indebted for their civilization: here, therefore, it
may not be necessary to advert to the circumstance further, than by
generally observing, that from western Asia they received the rudiments
and impulse of improvement; an inference abundantly justified by the
extensive remains of the arts, institutions, and languages of that
country, which are still to be found throughout the Archipelago.
The inhabitants of Java and Madúra are in stature rather below the
middle size, though not so short as the _Búgis_ and many of the
other islanders. They are, upon the whole, well shaped, though less
remarkably so than the _Maláyus_, and erect in their figures. Their
limbs are slender, and the wrists and ankles particularly small.
In general, they allow the body to retain its natural shape. The
only exceptions to this observation are, an attempt to prevent the
growth, or to reduce the size of the waist, by compressing it into
the narrowest limits; and the practice still more injurious to female
elegance, of drawing too tightly that part of the dress which covers
the bosom. Deformity is very rare among them. The forehead is high,
the eyebrows well marked and distant from the eyes, which are somewhat
Chinese, or rather Tartar, in the formation of the inner angle. The
colour of the eye is dark; the nose small and somewhat flat, but less
so than that of the islanders in general. The mouth is well formed, but
the lips are large, and their beauty generally injured by the practice
of filing and dyeing the teeth black, and by the use of tobacco,
_sári_, &c. The cheek-bones are usually prominent; the beard very
scanty; the hair of the head generally lank and black, but sometimes
waving in curls, and partially tinged with a deep reddish brown colour.
The countenance is mild, placid and thoughtful, and easily expresses
respect, gaiety, earnestness, indifference, bashfulness, or anxiety.
In complexion, the Javans, as well as the other eastern islanders,
may be considered rather as a yellow than a copper-coloured or black
race. Their standard of beauty, in this respect, is "a virgin-gold
colour:" except perhaps in some few districts in the mountainous parts
of the country, where a ruddy tinge is occasioned by the climate,
they want the degree of red requisite to give them a copperish hue.
It may be observed, however, that they are generally darker than
the tribes of the neighbouring islands; especially the inhabitants
of the eastern districts, who may indeed be considered as having
more delicate features, and bearing a more distinct impression of
Indian colonization, than those of the Western or _Súnda_ districts.
The _Súndas_ exhibit many features of a mountainous race. They are
shorter, stouter, hardier, and more active men, than the inhabitants
of the coast and eastern districts. In some respects they resemble the
Madurese, who display a more martial and independent air, and move with
a bolder carriage than the natives of Java. A considerable difference
exists in person and features between the higher and lower classes;
more indeed than seems attributable to difference of employment and
treatment. The features and limbs of the chiefs are more delicate, and
approach more nearly to those of the inhabitants of Western India,
while those of the common people retain more marked traces of the stock
from which the islands were originally peopled. In colour there are
many different shades in different families and different districts,
some being much darker than others. Among many of the chiefs a strong
mixture of the Chinese is clearly discernible: the Arab features are
seldom found, except among the priests, and some few families of the
highest rank.
The women, in general, are not so good-looking as the men: and to
Europeans many of them, particularly when advanced in years, appear
hideously ugly. But among the lower orders, much of this deficiency of
personal comeliness is doubtless to be attributed to the severe duties
which they have to perform in the field, to the hardships they have to
undergo in carrying oppressive burdens, and to exposure in a sultry
climate. On the neighbouring island of _Báli_, where the condition
of the women among the peasantry does not appear by any means so
oppressed and degraded, they exhibit considerable personal beauty; and
even on Java, the higher orders of them being kept within-doors, have a
very decided superiority in this respect.
In manners the Javans are easy and courteous, and respectful even to
timidity; they have a great sense of propriety, and are never rude or
abrupt. In their deportment they are pliant and graceful, the people
of condition carrying with them a considerable air of fashion, and
receiving the gaze of the curious without being at all disconcerted.
In their delivery they are in general very circumspect and even slow,
though not deficient in animation when necessary.
Here, as on Sumatra, there are certain mountainous districts, in which
the people are subject to those large wens in the throat, termed in
Europe _goitres_. The cause is generally ascribed by the natives to the
quality of the water; but there seems good ground for concluding, that
it is rather to be traced to the atmosphere. In proof of this it may
be mentioned, that there is a village near the foot of the _Teng'gar_
mountains, in the eastern part of the island, where every family is
afflicted by this malady, while in another village, situated at a
greater elevation, and through which the stream descends which serves
for the use of both, there exists no such deformity. These wens are
considered hereditary in some families, and seem thus independent of
situation. A branch of the family of the present _Adipáti_ of _Bándung_
is subject to them, and it is remarkable that they prevail chiefly
among the women in that family. They neither produce positive suffering
nor occasion early death, and may be considered rather as deformities
than diseases. It is never attempted to remove them.
The population of Java is very unequally distributed, whether we
consider the fertility or the extent of the districts over which it is
spread. The great mass of it lies in the eastern and native districts,
as will be perceived from the annexed tables.
The table No. I., is compiled from materials collected by a committee
appointed on the first establishment of the British government, to
enquire and report on the state of the country. It will be found to
illustrate, in some degree, the proportionate numbers of the different
ranks and classes of society in the island. Beyond this, however, it
cannot be depended upon, as the returns of which it is an abstract were
made at a period when the Dutch system of administration provisionally
remained in force; and every new enquiry into the state of the country
being at that time considered by the people as a prelude to some
new tax or oppression, it became an object with them to conceal the
full extent of the population: accordingly it was found to differ
essentially in amount from the results of information subsequently
obtained on the introduction of the detailed land-revenue settlement,
when an agreement with each individual cultivator becoming necessary
to the security of his possession, he seldom failed to satisfy the
necessary enquiries. The table No. II., here exhibited, at least as
far as regards the European provinces, may therefore be considered as
faithful a view of the population of the country as could be expected,
and as such, notwithstanding the inaccuracies to which all such
accounts are liable, it is presented with some confidence to the public.
It was formed in the following manner. A detailed account of the
peasantry of each village was first taken, containing the name of
each male inhabitant, with other particulars, and from the aggregate
of these village lists a general statement was constructed of the
inhabitants of each subdivision and district. An abstract was again
drawn up from these provincial accounts, exhibiting the state of each
residency in which the districts were respectively included, and the
totals of these last, collected into one tabular view, constitute the
present abstract. The labour of this detailed survey was considerable,
for as each individual cultivator was to receive a lease corresponding
with the register taken, it was necessary that the land he rented
should be carefully measured and assessed[36].
No. II.
TABLE _exhibiting the_ POPULATION _of_ JAVA _and_ MADURA,
_according to a Census taken by the_ BRITISH GOVERNMENT,
_in the Year_ 1815.
+------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| DIVISIONS. | Total | Males. | Females. |
| | Population| | +
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
+------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| _European Provinces._ | | | |
|Bantam | 231,604| 106,100| 125,504|
|Batavia and its Environs| 332,015| 180,768| 151,247|
|Buitenzorg | 76,312| 38,926| 37,386|
|Priángen Regencies | 243,628| 120,649| 122,979|
|Chéribon | 216,001| 105,451| 110,550|
|Tégal | 178,415| 81,539| 96,876|
|Pakalúng'an | 115,442| 53,187| 62,255|
|Semárang | 327,610| 165,009| 162,601|
|Kedú | 197,310| 97,744| 99,566|
|Grobógan and Jípang | 66,522| 31,693| 34,829|
|Japára and Jawána | 103,290| 55,124| 48,166|
|Rémbang | 158,530| 75,204| 83,326|
|Grésik | 115,442| 58,981| 56,461|
|Surabáya | 154,512| 77,260| 77,252|
|Pasúruan | 108,812| 54,177| 54,635|
|Probolíng'go | 104,359| 50,503| 53,856|
|Banyuwángi | 8,873| 4,463| 4,410|
| _Native Provinces._ | | | |
|Súra-kérta | 972,727| 471,505| 501,222|
|Yúgya-kérta[37] | 685,207| 332,241| 352,966|
| MADURA. | | | |
|Bankálang and Pamakásan | 95,235| 47,466| 47,769|
|Súmenap | 123,424| 60,190| 63,234|
+------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Grand Total | 4,615,270| 2,268,180| 2,347,090|
| | | | |
| | | | |
+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| DIVISIONS. | NATIVES. |
| +-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | Total | Males. | Females. |
| | Natives. | | |
| | | | |
+------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| _European Provinces._ | | | |
|Bantam | 230,976| 111,988| 118,988|
|Batavia and its Environs| 279,621| 151,064| 128,557|
|Buitenzorg | 73,679| 37,334| 36,345|
|Priángen Regencies | 243,268| 120,289| 122,979|
|Chéribon | 213,658| 99,837| 113,821|
|Tégal | 175,446| 80,208| 95,238|
|Pakalúng'an | 113,396| 52,007| 61,389|
|Semárang | 305,910| 154,161| 151,749|
|Kedú | 196,171| 97,167| 99,004|
|Grobógan and Jípang | 66,109| 31,423| 34,686|
|Japára and Jawána | 101,000| 54,000| 47,000|
|Rémbang | 154,639| 73,373| 81,266|
|Grésik | 115,078| 58,807| 56,271|
|Surabáya | 152,025| 76,038| 75,987|
|Pasúruan | 107,752| 53,665| 54,087|
|Probolíng'go | 102,927| 49,797| 53,130|
|Banyuwángi | 8,554| 4,297| 4,257|
| _Native Provinces._ | | | |
|Súra-kérta | 970,292| 470,220| 500,072|
|Yúgya-kérta[37] | 683,005| 331,141| 351,864|
| MADURA. | | | |
|Bankálang and Pamakásan | 90,848| 45,194| 45,654|
|Súmenap | 114,896| 55,826| 59,070|
+------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Grand Total | 4,499,250| 2,207,836| 2,291,414|
| | | | |
| | | | |
+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+------------------------+---------+--------+---------+
| DIVISIONS. | CHINESE, &c. |
| +---------+--------+---------+
| | Total | Males. | Females.|
| | Chinese,| | |
| | &c. | | |
+------------------------+---------+--------+---------+
| _European Provinces._ | | | |
|Bantam | 628| 352| 276|
|Batavia and its Environs| 52,394| 29,704| 22,690|
|Buitenzorg | 2,633| 1,591| 1,042|
|Priángen Regencies | 180| 86| 94|
|Chéribon | 2,343| 1,193| 1,150|
|Tégal | 2,004| 915| 1,089|
|Pakalúng'an | 2,046| 1,180| 866|
|Semárang | 1,700| 848| 852|
|Kedú | 1,139| 577| 562|
|Grobógan and Jípang | 403| 223| 180|
|Japára and Jawána | 2,290| 1,124| 1,166|
|Rémbang | 3,891| 1,831| 2,060|
|Grésik | 364| 174| 190|
|Surabáya | 2,047| 1,010| 1,037|
|Pasúruan | 1,070| 522| 548|
|Probolíng'go | 1,430| 706| 724|
|Banyuwángi | 319| 166| 153|
| _Native Provinces._ | | | |
|Súra-kérta | 2,435| 1,285| 1,150|
|Yúgya-kérta[37] | 2,202| 1,201| 1,001|
| MADURA. | | | |
|Bankálang and Pamakásan | 4,395| 2,280| 2,115|
|Súmenap | 8,528| 4,364| 4,164|
+------------------------+---------+--------+---------+
| Grand Total | 94,441| 51,332| 43,109|
| | | | |
| | | | |
+---------+--------+---------+
+------------------------+-----------+----------------------+
| DIVISIONS. | Square | Estimated |
| + statute | Population |
| | Miles. | to a |
| | | square Mile. |
| | | |
+------------------------+-----------+----------------------+
| _European Provinces._ | | |
|Bantam | 3,428| 67½ |
|Batavia and its Environs|} 2,411| 169⅓ |
|Buitenzorg |} | |
|Priángen Regencies | 10,002| 24⅓ |
|Chéribon | 1,334| 162 |
|Tégal | 1,297| 137⅓ |
|Pakalúng'an | 607| 190⅙ |
|Semárang | 1,166| 281 |
|Kedú | 826| 238¾ |
|Grobógan and Jípang | 1,219| 54⅓ |
|Japára and Jawána | 1,025| 100⅔ |
|Rémbang | 1,400| 113 |
|Grésik | 778| 148 |
|Surabáya | 1,218| 126¾ |
|Pasúruan | 1,952| 58⅛ |
|Probolíng'go | 2,854| 36½ |
|Banyuwángi | 1,274| 7 |
| _Native Provinces._ | | |
|Súra-kérta |} 11,313 | 147½ |
|Yúgya-kérta[37] |} | |
| MADURA. | | |
|Bankálang and Pamakásan | 892| 106¾ |
|Súmenap | 728[38]| 146 |
+------------------------+ ----------+----------------------+
| Grand Total | 45,794| Average Population |
| | | rather exceeding 100 |
| | | to a square mile |
+-----------+----------------------+
MEM.--The Population of the principal European capitals included in the
above, is estimated as follows:--
Batavia and its immediate Suburbs 60,000
Semárang 20,000
Surabáya 25,000
The population of _Súra-kérta_, the principal Native capital, is
estimated at 105,000.
That of _Yúgya-kérta_ at somewhat less.
By the last table, it appears that in some districts the population
is in the ratio of two hundred and eighty-one to a square mile, while
in others it is not more than twenty-four and three quarters: in the
districts of _Banyuwángí_ it is even as low as seven. The soil in
the eastern districts is generally considered superior to that in
the western, and this circumstance, added to the superior facilities
which they afford to commerce, may serve to account for their original
selection as the chief seat of the native government, and consequently
for their denser population at an early period.
This disproportion was also promoted by the policy of the Dutch
Company. The Dutch first established themselves in the western
division, and having no confidence in the natives, endeavoured to drive
them from the vicinity of Batavia, with the view of establishing round
their metropolis an extensive and desert barrier. The forced services
and forced deliveries, which extended wherever Dutch influence could
be felt, and of which more will be said hereafter, contributed to
impoverish, and thereby to depopulate the country. The drain also of
the surrounding districts, to supply the place of the multitudes who
perished by the unhealthy climate of Batavia, must have been enormous;
and if to these we add the checks to population, which were created
over Bantam, the _Priáng'en_ Regencies, and Chéribon, in the pepper
and coffee cultivation, of the nature of which an account will be
given when treating of the agriculture of the country, we need go no
further to account for the existing disproportion. It was only about
sixty years ago that the Dutch government first obtained a decided
influence in the eastern districts, and from that moment, the provinces
subjected to its authority ceased to improve, and extensive emigrations
took place into the dominions of the native princes. Such were the
effects of this desolating system, that the population of the province
of _Banyuwángi_, which in 1750 is said to have amounted to upwards of
eighty thousand souls, was in 1811 reduced to eight thousand.
The _Priáng'en_ Regencies, from their inland situation and mountainous
character, may probably have at all times been less closely peopled
than other parts of the island, and their insufficient population
would furnish no proofs of the oppressions of government, did we not
observe extensive tracts, nay whole districts, exhibiting the traces
of former cultivation, now lying waste and overgrown with long rank
grass. Chéribon and Bantam have shared the same fate. These provinces,
according to authentic accounts, were at the period of the first
establishment of the European government, among the richest and most
populous of the island. In 1811 they were found in a state of extreme
poverty, affording little or no revenue, and distracted by all the
aggravated miseries of continued insurrections.
If we look at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, the capitals of the British
government in India: if we look at the great cities of every nation
in Europe; nay, if we even confine ourselves to the capitals of the
native princes on Java, we shall find that population has always
accumulated in their vicinity. And why was not this the case with the
Dutch capital? The climate alone will not explain it. Bad government
was the principal cause; a system of policy which secured neither
person nor property--selfish, jealous, vexatious, and tyrannical. It
is no less true than remarkable, that wherever the Dutch influence has
prevailed in the Eastern Seas, depopulation has followed. The Moluccas
particularly have suffered at least as much as any part of Java, and
the population of those Islands, reduced as it is, has been equally
oppressed and degraded.
It was fortunate for the interests of humanity, and for the importance
of Java, that the native governments were less oppressive than the
sway of their European conquerors, and that their states afforded a
retreat from a more desolating tyranny. It has been ascertained, that,
on the first establishment of the Dutch in the eastern part of the
Island, the inhabitants of whole districts at once migrated into the
native provinces. Every new act of rigour, every unexpected exaction,
occasioned a further migration, and cultivation was transferred to
tracts which had previously scarcely a family on them. This state of
things continued down to the latest date of the Dutch government.
During the administration of Marshal Daendels, in the years 1808, 1809,
and 1810, nearly all the inhabitants of the province of _Demák_, one of
the richest in the eastern districts, fled into the native provinces;
and when an order was given for the rigid enforcement of the coffee
monopoly, every district suffered in its population, in proportion to
the extent of service levied upon it. Of the sacrifice of lives by
thousands and tens of thousands, to fill the ranks of the Dutch native
army, and to construct roads and public works, we shall speak more at
large hereafter.
The total population of Java and Madúra appears from the Table No. II.,
to amount to 4,615,270, of which about four millions and a half may be
considered as the indigenous population of the country, and the rest as
foreign settlers. Itinerants, who are principally found along the coast
in the different maritime and commercial capitals, are not included;
neither is the nautical population, which cannot be estimated at less
than 30,000 souls; so that the whole population of these two islands
may, perhaps, be taken in round numbers at not much less than five
millions. Of these not less than three millions are in the provinces
immediately subject to European authority, and upwards of a million and
a half in the provinces of the native princes.
While the British were in possession of Java, there is reason to
believe that the population of the Island was rapidly increasing;
that of the provinces immediately under the European authority was
certainly augmented by the return of numerous families from emigration:
but previously to that period, no such authentic registers were kept
as might enable us to ascertain with precision the variations in the
number of the inhabitants during the Dutch government.
Nothing can more completely shew the vague and defective information
formerly attainable on this subject, than the loose and contradictory
statements published by those who took most pains to be well informed,
and who felt it their duty to collect all the light that could
be attained. In some accounts which have met the public eye, the
population of Java is placed on a level with that of the most powerful
European states, and assumed as high as thirty millions, while in
others, where one would expect more accuracy[39], it is rated at only
a million. The most respectable authorities[40] state the population
about a century ago at three millions; but the slightest reflection
will convince us, that such an estimate must have proceeded upon data
merely conjectural, for from our knowledge of the Dutch maxims of
administration we may safely say, that until very lately, they never
thought it an object to prosecute statistic enquiries, and that if ever
they had done so, under the old system, they could have obtained no
results deserving of confidence or credit.
About the year 1750, a certain number of families were assigned by the
stipulations of a treaty to one of the native princes[41]; and on his
death, about thirty years afterwards, when an account was taken of this
population, it appeared that the number of families had nearly doubled.
But this increase cannot be taken as the average increase of the
Island, for at this period the native provinces received a considerable
accession to their numbers, in consequence of the emigrations from the
Dutch territories.
If any inference can be drawn from this and other corresponding
circumstances, it would seem, that notwithstanding the drains on the
existing race, and the preventive checks to an increase, which were
experienced during the latter years of the Dutch administration, the
island was actually more populous in 1811, when it was surrendered to
the British, than in 1750, when at the termination of a destructive
war, the Dutch acquired the greatest portion of it from the natives.
To support the opinion of an increase within the last half century
(which is every where asserted) we have the assurance, that during that
period the greatest internal tranquillity prevailed in the provinces
subject to native administration; that no years of scarcity and famine
were experienced, and that the island was blessed with genial seasons
and abundance of subsistence. But to place in the opposite scale, we
have the government oppressions to which we formerly alluded, and which
one would suppose sufficient to counteract the natural tendency of
these advantages. As demonstrative of the strength of that principle
of population, which could even maintain its stationary amount in
conflict with political drains and discouragements, it may be proper
to mention cursorily a few of them. Great demands were, at all times,
made on the peasantry of the island, to recruit the ranks of the Dutch
army, and to supply the many other wants of the public service; the
severities and consequent mortality to which the troops were liable,
may be calculated, from the reluctance of the unfortunate wretches,
selected as victims of military conscription, to engage in the duties
of a military life. Confined in unhealthy garrisons, exposed to
unnecessary hardships and privations, extraordinary casualties took
place among them, and frequent new levies became necessary, while
the anticipation of danger and suffering produced an aversion to the
service, which was only aggravated by the subsequent measures of
cruelty and oppression. The conscripts raised in the provinces were
usually sent to the metropolis by water; and though the distance be
but short between any two points of the island, a mortality, similar
to that of a slave-ship in the middle passage, took place on board
these receptacles of reluctant recruits. They were generally confined
in the stocks till their arrival at Batavia, and it is calculated
that for every man that entered the army and performed the duties of
a soldier, several lives were lost. Besides the supply of the army,
one half of the male population of the country was constantly held
in readiness for other public services; and thus a great portion of
the effective hands were taken from their families, and detained at a
distance from home, in labours which broke their spirit and exhausted
their strength. During the administration of Marshal Daendels, it has
been calculated that the construction of public roads alone, destroyed
the lives of at least ten thousand workmen. The transport of government
stores, and the capricious requisitions of government agents of all
classes, perpetually harassed, and frequently carried off numbers of
the people. If to these drains we add the waste of life occasioned
by insurrections, which tyranny and impolicy excited and fomented in
Chéribon, the blighting effects of the coffee monopoly, and forced
services in the _Priáng'en_ Regencies, and the still more desolating
operation of the policy pursued and consequent anarchy produced in the
province of Bantam, we shall have some idea of the depopulating causes
that existed under the Dutch administration, and the force of that
tendency to increase, which could overcome obstacles so powerful.
Most of these drains and checks were removed during the short period of
British administration; but it is to be regretted (so far as accurate
data on this subject would be desirable) that there was not time to
learn satisfactorily the result of a different system, or to institute
the proper registers, by which alone questions of population can be
determined. The only document of that kind, to which I can venture
to refer as authentic, is a statement of the births and deaths that
occurred in the given general population of the _Priáng'en_ Regencies
for one year. From this account it would appear, that even in these
Regencies, where, if we except Batavia, the checks to population
are allowed to be greater than elsewhere, the births were to the
total existing population as 1 to 39, and the deaths as 1 to 40 very
nearly; that the births exceed the deaths by 618, or about 1 in 40,
in a population of 232,000, and that, at that rate, the population
would double itself in three hundred and seventy-five years. A slow
increase, certainly, compared with England, where the births, in the
three years ending 1800, were to the persons alive as 1 in 36, and the
deaths as 1 to 49, and where, consequently, the nation would double
itself in one hundred and sixty years (or taking the enumeration of
1811 as more correct, where the population would be doubled in eighty
years): but not much slower than that of France, where, according to
the statements of numbers in 1700 and 1790, about three hundred years
would be required to double the inhabitants. It has been estimated that
the population in some more favourable districts would double itself in
fifty years. One inference cannot fail to be drawn from the register to
which I have referred; that the births and deaths, though they nearly
approach each other, are low, compared with the existing numbers; and
that, consequently, the climate is healthy, and the marriages not very
prolific, as far as this district is concerned.
In the absence of authentic documents, which would have enabled us to
resolve many interesting questions regarding the population, such as
the number of children to a marriage, the ordinary length of life, the
proportion of children that die in infancy and at the other stages
of life, the ratio between the births and deaths, and the consequent
rate of increase, the effect of polygamy and multiplied divorces, the
comparative healthiness of the towns and the villages, and several
others,--I shall state a few observations on some of these heads, and
a few facts tending to shew, that under a better system of government,
or by the removal of a few of the checks that previously existed, Java
might, in a short time, be expected to be better peopled.
The soil is in general extremely fertile, and can be brought to yield
its produce with little labour. Many of the best spots still remain
uncultivated, and several districts are almost desert and neglected,
which might be the seats of a crowded and happy peasantry. In many
places, the land does not require to be cleared, as in America, from
the overgrown vegetation of primeval forests, but offers its services
to the husbandman, almost free from every obstruction to his immediate
labours. The agricultural life in which the mass of the people are
engaged, is on Java, as in every other country, the most favourable to
health. It not only favours the longevity of the existing race, but
conduces to its more rapid renewal, by leading to early marriages and a
numerous progeny. The term of life is not much shorter than in the best
climates of Europe. A very considerable number of persons of both sexes
attain the advanced age of seventy or eighty, and some even live to
one hundred and upwards; nearly the same proportion survive forty and
fifty, as in other genial climates.
While life is thus healthy and prolonged, there are no restraints upon
the formation of family connexions, by the scarcity of subsistence
or the labour of supporting children. Both sexes arrive at maturity
very early, and the customs of the country, as well as the nature of
the climate, impel them to marry young; the males at sixteen, and the
females at thirteen or fourteen years of age: though frequently the
women form connexions at nine or ten, and, as Montesquieu expresses it,
"infancy and marriage go together." The conveniences which the married
couple require are few and easily procured. The impulse of nature is
seldom checked by the experience of present deficiencies, or the fear
of future poverty. Subsistence is procured without difficulty, and
comforts are not wanting. Children, who are for a very short period a
burden to their parents, become early the means of assistance and the
source of wealth. To the peasant who labours his field with his own
hand, and who has more land than he can bring into cultivation, they
grow up into a species of valuable property, a real treasure; while,
during their infancy and the season of helplessness, they take little
from the fruits of his industry but bare subsistence.
Their education costs him little or nothing; scarcely any clothing is
required, his hut needs very little enlargement, and no beds are used.
Many of them die in infancy from the small-pox and other distempers,
but never from scanty food or criminal neglect of parents. The women of
all classes suckle their children, till we ascend to the wives of the
regents and of the sovereign, who employ nurses.
Though women soon arrive at maturity, and enter early into the married
state, they continue to bear children to an advanced age, and it is
no uncommon thing to see a grandmother still making addition to her
family. Great families are however rare. Though there are some women
who have borne thirteen or fourteen children, the average is rather
low than otherwise. A _chácha_, or family, is generally less numerous
than in Europe, both from the circumstance that the young men and women
more early leave the houses of their parents to form establishments
for themselves, and from an injudicious mode of labouring among women
of the lower ranks. Miscarriages among the latter are frequently
caused by over-straining themselves in carrying excessive burdens, and
performing oppressive field-work, during pregnancy. The average number
of persons in a family does not exceed four, or four and a half. As
the labour of the women is almost equally productive with that of the
men, female children become as much objects of solicitude with their
parents as male: they are nursed with the same care, and viewed with
the same pride and tenderness. In no class of society are children of
either sex considered as an incumbrance, or the addition to a family as
a misfortune; marriage is therefore almost universal. An unmarried man
past twenty is seldom to be met with, and an old maid is considered a
curiosity. Neither custom, law, or religion, enjoins celibacy on the
priesthood, or any other order of the community, and by none of them is
it practised. Although no strictness of principle, nor strong sense of
moral restraint, prevails in the intercourse of the sexes, prostitution
is not common, except in the capitals.
As the Javans are a quiet domestic people, little given to adventure,
disinclined to foreign enterprise, not easily roused to violence or
bloodshed, and little disposed to irregularities of any kind, there
are but few families left destitute in consequence of hazards incurred
or crimes committed by their natural protectors. The character of
blood-thirsty revenge, which has been attributed to all the inhabitants
of the Indian Archipelago, by no means applies to the people of Java;
and though, in all cases where justice is badly administered or
absolutely perverted, people may be expected to enforce their rights
or redress their grievances, rather by their own passions than by an
appeal to the magistrate, comparatively few lives are lost on the
island by personal affrays or private feuds.
Such are a few of the circumstances that would appear to have
encouraged an increase of population on Java. They furnish no precise
data on which to estimate its rapidity, or to calculate the period
within which it would be doubled, but they allow us, if tranquillity
and good government were enjoyed, to anticipate a gradual progress in
the augmentation of inhabitants, and the improvements of the soil for
a long course of time. Suppose the quantity of land in cultivation to
be to the land still in a state of nature as one to seven, which is
probably near the truth, and that, in the ordinary circumstances of the
country, the population would double itself in a century, it might go
on increasing for three hundred years to come. Afterwards the immense
tracts of unoccupied or thinly peopled territories on Sumatra, Borneo,
and the numerous islands scattered over the Archipelago, may be ready
to receive colonies, arts, and civilization from the metropolis of the
Indian seas. Commercial intercourse, friendly relations, or political
institutions, may bind these dispersed communities in one great insular
commonwealth. Its trade and navigation might connect the centre of
this great empire with Japan, China, and the south-western countries
of Asia. New Holland, which the adventurous _Búgis_ already frequent,
and which is not so far distant from Java as Russia is from England,
might be included in the circle, and colonies of Javans settled on the
north, might meet with the British spreading from the south, over that
immense and now uncultivated region. If we could indulge ourselves
in such reveries with propriety, we might contemplate the present
semi-barbarous condition, ignorance, and poverty of these innumerable
islands, exchanged for a state of refinement, prosperity, and happiness.
I formerly alluded to the oppressions of government, as the principal
checks to the increase of population on Java. There are many others,
such as the small-pox, and other diseases, which are common to that
country with the rest of the world. From the scattered state of
the population, any contagious distemper, such as the small-pox,
was formerly less destructive on Java, than in countries where the
inhabitants are more crowded into large towns, and it is hoped that,
from the establishment for vaccine inoculation which the British
government erected, and endeavoured to render permanent, its ravages
may, in time, be entirely arrested. The diseases most peculiar to the
country, and most dangerous at all ages, are fevers and dysenteries:
epidemics are rare. There are two moral causes which, on their first
mention, will strike every one as powerfully calculated to counteract
the principle of population: I mean the facility of obtaining divorces,
and the practice of polygamy. A greater weight should not, however,
be given them than they deserve after a consideration of all the
circumstances. It is true, that separations often take place on the
slightest grounds, and new connexions are formed with equal frivolity
and caprice; but in whatever light morality would view this practice,
and however detrimental it would be to population in a different state
of society, by leaving the children of the marriage so dissolved to
neglect and want, it has no such consequences on Java. Considering
the age at which marriages are usually contracted, the choice of the
parties cannot be always expected to be considerate or judicious. It
may be observed also that the women, although they do not appear old at
twenty, as Montesquieu remarks, certainly sooner lose that influence
over their husbands, which depends upon their beauty and personal
attractions, than they do in colder climates. In addition to this,
there is little moral restraint among many classes of the community,
and the religious maxims and indulgences acted upon by the priesthood,
in regulating matrimonial sanctions, have no tendency to produce
constancy, or to repress inclination. Dissolutions of marriage are,
therefore, very frequent, and obtained upon the slightest pretences;
but, as children are always valuable, and as there is very little
trouble in rearing or providing for them, no change of mate, in either
party, leads to their abandonment or neglect. Indeed, the ease of
supporting children, which renders the practice less detrimental to
the increase of population, may be one of the principal causes why it
is generally followed and so little checked. No professed prostitution
or promiscuous intercourse is the consequence of this weakness of the
nuptial tie. It is rather brittle than loose; it is easily dissolved,
but while it remains it generally insures fidelity.
Polygamy, though in all cases it must be injurious to population
and happiness, so far as it goes, is permitted on Java, as in other
Mahomedan countries, by religion and law, but not practiced to any
great extent. Perhaps the ease of obtaining matrimonial separations,
by admitting of successive changes of wives, diminishes the desire of
possessing more than one at a time.
It is plain, likewise, that whatever be the law, the great body of
the people must have only one wife; and that, where there is nearly
an equality of number between the sexes, inequality of wealth or
power alone can create an unequal distribution of women. On Java,
accordingly, only the chiefs and the sovereign marry more than one
wife. All the chiefs, from the regents downwards, can only, by the
custom of the country, have two; the sovereign alone has four. The
regents, however, have generally three or four concubines, and the
sovereign eight or ten. Some of the chiefs have an extraordinary
number of children; the late Regent of _Túban_ is reputed to have
been the father of no fewer than sixty-eight. Such appropriations of
numerous women as wives or concubines, were owing to the political
power of native authorities over the inferior classes; and as, by
the new system, that power is destroyed, the evil may to a certain
extent be checked. If we were to depend upon the statement of a writer
whom Montesquieu refers to, that in Bantam there were ten women to
one man, we should be led to conclude with him, that here was a case
particularly favourable to polygamy, and that such an institution was
here an appointment of nature, intended for the multiplication of
the species, rather than an abuse contributing to check it. There is
not the least foundation, however, for the report. The proportion
of males and females born in Bantam, and over the whole of Java, is
nearly the same as in Europe, and as we find generally to exist,
wherever accurate statements can be obtained. From the information
collected in a very careful surrey of one part of the very province in
question, the preponderance seemed to be on the side of male children
to an extraordinary degree; the male children being about forty-two
thousand, and the females only thirty-five thousand five hundred.
There were formerly, it is true, great drains on the male population,
to which I have before alluded, and which, in the advanced stages
of life, might turn the balance on the other side; but as they were
never so destructive as to render polygamy a political institution,
so that institution was not carried to such an extent, as to render
it a peculiar obstacle to the progress of population. Upon the whole,
we may conclude that in Java, under a mild government, there is a
great tendency to an increase in the number of inhabitants, and to the
consequent improvement and importance of the island.
Besides the natives, whose numbers, circumstances, and character I
have slightly mentioned, there is on Java a rapidly increasing race
of foreigners, who have emigrated from the different surrounding
countries. The most numerous and important class of these is the
Chinese, who already do not fall far short of a hundred thousand; and
who, with a system of free trade and free cultivation, would soon
accumulate tenfold, by natural increase within the island, and gradual
accessions of new settlers from home. They reside principally in the
three capitals of Batavia, _Samárang_, and _Surabáya_, but they are to
be found in all the smaller capitals, and scattered over most parts of
the country. A great proportion of them are descended from families
who have been many generations on the island. Additions are gradually
making to their numbers. They arrive at Batavia from China, to the
amount of a thousand and more annually, in Chinese junks, carrying
three, four, and five hundred each, without money or resources; but,
by dint of their industry, soon acquire comparative opulence. There
are no women on Java who come directly from China; but as the Chinese
often marry the daughters of their countrymen by Javan women, there
results a numerous mixed race, which is often scarcely distinguishable
from the native Chinese. The Chinese on their arrival generally marry
a Javan woman, or purchase a slave from the other islands. The progeny
from this connexion, or what may be termed the cross breed between the
Chinese and Javans, are called in the Dutch accounts _pernákans_. Many
return to China annually in the junks, but by no means in the same
numbers as they arrive.
The Chinese, in all matters of inheritance and minor affairs, are
governed by their own laws, administered by their own chiefs, a captain
and several lieutenants being appointed by government for each society
of them. They are distinct from the natives, and are in a high degree
more intelligent, more laborious, and more luxurious. They are the life
and soul of the commerce of the country. In the native provinces they
are still farmers of the revenue, having formerly been so throughout
the island.
Although still numerous, they are considered to have much decreased
since the civil war in 1742, during which not only a large proportion
of the Chinese population was massacred by the Dutch in the town of
Batavia, but a decree of extermination was proclaimed against them
throughout the island.
The natives of the Coromandel and Malabar coast, who reside on Java,
are usually termed Moors. They appear to be the remnant of a once
extensive class of settlers; but their numbers have considerably
decreased, since the establishment of the Dutch monopoly, and the
absolute extinction of the native trade with India, which we have
reason to believe was once very extensive. Trading vessels, in
considerable numbers, still continue to proceed from the Coromandel
coast to Sumatra, Penang, and Malacca, but they no longer frequent Java.
_Búgis_ and _Maláyus_ are established in all the maritime capitals of
Java. They have their own quarter of the town allotted to them, in the
same manner as the Chinese, and are subject to the immediate authority
of their respective captains.
Among the Arabs are many merchants, but the majority are priests. Their
principal resort is _Grésik_, the spot where Mahomedanism was first
extensively planted on Java. They are seldom of genuine Arab birth, but
mostly a mixed race, between the Arabs and the natives of the islands.
There is another class of inhabitants, either foreigners themselves,
or the immediate descendants of foreigners, whose peculiar situation
and considerable numbers entitle them to some notice in the general
sketch of the population: I mean the class of slaves. The native
Javans are never reduced to this condition; or if they should happen
to be seized and sold by pirates, a satisfactory proof of their origin
would be sufficient to procure their enfranchisement. The slave
merchants have therefore been under the necessity of resorting to the
neighbouring islands for a supply, and the greatest number have been
procured from _Báli_ and Celebes. The total amount may be estimated at
about thirty thousand. According to the returns obtained in 1814, it
appeared that the following were the numbers in the principal divisions
of the island.
At Batavia and its environs 18,972
In the Semárang division 4,488
In the Surabáya division 3,682
-------
Total 27,142
-------
These slaves are the property of the Europeans and Chinese alone: the
native chiefs never require the services of slaves, or engage in the
traffic of slavery. The Mahomedan laws, which regulate their civil
condition, and permit this abomination in all its extent, are modified
by the milder prejudices and more humane temper of the country. The
Dutch, who, like us, valued themselves on their political liberty, are
here the great promoters of civil servitude, and carried with them into
their eastern empire, the Roman law regarding slavery in all its extent
and rigour. But although they adopted principles that admitted of the
most cruel and wanton treatment of slaves, I would not be understood
to say, that they carried these principles into common practice. The
contrary was almost universally the case, and the condition of slaves
on Java, where they were employed principally in domestic offices,
formed a complete contrast to the state of those employed in the West
India plantations. It is remarked by Montesquieu, that "in despotic
countries, the condition of a slave is hardly more burdensome than that
of a subject," and such has been the case in Java. The grounds on which
the Dutch justified the practice of making slaves, was not that they
could not command the services of the natives with a sway sufficiently
absolute, and that they were compelled to seek, beyond the limits of
the island, for unfortunate agents to perform what the natives shewed
a reluctance to undertake, but that they found the class of foreigners
more adroit and docile than the Javans in the conduct of household
affairs, and that having reduced them to the state of property, they
remained in the family for life, and saved the trouble of a new
training.
Upon the conquest of the island by the British in 1811, the condition
of this class of its subjects excited the attention of government; and
though we could not, consistently with those rights of property which
were admitted by the laws that we professed to administer, emancipate
them at once from servitude, we enacted regulations, as far as we were
authorized, to ameliorate their present lot, and lead to their ultimate
freedom. Steps were immediately taken to check further importation, and
as soon as it was known that the horrid traffic in slaves was declared
a felony by the British parliament, it was not permitted for an instant
to disgrace a region to which the British authority extended. The folly
and perfect uselessness of slavery on Java has been often pointed out
by Dutch commissioners and Dutch authors[42].
Having thus attempted a brief description of the different classes
of the Asiatic population of the island, I shall proceed to a short
detail of the habitations, dress, food, and domestic economy of the
natives; but, in order to enable the reader to understand some of the
terms in the tables, and likewise in the subsequent observations, it
may not be improper simply to state the names and titles expressive
of the different gradations of rank, leaving a more particular
account of the power and authority with which they are connected to
another opportunity. The sovereign, who is either called _Susuhúnan_,
_Susúnan_, or _Sultan_, is the fountain of honour and the source of
all distinction. His family are called _Pang'érans_, his queen _Rátu_,
the heir apparent _Pangéran adipáti_, and the prime minister _Ráden
adipáti_. Governors of provinces, called by the Dutch _Regents_, are
styled by the natives _Bopátis_, _Tumúngungs_, or _Ang'abéis_; and
are ranked among the chief nobility of the country. All the inferior
chiefs, including those termed _Rádens_, _Mántris_, _Demángs_, _Lúras_,
and others, except the heads of villages, termed _Kúwus_, _Búkuls_,
_Patíng'gis_, &c., who are elected by the common people out of their
own number for the performance of specific duties, may be considered as
_petite noblesse_.
The cottage or hut of the peasant, called _úmah limásan_, may be
estimated to cost, in its first construction, from two to four rupees,
or from five to ten shillings English money. It is invariably built
on the ground, as on continental India, and in this respect differs
from similar structures in the surrounding islands. The sleeping
places, however, are generally a little elevated above the level of the
floor, and accord in simplicity with the other parts of the dwelling.
The sides or walls are generally formed of _bámbus_, flattened and
plaited together: partitions, if any, are constructed of the same
materials, and the roof is either thatched with long grass, with the
leaves of the _nipa_, or with a kind of _bámbu sirap_. The form and
size of these cottages, as well as the materials employed in their
construction, vary in the different districts of the island, and
with the different circumstances of the individuals. In the eastern
districts, where the population is most dense and the land most highly
cultivated, a greater scarcity is felt of the requisite materials than
in the western, and the dwellings of the peasantry are consequently
smaller and slighter. In the latter, the frame-work of the cottages
is generally made of timber, instead of _bámbus_, and the interior of
them, as well as the front veranda, is raised about two feet from the
ground. The accommodations consist of a room partitioned off for the
heads of the family, and an open apartment on the opposite side for the
children: there is no window either made or requisite. The light is
admitted through the door alone; nor is this deficiency productive of
any inconvenience in a climate, where all domestic operations can be
carried on in the open air, and where shade from the sun, rather than
shelter from the weather, is required. The women perform their usual
occupations of spinning or weaving on an elevated veranda in front,
where they are protected from the rays of a vertical sun by an extended
projection of the pitch of the roof. In some of the mountainous
districts, where the rains descend with most violence, the inhabitants
provide against their effects, by constructing their roofs of _bámbus_
split into halves, and applied to each other by their alternate concave
and convex surfaces, all along the pitch of the roof, from the top down
to the walls. On the whole, it may be affirmed that the habitations of
the peasantry of Java, even those constructed in the most unfavourable
situations and inhabited by the lowest of the people, admit of a
considerable degree of comfort and convenience, and far exceed, in
those respects, what falls to the lot of the peasant in most parts of
continental India.
The class of dwellings inhabited by the petty chiefs are termed _úmah
chébluk_ or _úmah jóglo_. These are distinguished by having eight
slopes or roofs, four superior and four secondary. Their value is from
seven to eight dollars, or from thirty-five to forty shillings.
The largest class of houses, or those in which the chiefs and nobles
reside, are termed _úmah túmpang_, and are of the same form as the
preceding; they are generally distinguished from them by their greater
size, which varies with the means and rank of the possessor, and
usually contain five or six rooms. The supports and beams are of wood.
The value of such a habitation, calculated to answer the circumstances
of an ordinary chief of the rank of a _Páteh_, or assistant to the
governor of a province, may be about fifty or sixty dollars, or from
ten to fifteen pounds sterling.
In the European provinces, the size and comfort of these dwellings have
of late been very essentially contracted, by the rigid enforcement
of the monopoly of the teak forests, which were formerly open to the
natives of all classes.
Brick dwellings, which are sometimes, though rarely, occupied by the
natives, are termed _úmah gedóng_. This kind of building is for the
most part occupied by the Chinese, who invariably construct a building
of brick and mortar whenever they possess the means. The Chinese
_kámpongs_ may always be thus distinguished from those of the natives.